History mining
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The document provides a chronological overview of key developments in mining history from prehistoric times through the Greco-Roman period. Some of the earliest developments included mining of flint and hematite beginning around 300,000 BC. Metallurgy advanced significantly between 7000-4000 BC in the Near East, with copper and bronze production and casting techniques developing. By the 2nd millennium BC, advanced copper, lead, and silver smelting was occurring in the eastern Mediterranean. Major mining regions and techniques expanded throughout this time period in various world regions.
History mining
- 1. Chapter 1.1 HISTORY OF MINING WILLARD C. LACY AND JOHN C. LACY 1.1.1 A CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS History is much more than dates of political events; it is written in civilization’s tools, weapons, workshops and factories, roads, bridges, canals, railways, laboratories, churches, housing and schools, laws, organizations, books, art and music, and medi- cal and dental care. It is shaped by scientists, engineers, farmers, industrialists, and entrepreneurs. It is driven by economic con- cerns, fixed and circulating capital, supply and demand, wages and prices, expansion and contraction of markets, competition and monopolies, shortages, gluts, substitutions, trade cycles, cri- ses, restrictions, diplomacy, and war. It has also been critically influenced by the availability to mankind of industrial minerals, metals, and fuels. Table 1.1.1 attempts to list chronologically and geographi- cally many historical developments, both those that have influ- enced the growth of mining and the mineral industries, and those that mining has influenced. Viewing developments of mining technology purely on the basis of chronology, however, is misleading because technology advanced and declined in irregular geographic patterns through- out the world. For example, while Greek mining technology was well advanced by 500 BC, Britain remained in a primitive stage until Roman civilization arrived at the end of the 1st century AD, and Australia remained in a Paleolithic state until British colonization. Gunpowder, though in use by the 8th century in China, was not introduced in Europe until the 13th century, and still was not recorded as being used in mining until the 18th century. Steam as a source of power for pumping, first harnessed in the 17th century, was not effectively used in mining until a century later. 1.1.1.1 The Progress of Metallurgy The earliest miners, dated back to perhaps 300,000 BC, were concerned with chert and flint for tools and weapons. Their quarries and pits led first to adits and shafts and finally to underground mining during the Neolithic Period (8000 BC to 2000 BC). Using crude stone picks and hammers, these early miners surprisingly reached depths of 300 ft (90 m) in the soft chalk of northern France and southern England. With this tech- nology, mankind also directed its attention to metallic ores. Metals were first appreciated only as stones, and from 7000 BC to 4000 BC, metallurgy centered on copper and gradually evolved from simple hammering to hammering and annealing, to melting and casting, and finally to alloying to produce desired characteristics of melt, hardness and flexibility. The pyrometal- lurgical technology of the West had its origin in the Near Eastern zone of ancient Anatolia (Turkey), Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Iran. By the 6th millennium BC, these craftsmen were able to produce furnace temperatures of more than 198l°F (1083ºC) using forced draft, a technological breakthrough that launched the Metal Eras. Ancient metallurgy entailed selection of compatible ores and fluxes and avoidance of incompatible ones. By the 2nd millen- nium BC, the eastern Mediterranean people were able to engage in mass production of copper, lead, and silver from oxide and sulfide ores and improve physical properties by addition of alloy- ing elements. It was also found that by blending of ores from different localities, the metal product could be improved and controlled, and that ores containing iron-rich minerals, sea shells, or silicate minerals fluxed and aided the smelting process. Thus they were added if not already present in the ores. Iron came into use as a byproduct of the smelting process for other metals in Anatolia where gossans were used as fluxes and iron formed as a part of the slag. China, however, was the site of great improvement in iron smelting and casting technol- ogy during 475 BC to 220 BC where pig iron was produced containing 3.5 to 4.5% carbon at a melting point of approxi- mately 2282ºF (1250ºC). The Chinese also at this time developed new innovations in gilding bronze and inlaying of bronze and iron implements with gold and silver. 1.1.1.2 Mining Methods The silver-lead mines of Laurium, near Athens, Greece, were first worked and abandoned by the Myceneans in the 2nd millen- nium BC, but opened again by the Athenians beginning about 600 BC. The earliest workings were open cast with short adits. Later, more than 2000 shafts were sunk and connected by drifts. Shafts were sunk in pairs with parallel drifts driven from them with frequent connecting crosscuts to aid ventilation. Stoping of ore bodies was either by overhand or underhand methods, and room and pillar methods were used for the larger stopes. Progress was slow, and it has been calculated that in shaft sinking a miner averaged about 5 ft/month (1.5 m/month). It was in water-pumping devices that Roman mining showed the greatest advance. They drained the copper mines of Rio Tinto, Spain, and others as far away as Britain. The most impor- tant of these dewatering devices was the water wheel and the Archimedean screw. The migrations of the Celts, originally from south-central Europe, was probably the single most important factor in the dissemination of mining technology throughout Europe. These migrations and general nomadic tendencies of the Celts not only spread knowledge of mining