Handouts child-and-adol-and-facilitating-learning
- 1. 1 BEHAVIORISM Emphasizes conditioning behavior and altering the environment to elicit selected responses from the learner. This dominated much of the 20th century psychology I. CONNECTIONISM - EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE (Founder of Behaviour Psychology) Defined teaching as arranging the classroom to enhance desirable connections and associations Focused on testing the relationship between a stimulus and a response (classical conditioning) Defined learning as habit formation THORNDIKE’S LAWS OF LEARNING 1. Law of Readiness o emphasizes the role of motivation 2. Law of Exercise o a connection is strengthened in proportion to its frequency, and its average intensity and duration. 3. Law of Effect o responses accompanied by satisfaction strengthen the connection; responses accompanied by discomfort weaken the connection. II. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Also known as respondent conditioning refers to a form of learning that occurs through the repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli. IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936) Russian psychologist Nobel Prize winner 1904 for work on digestion First to study classical conditioning
- 2. 2 In his famous experiments with dogs, he showed that a desired response can be elicited when paired repeatedly with a stimulus There are 4 key elements that are used to describe the process of classical conditioning: 1. Unconditioned Stimulus • The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response. • In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCS was the food (meat powder). 2. Unconditioned Response • The unconditioned response (UCR) is the response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented. • A UCR is a reflexive, involuntary response that is predictably caused by a UCS. • In Pavlov’s experiments, the UCR was the salivation. 3. Conditioned Stimulus • The conditioned stimulus (CS) is the stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not normally produce the UCR. • Yet, through repeated association with the UCS, the CS triggers a very similar response to that caused by the UCS. 4. Conditioned Response • The conditioned response (CR) is the learned response that is produced by the CS. • The CR occurs after the CS has been associated with the UCS. KEY PROCESSES IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 1. Acquisition The overall process during which the organism learns to associate 2 events. 2. Extinction The gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer presented.
- 3. 3 3. Spontaneous Recovery In CC, spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented, following a rest period after the CR appears to have been extinguished. 4. Stimulus Generalisation This is known as stimulus generalisation which is the tendency for another stimulus to produce a response that is similar to the CR. The greater the similarity between the stimuli, the greater the possibility that a generalisation will occur. 5. Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus discrimination occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only, but not to any other stimulus that is similar to the CS. III. OPERANT CONDITIONING - B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) The term “operant conditioning” originated by the behaviorist B.F. Skinner, who believed that one should focus on the external, observable causes of behavior (rather than try to unpack the internal thoughts and motivations). “All we need to know in order to describe and explain behavior is this: actions followed by good outcomes are likely to recur and actions followed by bad outcomes are less likely to recur.” (Skinner, 1953) REINFORCEMENT comes in two forms: Positive and Negative Reinforcement 1. Positive Reinforcers Are favourable events or outcomes that are given to the individual after the desired behavior which may come in the form of praise, rewards, etc. 2. Negative Reinforcers Typically are characterized by the removal of an undesired or unpleasant outcome after the desired behavior. A response is strengthened as something considered negative is removed. The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for the behaviour to increase.
- 4. 4 IV. ALBERT BANDURA: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Human beings have specific abilities related to learning that sets them apart from other species. Social cognitive theory states that there are THREE CHARACTERISTICS THAT ARE UNIQUE TO HUMANS: o Vicarious consequences (Model and imitate others) o Self–efficacy (self-reflection) o Performance standards and moral conduct (Ability to regulate one’s own behavior) 4 PHASES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 1. Attention o Mere exposure does not ensure acquisition of behavior. o Observer must attend to recognize the distinctive features of the model’s response 2. Retention o reproduction of the desired behavior implies that student symbolically retains that observed behavior 3. Motor Reproduction o after observation, physical skills and coordination are needed for reproduction of the behaviour learned 4. Motivational Process o although observer acquires and retains ability to perform the modeled behavior, there will be no overt performance unless conditions are favorable He believes that people acquire behaviors through the observation of others, then imitate what they have observed. Several studies involving television commercials and videos containing violent scenes have supported this theory of modeling. Albert Bandura believed television was a source of behavior modeling.