techniques, but many legal concepts can be traced to their tribal customs. The Celts, who permanently settled in the metal-rich areas of central Germany, became the Saxons and led the way to advances in mining during the Middle Ages, not only in their own country, but throughout Europe. They began mining at Schemnitz, Czechoslovakia, as early as AD 745; at Rammelsberg, Saxony, by 970; at Freiberg, Saxony, by 1170; and Joachimsthal, Bohemia, in 1515. Thereafter, when mines were opened in Spain and the famous silver mines at Konigsberg, Norway, Saxons skilled in mining and metallurgy were sent from Germany. By the 16th century the terms “miner” and “Saxon” had become almost synonymous. Knowledge of mining technology was essentially a closely held craft that was dispersed by the mobility of miners. For example, the Celts that settled in Cornwall were the early tin miners. In 1240 a “tinner” fleeing England after having commit- ted murder is reported to have taught the Germans to prospect for, mine, and concentrate metal ores; in 1562 the technology returned as Queen Elizabeth of England sent back to Germany for miners to introduce better mining and metallurgical practices in Devon and Cornwall. During the gold rushes of the 19th 5
- 2. MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining PeriodÑ Stage BC Paleolithic c.20,000 Late Paleolithic c.9000 Mesolithic (Human Power) c.4000 NeolithicÑ Chalcolithic c.3000 Metal Age I Bronze c.2000 Metal A Bronze ge II Near EastÑ Central and Northern MediterraneanÑ Europe Africa and Great Britain c.40,000 Hematite mined for ritual painting (Africa) c.9500 Copper pendant. (Iraq) c.8000 Development of agri- culture (Egypt, Mesopo- tamia) c.7000 Burning of lime c.6500 Farming introduced (Greece) ÑCopper tools (Anatolia) c.6000 First pottery (Catal Huyuk) c.5000 Meteoric iron beads (Egypt) ÑLead in use (Egypt) ÑTurquoise mining (Sinai) ÑGold mining (Nubia) ÑEmerald mining (Red Sea) shafts to 300 m c.4000 Bronze casting (Egypt) ÑCopper smelting (Timna) c.3500 Wheel and plow in- vented (Mesopotamia) ÑGold vessels (Iraq) ÑStone quarrying (Egypt) c.3000 Bitumen mortar (Ur) c.3000 Copper and stone artwork ÑLost wax casting ÑPhoenician traders bring tin from Cornwall c.2700 Copper mined in Cyprus c.2600 Tin bronzes in use c.2500 Lead in use (Troy) c.2000 Pre-Hittites use iron ÑSilver separated from lead by cupellation (Anatolia) ÑLaurium Mine worked by Mycenians 1750 HammurabiÕs code of laws (Babylonia) ÑCu,Ag,Pb,Fe mined and smelted by Hittites c.1400 Gold mines of Nubia exploited ÑUse of bronze chisels 1280 Hebrew flight from Egypt taking metal tech- nology 300,000-100,000 Surface mining of flint (N. France, S. England) c.30,000 Use of fire, lamps, cave art, hunting with pro- jectiles End of Ice Age c. 10,000 Gold ornaments c.4000 Introduction of plow c.3500 Flint mines with shafts and galleries (France, Britain) c.3000 Bronze weapons in use ÑSpread of copper mining ÑGold from Ireland North and South America c.6500 Farming introduced c.3000 First pottery (Equador, Colombia) ÑOld Copper Culture, Lake Superior (US) ÑHammering, annealing, grinding of copper (US) c.2000 First metalworking of gold (Peru) Australasia c.500,000 Use of fire (China) c.8000 Development of agri- culture (China) c.4000 Technology migration along trade routes c.3000 Bronze casting (Ban Chiang, Thailand) c.2800 Emperor Shen Nung discovers smelting (China) c.2000 Gold and silver acu- puncture needles (China) ÑCompound casting (China) ÑCoal dug and used as fuel ÑMiner lowest stratum of so- ciety (China) 1600-1400 Iron smelting and forging (Ban Chiang, Thailand) 6
- 3. HISTORY OF MINING 7 Period— Stage Early c.500 Late Iron (Water Power) c.50 AD Greco- Rom 500 Iron an Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Near East— Central and Northern Mediterranean— Europe Africa and Great Britain c.1200 Jason uses fleece to recover fine gold c.950 Rio Tinto Mine oper- ated by Phoenicians for silver c.670 Introduction of iron- working (Egypt) 650 First coins of silver and gold (Lydia, Turkey) c.600 Hanging Gardens of Babylon floored with lead 600-500 Bitumen mined (Baku) 510 Private leases granted at Laurium, royalties to citi- zens of Athens c.700 Iron tools used in salt mining (Hallstatt, Austria) c.500 Wootz steel made in India —Iron-making techniques spread to sub-Sahara 490 Athenian senate uses royalties from Laurium to fi- nance naval construction 334 Alexander invades Asia Minor, conquers Egypt c.330 Aristotle writes Meteor- ologica, on how stones originate c.300 Theophrasus writes Concerning Stones (Greece) —Alchemy begins (Alex- andria) 265 Punic wars begin for control of silver deposits of Iberia, Spain c.100 Water wheels in use— horizontal by Greeks, verti- cal by Romans c.400 Celts mine placer tin in Cornwall using horn picks and wooden shovels with free miners c.20 Romans use brass coins 23-79 Pliny writes books on earths, metals, stones, gems 117-138 Hadrian introduces strict regulations for treat- ment of miners —Lex Metalli Vespacensis recognizes miners rights, half to Crown —Villeinage introduced —Use of skilled artisans as miners c.220 Roman currency de- based 320 Theodosian Code intro- duced (Roman Empire) 43 Roman invasion of Britain 112 Coal used by Romans in Britain, surface mines 528-533 Justinian compiles Corpus Juris Civilis in E. Roman Empire North and South America 267 Platinum worked at Es- meraldas, Equador c.0 Gold technology, lost wax method reaches Colombia Australasia c.800 Iron and bronze coins introduced (China) —Iron chains used for sus- pension bridges (China) c.600 Discovery of oil and gas while drilling for salt (China) c.500 Tombs contain gold (China) c.400 Steel weapons (China) 214 Great Wall commenced (China) c.200 Blowing of iron used 112 Opening of Silk Road 105 First use of paper (China) c.200 Iron casting a well de- veloped art Han Dynasty, (China) 200-600 Gold and silver min- ing in China c.500 American Indians use c.500—Roman coins abun- cinnabar and carnotite as dant (China) decoration
- 4. Period— Stage Dark Ages c.1050 Middle Ages MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Near East— Central and Northern Mediterranean— Europe Africa and Great Britain c.600 Use of windmills (Persia) —Gold and silver mines of Spain reopened by Moors c.800 Charlemagne reno- vates Roman mines in Italy c.1000 First Iron Age settle- ment in Zimbabwe 1185 Treaty of Bishop of Trent frees miners (Italy), expands miner’s rights 1208 Mining customs an- nounced in Trent (Italy) c.1215 Mining regulations of Massa (Italy) 1250 Forerunner of stock company in Genoa (Italy) 1298 Marco Polo writes De- scription of the World, in- cludes formula for black powder (Italy) 745 Mining begins at Schem- nitz (Czechoslovakia) c.800 Bergbaufreiheit, right of free miner (Saxony) 938 Rammelsberg mine dis- covered (Saxony) 965 Gold strike in Harz Mountains (Saxony) c.990 Danelaw Courts of Ae- thelred II (England) 1150 First adit in RamRam- melsberg 1170 Erzgeberge silver dis- covered 1195 Charter of Rights of Sovereign Princes recog- nizes discovery rights (Germany) 1198 Tin mines of Devon placed under supervision of warden (England) 1201 John I decree permits entry of unoccupied land for mining (England) 1210 “Sea coal” grant to monks of Holyrood Abbey by Wm. the Lion (Scotland) 1217 Forest Law of Henry Ill gave people right to use coal (England) 1219 Harz silver mining char- ter (Germany) 1238 First colleries estab- lished in Newcastle (England) 1240 Monks of Newminster Abbey granted rights to use “sea coal” for forge 1249 Iglau code (Moravia) 1250-1350 Energy crisis in Great Britain c.1250 Active coal mining at Liege, Belgium 1267 First recorded refer- ence to steel (England) 1277 Oldest English brass 1288 Inquisition at Ashbourne defining miners’ rights (England) c.1300 Philip IV frees serfs ending forced labor (France) —Coal diggings as trenches, irregular diggings, “bell pits;” coal raised in corves and windlass or backs of women (Britain) North and South America c.700 Gold working reaches Mexico c.900 Hopi Indians mine coal 1300 Indians in N. America learn to burn “black rock” Australasia c.710 Printing begins (China) c.900 Porcelain made (China) c.1000 Great age of Chinese ceramics and painting c.1045 First movable type (China) 1275 Marco Polo arrives in China c.1300 Waterwheels used to power bellows (China) 8
- 5. HISTORY OF MINING 9 PeriodÑ Stage c.1400 Rennais- sance Near EastÑ MediterraneanÑ Africa Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Central and Northern Europe and Great Britain North and South America 1344 Publication of Las Siete Partidas (Spain) 1387 Decree of Juan I per- mits mineral exploitation on land of others, to Crown (Spain) 1463 Water-powered blast furnace in use at Ferriere (Italy) 1492 Columbus sails west (Spain) 1509 Portugese defeat Sara- cen fleet closing Indian Ocean ÑCoal used by brewers and dryers 1305 Edward II issues stan- nary charters for Cornwall and Devon (England) 1306 Edward II prohibits arti- ficers from using coal (Eng- land) 1307 Commission of Oyer and Terminer appointed to enforce proclamation of EdwardII c.1340 Mining by pit and adit, vertical shaft and horizontal gallery, manual windlass or jackroll (Britain) 14th century Code of Frei- berg (Saxony) 1356 ÒGolden BullÓ of Charles IV recognizes free prospecting and working of discovery (German Empire) 1370 Human-powered water lifting devices used at Rammelsberg mine (Saxony) 1379 First tax on coal (Eng- land) 1413 Charles IV claims sov- ereignty over all mines, tithe to Crown, damages to landlord (France) 1415 Great Barmote Court (England) 1450 GutenbergÕs printing press (Germany) 1451 Funken separates cop- per and silver (Germany) 1454 Rag and chain pump in- stalled at Rammelsberg c.1475 Mining tools: pick, hammer, wedge, wooden shovel ÑTwo opposing water wheels used for driving hoist (Hungary) c.1500 Windlass used for hoisting buckets or baskets ÑSurface haulage by pan- niers on horseback ÑMiners form guilds for mu- tual aid and benefit (Eng- land) 1509 Watch invented by Pe- ter Henle (Germany) 1516 Silver strike at Joachim- stal (Czechoslovakia) 1550 First lift pump, Joachim- stal (Czechoslovakia) 1492 Americas discovered 1521 Cortes enters Mexico 1524 Mining of copper in Cuba Australasia ²⁄₃
- 6. 10 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) PeriodÑ Stage 1600 Rise of Science Coal Age Near EastÑ MediterraneanÑ Africa 1584 Philip II of Spain issues code of laws to govern overseas mining Central and Northern Europe and Great Britain North and South America 1553 Railroads introduced in mining (Czechoslovakia) 1556 1st edition De Re Met- alica, Agricola (Germany) 1558 English law prohibits cutting of trees for iron smelting 1563 Scottish parliament pro- hibits transport of coal out- side of realm ÑCopper, tin, silver mined at Tazco, Mexico, by Span- iards 1545 Discovery of silver at Potosi (Bolivia) 1550 MendozaÕs Mining Code (Mexico) 1554 ÒPatioÓ method devel- oped at Pachuca (Mexico) 1565 Hemp ropes replace iron chains at Rammels- berg (Saxony) 1568 Justices and barons of Exchequer rule ownership of gold and silver extends to privately owned land (England) 1590 Patent issued Dean of York for coking Òpit coalÓ c.1600 Energy Crisis (Eng- land) ÑSir Wm. Gilbert recognizes earthÕs magnetic field (Eng- land) 1574 Francisco ToledoÕs Min- ing Code (Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina) 1600 Founding of English and Dutch East India Trad- ing Co 1605 Furnace with covered crucibles to protect from noxious coal fumes intro- duced for production of sheet glass (England) 1603 Philip II of Portugal is- sues code of laws to gov- ern mining (Brazil) 1606 Charter granted to Lon- don and Plymouth Co. by James I specified royalties precious metals,¹⁄₅ ¹⁄₁₅ copper 1610 Scientific Revolution in Europe begins: Kepler, Bacon, Galileo, Descartes, etc. 1609 Barba invents Òkettle and cookingÓ process for silver ores (Bolivia) ÑPatent to Wm. Wright for furnace to melt Òbell metalÓ with coal (Germany) 1612 First use of reverbatory furnace (England) 1613 Bore rods in use in ex- ploration for coal ÑUse of gunpowder in min- ing (Germany) 1614 Napier discovers loga- rithms (France) ÑRobert Mansell granted a monopoly for use of coal in glass manufacture (Eng- land) 1615 Salomon de Caus sug- gests raising water by ex- pansive power of steam (France) 1619 Patent to ÒDudÓ Dudley for smelting iron with Òpit coalÓ (England) 1627 First use of drilling and blasting at Oberbeiberstol- len mine, Schemnitz (Hungary) Australasia