- 5. 5 MODELS ARE CLASSIFIED AS: 1. Real Life • exemplified by teachers, parents and significant others 2. Symbolic • presented through oral or written symbols 3. Representational • presented through audio-visual measures
- 6. 6 COGNITIVISM The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the “black box” of the mind should be opened and understood. The learner is viewed as an information processer (like a computer). I. GESTALT LAWS The word Gestalt is used in modern German to mean the way a thing has been “gestellt”; i.e, “placed” or “put together” There is no exact equivalent in English. Form is the usual translation; in psychology the word is often rendered “pattern” or “configuration”. One of the most important theories of perception is the Gestalt Theory. It was developed about 1910 by Max Wertheimer and carried on by Wolfghang Kohler and Kurt Koffka at Frankfurt University. They suggested that learners do not just collect information but they actively process and restructure data in order to understand it. This called perceptual process. Like past experience, needs, attitudes and one’s present situation can affect his/her perception According to the Gestalt Psychologist the way we form our perception are guided by certain principles or laws PRINCIPLES OF GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY 1. Law of Continuity o States that perceptual organization tends to preserve smoothcontinuities rather than abrupt changes. 2. Law of Closure o States that incomplete figures tend to be seen as complete. o In perception there is the tendency to complete unfinished objects. o We tend to ignore gaps and complete contour lines. 3. Law of Proximity o Holds that things close together are grouped together in perception
- 7. 7 4. Law of Similarity – o Refers to the perception of similar objects that tend to be related. 5. Law of Pragnanz – o States that all possible organizations that could be perceived from a visual stimulus, the one that will most likely occur is the one that possesses the best, simplest, and most stable form. 6. Figure and Ground – o The eye differentiates an object form its surrounding area. a form, silhouette, or shape is naturally perceived as figure (object), while the surrounding area is perceived as ground (background). o Balancing figure and ground can make the perceived image clearer. Using unusual figure/ground relationships can add interest and subtlety to an image. Conclusion Gestaltist views on learning and problem-solving were opposed to at the time dominant pre-behaviorist and behaviorist views. Wertheimer emphasized importance of seeing the whole structure of the problem. Gestaltism therefore suggests that learners should be encouraged to discover whole nature or relationships between elements of a problem II. URIE BROFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY This theory looks at a child’s development within the context of the system of relationships that form his or her environment. It defines complex “layers” of environment, each having an effect on a child’s development. Renamed as Bioecological Systems Theory Emphasizes that a child’s own biology is a primary environment fueling her development The interaction between factors in the child’s maturing biology, his immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development.
- 8. 8 SOCIAL LEVELS OR SYSTEMS 1. Microsystem o Is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has direct contact. o Family, child care services, school, local neighborhood, memberships of organizations or clubs, or child care environments. 2. Mesosystem o this layer provides the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem o Examples: the connection between the child’s teacher and his parents, between his church and his neighborhood, etc. 3. Exosystem o This layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not function directly. o It is one step removed from the child. o The exosystem has an indirect impact on the child’s development because of the connection with the family unit. o The structures in this layer impact the child’s development by interacting with some structure in her microsystem. o For example, a parent’s place of employment, and access to family and community services. 4. Macrosystem o may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s environment o This layer is comprised of cultural values, customs, and laws (Berk, 2000). o The effects of larger principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence throughout the interactions of all other layers. 5. Chronosystem o encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s environments o the social and historical time frame in which the child’s life is set – this reflects how children change over time. o Elements within this system can be either external, such as the timing of a parent’s death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a child. o As children get older, they may react differently to environmental changes and may be more able to determine more how that change will influence them.
- 9. 9 Conclusions Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the child’s environment. As a child develops, the interaction within these environments becomes more complex. This complexity can arise as the child’s physical and cognitive structures grow and mature. III. DAVID AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL LEARNING THEORY David Ausubel was a cognitive learning theorist who focused on the learning of school subjects and who placed considerable interest on what the student already knows as being the primary determiner of whether and what he/she learns next. Ausubel viewed learning as an active process, not simply responding to your environment. Learners seek to make sense of their surroundings by integrating new knowledge with that which they have already learned. MEANINGFUL LEARNING CONTRASTED WITH ROTE LEARNING TYPE OF LEARNING - CHARACTERISTICS 1. Meaningful Learning: o Non-arbitrary, non-verbatim, substantive incorporation of new knowledge into cognitive structure. o Deliberate effort to link new knowledge with higher order concepts in cognitive structure o Learning related to experiences with events or objects. o Affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior learning. 2. Rote Learning: o Arbitrary, verbatim,non-substantive incorporation of new knowledgeinto cognitive structure. o No effort to integrate new knowledge with existing concepts in cognitive structure. o Learning not related to experience with events or objects. o No affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior learning.