- 7. HISTORY OF MINING 11 Period— Stage 1700 Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Near East— Mediterranean— Africa 1669 Steno writes De Solium Naturalitar Contento (Italy) Central and Northern Europe and Great Britain 1630 First use of railway, Beaumont mine, Schemnitz 1640 Chimney tax imposed (England), repealed by Wm. III c.1650 Longwall mining intro- duced at Shropshire colle- ries, bord and pillar in N. England 1659 Papin’s steam engine (France) 1660 Founding of Royal Soci- ety, chartered 1662 by Charles II (England) 1665 John Woodward writes “An Essay Toward a Natu- ral History of the Earth and Terrestrial Bodies, Espe- cially Minerals” (England) 1671 Railway and wagons used to convey coal from Ravensworth to Team Staith (England) c. 1675 Methane explosions in English coal mines 1689 Drilling and blasting in- troduced at Cornwall 1692 Lead smelted with coal 1694 British patent to extract tar and oil from stone 1698 Sir Humphery Mack- worth employs coal in smelting copper (England) 1699 Thomas Savery reads paper to Royal Society on vacuum principle engine used at Grentwork mine, Cornwall North and South America 1636 Founding of Harvard College 1646 First successful use of blast furnace in N. America at Saugus, MA 1679 Coal discovered in Illinois 1692 Lead discovered in Mis- sissippi Valley by Nicholas Perot 1693 Gold discovered at Mi- nas Gerais (Brazil) 1709 Abraham Darby uses coke to smelt iron (Eng- land) —Kaolin mines established near Meissen, Germany 1712 Newcomen engine in- stalled at Wolverhampton, Shropshire (England) 1713 Coke used at Coal- brookdale foundry (Eng- land) 1714 Henry II prohibits found- ries from using coal (France) 1716 Mining school estab- lished at Joachinstal, Czechoslovakia 1718 Cornish tin mines dewa- ter by pumping 1720 Zinc smelting at Swansea, Wales —“Bubble Act” limits stock- holders to eight (England) c.1730 Cast iron used for mine pumps, pipes, and steam engine cylinders (England) 1718 SW Missouri lead mines commence work at La Motte mine 1727 Diamonds identified (Brazil) 1730 Brazilian diamonds de- clared property of Crown of Portugal Australasia
- 8. 12 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Period— Stage 1750 Industrial Revolution (Britain) (Steam Power) Near East— Mediterranean— Africa 1752 Large-scale copper leaching at Rio Tinto (Spain) 1783 Tungsten discovered in Spain Central and Northern Europe and Great Britain 1740 Crucible steel method rediscovered by Huntsman (England) —Zinc produced on commer- cial scale (Wales) 1743 Marggraf publishes method to produce zinc (Germany) 1744 Gold mining in Russia 1747 Hutton writes Theory of the Earth (Scotland) 1749 Roebuck introduces lead chamber process for sulfuric acid manufacture (Britain) 1751 Crucible steel commer- cially established (Britain) 1759 Lebon’s coal-gas patent (France) 1767 Cast iron rails for rail- roads introduced (England) 1769 Watt patents steam en- gine (England) 1770 Reverbatory furnace in- troduced (England) c.1770 Period of great ad- vance in science: Priestley, Lavoisier, Volta, Watt, Har- rison (Britain, France, Italy) 1774 Emancipation Act abol- ishing villeinage (Scotland) 1775 Abraham Werner inau- gurates “Neptunist” school of geology at Freiberg (Germany) —Underhand cut and fill stoping used at Cornwall 1768-82 Watt and Boulton introduce double-acting condensing steam engine for dewatering Cornish tin mines 1781 Cornish pump intro- duced 1783 Henry Cort patents roll- ing mill (England) 1784 Henry Cort introduces puddling process for mal- leable wrought iron (England) 1789 Wheeled trams on light rails used underground (England) —Uranium discovered in pitchblende by Martin Kla- proth (Germany) c. 1790 “Friendly Societies,” forerunners of union, orga- nize (England) North and South America 1770 Artur de Sa Mining Code for working mines at Minas Gerais (Brazil) 1771 Diamond Code (Brazil) 1783 Charles Ill (Spain) ap- proves mining ordinances for “New Spain” 1785 Land Ordinance re- serves 1/3 gold, silver, lead, and copper mines to Con- federation (US) 1788 Benjamin Waterhouse begins course in geology and mineralogy at Harvard (US) 1792 Royal Seminary of Min- ing established in Mexico Australasia
- 9. HISTORY OF MINING 13 Period— Stage 1800 Industrial Revolution (United States) Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Near East— Mediterranean— Africa Central and Northern Europe and Great Britain c.1800 Underhand cut and fill replaced by overhand cut and fill at Cornwall and Saxony 1800 Trevithick introduces high-pressure steam en- gine at Cornwall 1802 Trevithick builds loco- motive for travel on roads (England) 1804 Trevithick builds railway locomotive at Cornwall 1807 France codifies partner- ships and commercial com- panies 1809 Davy names and at- tempts to isolate aluminum 1812 George Stephenson al- ters pumping engine to make it haul coal (England) —First locomotive and first successful steamboat in Europe —Cylinder printing press in- vented (England) —Trevithick applies plunger pump with Cornish pump at Prince Henry mine (Corn- wall) 1813 Trevithick introduces boring machine 1815 Davy and Geo Ste- phenson invent first suc- cessful mine safety lamp (Britain) —R. W. Fox utilizes earth electrical currents to locate sulfide ore body (Cornwall) 1820 Coal gas used for light- ing conveyed through iron pipes (England) 1821 Faraday invents electric motor and generator (Eng- land) —Berthier discovers bauxite at Les Beaux, France 1825 First passenger railway (England) —Oersted obtains aluminum powder (France) —Labor unions given legal status (Britain) 1827 Robert Stephenson de- signs the “Rocket” loco- motive (England) 1829 Jigs introduced in Britain 1831 Bickford develops safety blasting fuse at Cornwall 1833 Pattison’s process for silver extraction (Britain) —“Man-lift” invented at Clausthal (Saxony) —Wire rope used for hoisting at Clausthal North and South America 1803 Alvaria implements new mining code (Brazil) 1804 Evan’s high-pressure steam engine (US) 1807–1846 Leasing of lead mines in Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri (US) 1811 New York allows corpo- rations with limited liability 1828 Gold discovered in Georgia (US) Australasia
- 10. 14 Period— Stage 1849 Rush for Gold 1857 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Near East— Mediterranean— Africa Central and Northern Europe and Great Britain —British regulations for in- dustrial working conditions 1834 Introduction of guided cage hoisting of coal car- riages and flanged wheels on carriages (England) 1835 Mining Journal begins publication (England) 1836 Sorel’s galvanized iron (France) 1838 First electric telegraph in Britain 1843 Brunley launches iron ship, “Great Britain” (Eng- land) —Legislation against employ- ment of women and boys under 10 underground in mines (Britain) 1844 Rittinger invents shak- ing table (Britain) 1845–49 Irish potato famine 1846 Standard railway gage introduced in Britain 1847 Elie de Beaumont writes “Sur les Emanations Volcaniques et Metaliferes” (France) 1850 Act for safety inspec- tion of coal mines (Eng- land) —London School of Mines established —First mechanized rock drill (France) 1851-52 Derbyshire lead mining laws become a part of common law (England) —Longwall mining of coal in general use in Europe —First Mining Institute at Newcastle on Tyne 1854 Deville’s aluminum dis- played at Paris Exposition 1855 Luigi Palmieri invents seismograph (Italy) 1856 Bessemer process in- troduced for mass produc- tion of steel (England) —Siemens patents open hearth furnace for steel (England) 1855-62 Limited Liabilities Act made public financing possible (England) 1859 Von Cotta publishes Treatise on Ore Deposits (Germany) North and South America 1837 First edition System of Mineralogy by Dana (US) —Otis invents steam shovel “Yankee Geologist” (US) 1840 Copper discovered on Keweenaw Peninsula, Ml, by Douglas Houghton (US) 1842 Geological Survey of Canada established 1844 Cliff mine begins opera- tion (Lake Superior) 1845 Chief Manjekijik showed S. Carr iron deposit in Michigan (US) —Sault Ste Marie Canal begun 1848 Gold discovered by James Marshall at Sutter’s Mill, California —Patent granted on percus- sion drill capable of op- erating other than vertical (US) 1850 Gold rush mining dis- trict regulations for Califor- nia gold placer deposits (US) 1852 Extralateral right estab- lished, Nevada County, CA 1853 Polytech College of Pennsylvania founded; first institution in the US to offer degree in mining 1854 Gadsden Purchase from Mexico by US 1855 Roebling’s wire rope bridge over Niagara (US) 1857 Wm. Kelly granted pa- tent in US for air-blown iron converter process in steel production 1859 Discovery of oil at Ti- tusville, PA Australasia 1842 Treaty of Nanking opens ports in China and allows exit of low-cost labor 1843 Copper mining com- mences at Burra Mine (Australia) 1851 Gold discovered in New South Wales by Har- greaves (Australia) 1854 Mathew Perry opens Japan to foreign trade —Victoria Gold Regulations and Eureka Stockade riot (Australia)
- 11. HISTORY OF MINING 15 Period— Stage Age of Steel Petroleum Age (Petroleum Power) 1880 Age of Electricity Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Near East— Mediterranean— Africa Central and Northern Europe and Great Britain 1860 Exploitation of Stassfurt potassium deposit 1862 Introduction of steel rails in England 1863 T. Harrison and Wm. Baird & Co. design chain cutter for use in Gartsher- rie Collieries (England) 1864 Leschot invents dia- mond drill (France) 1865 Electrolytic refining of copper in Britain —Nobel invents dynamite (Sweden) 1866 Siemens-Martin open hearth steel (Germany) —Prussian Mining Law (Germany) 1867 Mendeleev’s classifica- tion of elements (Russia) 1868 Siemens suggests gasi- fying slack and waste coal in situ (Britain) 1870 Germany permits lim- ited liability companies 1876 Pneumatic drill intro- duced at Rammelsberg mine (Germany) 1878 First oil tanker (Russia) 1880 Ball mill and jaw crusher introduced at Cornwall —Steel structure used in buildings (England) North and South America 1860 Discovery of Comstock Lode, NV —Development of Pittsburgh coal seam (US) 1864 Gold discovered at Butte, MT 1866 Lode Mining Act (US) —First packaged powder used, New Almaden mine, CA —First issue American Jour- nal of Mining (Later E&MJ) (US) 1867 Purchase of Alaska by US from Russia —J. H. Rae patents cyanide extraction of gold from ores (US) 1868 First dynamite produced in the US by Giant Powder Co. 1869 First diamond drill in US at Bonne Terre mine, MO 1870 Standard Oil Co. incor- porated with J. D. Rocke- feller as president (US) —Copper discovered (Chile) —AIME founded —First manufacture of Port- land cement in US at Allen- town, PA —S. Ingersoll patents rock drill with universal tripod mounting (US) 1872 Mining Act of 1872 (US), discovery and devel- opment required for pos- session 1874 First electric train (NY) 1876 Bell patents telephone (US) —Homestake mine discov- ered (SD) 1877 Hodges and Armil in- augerate mechanical strip mining with Otis steam shovel (KS) —E. Schieffelin discovers Tombstone mine (AZ) 1879 USGS established —Edison demonstrates light- ing system (US) 1880 G. Eastman makes popular photography possi- ble (US) 1883 20-mule team hauls bo- rax to Mohave Junction, CA Australasia 1860s Discovery of gold in Queensland (Australia) 1883 Discovery of Broken Hill silver (Australia)