- 10. 10 IV. JEROME BRUNER’S DISCOVERY LEARNING THEORY OR INQUIRY METHOD Posits that learning is more meaningful to learners when they have the opportunity to discover on their own the relationships among concepts or to actively search for a solution to a problem. An approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies or performing experiments. The idea is that students are more likely to remember concepts they discover on their own. Calls his view of learning as “instrumental conceptualism”. V. WOLFGHANG KOHLER’S INSIGHT LEARNING/PROBLEM-SOLVING THEORY the capacity to discern the true nature of situation imaginative power to see into and understand immediately Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing, and structuring perception until a solution is arrived at. VI. LEWIN’S TOPOLOGICAL AND VECTOR THEORY (FIELD THEORY) Authored by Kurt Lewin Focused on psychological field or life space of an individual Believes that every object exists in a field of forces that move to change it, define it or give it a degree of stability and substance. The behavior of an individual at a given moment is the result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life space. Two Forces: 1. Internal forces • individual’s feelings, attitudes, and needs 2. External forces • everything in the physical world including other human beings
- 11. 11 APPLICATION TO TEACHING To understand the motivation of a learner, the teacher has to develop the ability to transcend the tension (needs) of the learner, the learner’s ability, and the properties of the learner’s perceived environment. Teacher should try to suit the goals and activities of the lessons to the learner’s needs. VII. RICHARD ATKINSON’S AND RICHARD SHIFFRIN’S INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY The individual learns when the human minds takes in information (encoding), performs operation in it, stores the information (storage) and retrieves it when needed (retrieval). MEMORY is the ability to store information so that it can be used at a later time. STAGES OF HUMAN MEMORY a. Sensory Memory o Information store that holds an exact copy of stimuli for a very short period of time. o Ex color, shape, blowing of horn b. Short-Term Memory (STM) o the information store that retains the information as we consciously work on it. c. Long-Term Memory (LTM) – information story that is permanent o minutes to lifetime o information on the LTM, if not rehearsed, can be forgotten FORGETTING The inability to recall (previously known) to the mind
- 12. 12 CAUSES OF FORGETTING a. Retrieval Failure o forgetting is due to inability to recall information b. Decay Theory o information stored in LTM gradually fades when not in used. c. Interference Theory o forgetting LTM is due to the influence of other learning RETENTION – the ability to recall or recognize what has been learned or experienced. INTERFERENCE – the act or an instance of hindering, obstructing, or impeding TRANSFER when something previously learned influences the new material. Teaching For Transfer (Robert Gagne) TYPES OF TRANSFER 1. Lateral Transfer o occurs when the individual is able to perform a new task about the same level (e.g. solving word problems given in text and later solving a similar problem on the board.) 2. Vertical Transfer o occurs when the individual is able to learn more advanced or complex skills (e.g. being able to add and multiply; being able to read and write). 3. Specific Transfer o when a specific skill, fact or rule is applied to a similar situation 4. General Transfer o applying principles previously learned to dissimilar situations.
- 13. 13 VIII. ROBERT GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION In his view, effective instruction must reach beyond traditional learning theories (behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism) and provide support to transition from simple to complex skills, thus using an hierarchical model for learning. THE NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION 1. Gaining attention (reception) 2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy) 3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) 4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception) 5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) 6. Eliciting performance (responding) 7. Providing feedback (reinforcement) 8. Assessing performance (retrieval) 9. Enhancing retention and transfer ( generalization) HIERARCHY OF LEARNING 1. Signal Learning o responding to a signal, response is conditioned 2. Stimulus-Response Learning o voluntary responses are learned 3. Chaining/Motor o two or more separate motor/verbal responses may be combined or chained to develop a more complex response 4. Verbal Association o verbal connections are used to create associations 5. Discrimination Learning o learner selects or distinguishes a response which applies to stimuli 6. Concept Learning o gives common response to an entire class of stimuli 7. Principle Learning (Rule Learning) o involves combining and relating concepts 8. Problem solving o considered the most complex condition that leads to the discovery of higher order rules.
- 14. 14 ABRAHAM MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS ABRAHAM MASLOW was a leading humanistic psychologist (Third Force) developed the Hierarchy of Needs promoted the concept of self-actualization According to Maslow’s theory, there are four types of needs that must be satisfied before a person can act unselfishly. The needs are arranged in a hierarchical order. The upward climb is made by satisfying one set of needs at a time. A prepotent need is the one that has the greatest power or influence over our actions. Maslow claimed that everyone has a prepotent need but the need will differ among individuals. You might be motivated by a craving for love, while I may be motivated by a desire for esteem. Which need is prepotent for a given individual? According to Maslow, a person’s prepotent need is the lowest unmet need in the pyramid. HIERARCHY OF NEEDS 1. Physiological Needs o Physiological needs are basic needs. o The body craves food, liquid, sleep, oxygen, sex, freedom of movement, and a moderate temperature. 2. Safety Needs o safety from physical attack, emotional attack, fatal disease, invasion, extreme losses (job, family members, home, friends)
- 15. 15 3. Love & Belonging Needs o The love or belongingness needs come into play after the physiological and security drives are satisfied. o Gratification is a matter of degree rather than an either-or accomplishment. o Inclusion - part of a group colleagues, peers, family, clubs o Affection - love and be loved o Control - influence over others and self 4. Esteem Needs o The esteem needs are of two types. There’s self-esteem, which is the result of competence or mastery of tasks. o There’s also the attention and recognition that come from others. o Wanting this admiration is part of what McClelland labels “need for power.” 5. Self-Actualization o Maslow described the need for self-actualization as “the desire tobecome more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming” o You’ll recall that Maslow set out to study fully functioning people who had grown past the discontent and restlessness that characterize the lower order needs of the hierarchy. He found very few.