- 12. 16 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Period— Stage Aluminum Age (Electric Power) 1900 Near East— Mediterranean— Africa 1886 Gold discovered near Johannesburg, S. Africa 1888 Formation of DeBeers Consol Mining Ltd. (S. Africa) 1900 Copper mining begins at Katanga (Zaire) Central and Northern Europe and Great Britain 1886 P. Heroult codiscovers direct electrolysis of alumi- num in molten cryolite (France) 1887 Mining Yearbook estab- lished (England) —McArthur & Forrest patent cyanide leaching and zinc precipitation of gold (Scotland) 1888 Karl Bayer develops process for production of alumina (Germany) 1889 Eiffel Tower con- structed (France) —Fougue & Levy establish time/distance seismic plots (France) 1890 R. von Etvos develops torsion balance to measure gravity (Hungary) 1898 Pierre and Marie Curie observe radioactivity (France) 1899 Heroult produces first commercial steel with elec- tric arc furnace (France) c. 1900 Acetylene lamps intro- duced (Britain) 1902 Coal-face conveyor in- troduced by W. C. Blackett at Durham, England 1904 First electric locomotive introduced (Britain) 1905 Electric winder intro- duced to England from Europe North and South America 1884 Codigo National Minera (Mexico) 1886 C. Hall codiscovers di- rect electrolysis of alumi- num in cryolite (US) 1885 Wooden dredge on wheels used to strip over- burden by Consol Coal Co. (IL) —First profitable gold discov- ery in Yukon 1888 First electric hoist at Aspen, CO —Homestake mine intro- duces amalgamation (SD) —Discovery of Florida phos- phate —Geol. Soc. Am. established Mining Record began publication, Denver, CO 1890 H. Frasch patents sulfur extraction technique (US) —Brunton compass intro- duced (US) —Sherman antitrust legisla- tion (US) 1892 Ley Minera (Mexico) 1895 Sullivan mine discov- ered (Canada) 1896 G. Carmack makes gold discovery on Bonanza Creek (Klondike) 1897 J. K. Leyner introduces new drill (US) —American Mining Congress founded —Wilfley table invented (US) 1898 D. C. Jackling issues feasibility study on Bing- ham Canyon deposit (UT) 1899 “Cyanide Charlie” Mer- rill awarded contract to in- stall cyanide processing at Homestake mine (SD) —Amer. Smelting & Refining organized (US) 1900 First mine geological department organized at Butte by R. Sales and H. Winchell —Great Mexican oil boom —Discovery of Gulf Coast salt dome sulphur deposits 1903 First flight of petroleum powered aircraft by Wright brothers, Dayton, OH —Discovery of Cobalt mine (Canada) 1904 First Dorr classifier (US) 1905 Mining commences at Bingham Canyon, UT —Soc. Econ. Geol. founded (US) Australasia 1889 Charles Potter, brewer, devises flotation process at Broken Hill (Australia) 1892 Gold discovered at Kal- goorlie, W. Australia 1893 Aus. Inst. Mining and Met. founded (Australia) 1901 C. V. Potter and G. V. Delprat patent flotation pro- cess (Australia) 1902 First commercial use of flotation at Broken Hill to recover sphalerite from tail- ings (Australia) 1889
- 13. HISTORY OF MINING 17 Period— Stage Atomic Age Uranium Age Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Near East— Mediterranean— Africa 1908 Oil discovered, Zagros Mts. (Iran) 1925 First off-shore oil drilling in Caspian Sea (Baku) Central and Northern Europe and Great Britain 1908 H. Geiger and E. Ruth- erford invent geiger counter (Britain) 1910 Synthetic cryolite pat- ented (France) 1912–13 C.& M. Schlum- berger demonstrate use of conductivity in locating ore bodies (France) 1913 Schilowsky demon- strates use of electromag- netic effect (Russia) 1925 Turbine drill introduced (Russia) 1928 C. & M. Schlumberger develop electrical logging of formations (France) 1936 Hydraulic coal mining used successfully (Russia) 1937 Jet engine first tested (Britain) 1939 Beginning of World War II 1941 First electromechanical digital computer (Germany) North and South America —A. Einstein proposes rela- tion between energy and matter (US) 1907 E. L. Oliver introduces continuous vacuum filter (US) 1909 Ley Minera (Mexico) 1910 USBM founded —Mining commences at El Teniente mine (Chile) —Sudbury mine discovered (Canada) 1911 Marion 250 stripping shovel introduced (US) —Breakup of Standard Oil 1913 Henry Ford develops conveyor assembly of Model-T (US) 1915 Electric coal-cutting ma- chine introduced by West- inghouse Air Brake Co. (US) —Mining commences at Chu- quicamata (Chile) 1916 Shrinkage stoping evolves into block caving, El Teniente mine (Chile) 1917 WAAIME founded (US) —AAPG founded (US) 1920 Mineral Leasing Act (US) 1923 LeTourneau introduces self-propelled scraper (US) 1925 Codigo Saavedra (Bo- livia) 1926 Ley de lndustras Miner- alas (Mexico) —Potash discovered (NM) 1929 Wall Street crash (US) 1930 Thermal blasthole drill- ing introduced at Mesabi (MN) —Potash fields in E. NM de- veloped —Ley Minera (Mexico) 1932 Eimco introduces rocker shovel using com- pressed air (US) 1933 Euclid produces its first rubber-tired truck (US) 1936 Wilhelm Kroll produces pure ductile titanium (US) 1938 Nationalization of oil in Mexico 1939 Dart introduces electric-drive off-highway truck (US) 1940 Continuous coal mining introduced in US 1942 Gold mining restricted (US) 1945 Atomic bomb exploded (NM) 1946 A. Brant and E. A. Gil- bert patent IP method of ore search (US) Australasia 1923 Mount Isa mine discov- ered (Australia) 1937 Mount Isa’s first divi- dend (Australia) 1941 Japan attacks Pearl Harbor 1945 Atomic bomb dropped on Japan
- 14. 18 Period— Stage (Atom Power) 1957 Space Age Age of Computers MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Near East— Mediterranean— Africa 1948 Birth of ARAMCo 1950 Uranium production be- gins at Witwatersrand (S. Africa) 1958 Bucket excavators in- stalled by N’Changa Cons. Copper Mines Ltd. (Zambia) 1960 OPEC organized 1973 Arab oil embargo Central and Northern Europe and Great Britain 1947 Marshall Plan for eco- nomic reconstruction of Europe 1950 First nuclear power sta- tion in Britain 1952 Oxygen steel process developed (Austria) —British computer LEO intro- duced 1957 First space satellite launched (Russia) North and South America —Cerro Bolivar iron deposit discovered (Venezuela) 1946 First electric computer (US) 1948 Transistor invented (US) 1950 Codigo Minera (Peru) —General use of rock bolt support (US) —ANFO used in surface mining 1951 UNIVAC-1 installed at US Bureau of Census 1952 Patent filed for solution mining of uranium (US) —Nationalization of tin mines (Bolivia) 1952 Paley Commission Report 1953 First taconite concen- tration and pelletizing plant at Hoyte Lake (MN) —J. S. Robbins & Assoc. in- troduces tunneling machine (US) 1955 Successful synthesis of diamonds by General Elec- tric (US) 1957 AEC “Plowshare” pro- gram established (US) 1959 J. L. Mero’s thesis on “Economic Analysis of Mining Deepsea Phos- phate” (US) 1960 H. S. Hess & R. S. Dietz propose ocean floor spreading (US) —Regular use of ANFO un- derground at Stanrock Ura- nium mine (US) 1961 Carlin gold discovered (NV) 1968 220-yd walking dragline excavator built by Bucyrus-Erie for coal strip- ping (US) —National Wilderness Pres- ervation Act (US) 1970 National Environmental Policy Act (US) —Mining and Mineral Policy Act (US) 1971 US abandons gold standard 1972 Clean Water Act (US) —First LANDSAT spacecraft launched by NASA for re- mote sensing of earth re- sources 1973 Endangered Species Act (US) 1976 Toxic Substance Con- trol Act (US) —Federal Land Policy and Management Act (US) Australasia 1950 Discovery of iron ore in W. Australia 1955 AuslMM chartered (Australia) 1966 China’s “Cultural Revo- lution” 1975 Lake Argyle diamonds discovered (Australia)
- 15. HISTORY OF MINING 19 Period— Stage Table 1.1.1. Chronology of Events Related to Mining (Continued) Near East— Mediterranean— Africa Central and Northern Europe and Great Britain 1986 Chernobyl nuclear tor disaster (Russia) reac- Sources: See references. century, the Cornish and German miners supplied mining tech- nology throughout the world. The first comprehensive record of mining and metallurgical methods was published in 1556 in Agricola’s De Re Metallica, which describes mining and metallurgical technology as it had developed in the Ore Mountains of central and eastern Germany by the mid-16th century. Agricola’s work was disseminated wherever there were miners, and its compendium of recorded knowledge provided a strong foundation for a rapid advance of mining education and technological advancement. During Agricola’s time, ground was broken by hammer and chisel (then and now the universal symbol for mining opera- tions); fire setting was used in stoping rather than in driving, and then only when timber support was not required. Other notable advances were the first use of drilling and blasting at Schemnitz in 1727; the introduction of the pneumatic drill at Rammelsberg in 1876; and the replacement in hoisting of “kib- bles” of wood bound with iron by hemp ropes first with wagons riding in cages hoisted by iron chains, then by wire rope in 1833 at Clausthal, Germany. Illumination evolved from tallow or oil-dip lamps used by the early Saxon miners, candles fixed in clay on helmets, ladders, or on rock faces by l8th-century Cor- nish miners, to 20th-century illumination provided by acetylene lamps and electric cap lights. 1.1.1.3 Milling and Smelting The early miners and metallurgists were fortunate in having rich oxidized ores near the surface from which they could achieve adequate concentration by hand picking or simple washing. However, as grades declined and mineralogy became more com- plex with mineral grains finely interlocked, hand breaking and sorting were no longer possible. The most primitive mechanical grinding device used throughout Asia and the Near East was the Korean mill, a boulder rotating in a cupped stone. The arrastra, dating back to the Roman Empire, consisted of “drag stones” pulled over a circular paved area; the Chilean mill was similar except circular stone wheels were used in place of drag stone. Stamps came into use for primary crushing. All these devices were largely replaced by jaw and cone crushers and rod and ball mills about the turn of the 19th century. The oldest method of concentration was by washing with water to remove light minerals and collect the heavy ones. This was accomplished by hand panning, rockers, or sluices with riffles or by passing the materials over a special cloth, as was the case with the fleece used by Jason and his Argonauts. The jig was the earliest mechanized gravity concentration device, developed about AD 1830, followed by the shaking riffled table. Magnetic North and South America 1977 Surface Mining and Control Reclamation Act (US) 1979 Three-Mile Island acci- dent in nuclear power plant (US) 1982 Commercial production of electricity by solar en- ergy (US) Australasia separation was the second ore-concentration method to be devel- oped in the 19th century. Chemically induced concentrating began with amalgamation of gold on mercury-coated copper plates and dates back to the 4th century BC. Solution extraction on a large scale probably began with heap leaching and precipitation of copper at Rio Tinto, Spain, about AD 1752; solution of gold in cyanide solu- tions was known in Germany as early as 1805, but it was not developed as an ore treatment technique until 1887. It was this development that made the fine-grained gold of the Witwaters- rand an economic source of gold. Finally, the greatest breakthrough in the history of mineral beneficiation occurred at the turn of the 19th century when nearly simultaneously in Britain, Australia, and Italy, the tech- nique of froth flotation evolved. The mineral industry in the 20th century has been character- ized by the recognition of economics of scale and development of technology for large-scale mining, bolstered by development of mineral flotation and hydrometallurgical techniques. 1.1.2 THE MINER’S CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIETY The contribution of mining has played a bigger part in the development of civilization than is usually conceded by the histo- rian or recognized by the ordinary citizen. In fact, products of the mineral industry pervade the lives of all members of our industrialized society. Early man relied upon wood, bone, stone, and ceramics to fashion tools, weapons, and utensils. Civilization was advanced by the discovery of abundant supplies of high-quality flint in northern France and in the chalk beds of southern England. Culture after culture occupied the sites around the Acheuleum communities over a span of 200,000 years. Clay deposits supplied material for storage vessels as agriculture was introduced, and the metallic residues from pigments in the potters’ kiln may have provided the first clue to these ancient peoples of the secrets of extraction of metals through smelting. Likewise, salt was recognized as essential in the human diet and, along with flint, became a prime medium of exchange that dictated early trade routes. During the initial development, the use of metallic miner- als was in the form of pigments, decorative beads, and native metals that could be shaped into simple objects by hammering. Most discoveries of these useful minerals were made by acci- dent along trade routes. However, Egypt, which was not well endowed with mineral resources, sent out expeditions exploring for turquoise and gold as early as 4500 BC, resulting in an era of warfare for the acquisition of metals. The Mycenaeans fol-
- 16. 20 MINING ENGINEERING HANDBOOK lowed by the Phoenicians broke this cycle of war and became wealthy, exchanging minerals for goods. These traders/prospec- tors sought deposits of silver, tin, lead, copper, and gold, acquir- ing them by barter rather than by conquest. By 1200 BC they had sea trade routes throughout the Mediterranean world, ac- quiring lead and silver from Spain, copper from Cyprus, and tin from Cornwall. By 100 BC trade routes between China and the West, primar- ily for silk and spices, were well established. The roads passed through many countries and disseminated knowledge of “seric” iron (steel) and metallurgical technology to the known world. By 620, during the T’ang Dynasty, China had become the most advanced society in the world culturally and technologically. The fact that mining technology never fully developed in China can probably be attributed to Guatarma (563-483 BC), who taught that “suffering is caused by the craving for that which one has not,” resulting in governmental policies that alternately discouraged and encouraged mining. The discovery of copper on Cyprus c. 2700 BC resulted in the fabrication of tools, weapons, and household utensils made of metal and turned the island into an important trading center. Wealth poured into the island allowing for luxuries and artistic and religious development. Work in the mines by the Greeks and Romans was first done by slaves, either prisoners of war, criminals, or political prisoners. Easily exploitable deposits were eventually exhausted and mine economics demanded mining skills. As a result, begin- ning with the reign of Hadrian (AD 138), the Roman Empire began to recognize a degree of individual ownership and permit- ted mining by freedmen in increasing numbers. There was grad- ual improvement of mining technology through the Roman Em- pire that accompanied replacement of slaves by skilled artisans, though villeinage was still practiced. One legacy largely the result of Phoenician trading was to create a system whereby power and prosperity could thereafter be measured in terms of actual, exchangeable wealth. In this capacity, gold and silver throughout history have been univer- sally accepted coinage. Thus debasement of the Roman denarius resulted in its loss of creditability as the standard of exchange, contributing to the fall of the Roman Empire, and by the end of the 6th century, the Latin West reverted to an agrarian economy and abandoned coinage and trade. The center of culture and technology shifted to the Byzantine and Islamic empires. Charlemagne (768-814) recognized the need for metals and began the mining of lead, silver, and gold at Rothansberg, Krem- nitz, and Schemnitz by enslaved captives. Charlemagne also re- formed the coinage of his Holy Roman Empire, and these actions set in motion the establishment of new mints during the 10th century in Eichstadt (908), Cologne (960), Hildesheim (977), and Saxony (990), creating new and geographically dispersed demand for metals. Thus as Charlemagne’s Empire gave way to more local kingdoms, a demand for precious metals had been created that aroused the spirit of enterprise and awakened inter- est in the development and use of metals; Europe saw a birth (or rebirth) of the traditions originally carried by the Celts of no- madic mining expertise. This rebirth was characterized as “berg- baufreiheit,” or the rights of the free miner, whereby the poorest villein could become his own master merely by marking his own mining claim and registering its boundaries after making a discovery— subject to a tribute or royalty paid to the royal land owner. The miner thus ceased to be a serf and became a free man. The evidence of the foundation of this concept of self- initiation of rights to develop mineral ground includes a treaty initiated by the Bishop of Trent in 1185, where miners were invited to explore and mine that region of northern Italy as free men with rights of discovery; the charter of rights granted to miners by the various princes in the Germanic empire in 1209; and the results of the inquisition ordered by Edward II of Eng- land in 1288 to memorialize the ancient customs and practices of the miners within his realm. Thus the right of ownership based on discovery by a free miner became the foundation for mining laws carried by individual miners throughout Europe, then to the Americas, Australia, and South Africa. Discoveries lured hordes of prospectors and miners, followed by farmers and merchants, eastward into Saxony and beyond to become settlers and developers of the land. Expansion east of the Rhine into the rich metalliferous province of Saxony resulted in discovery and development of mines at Schemnitz, Kremnitz, and Rammelsberg, and marked an awakening of metal mining, the revival of industry and trade, and the end of the Dark Ages in Europe. The metal from central Europe moved directly south to Venice and was largely responsible for the conversion of this poverty-stricken village of the 9th century into the richest port in southern Europe. The affluence created by this industry had ultimate conse- quences in the arts, as Emperor Frederick II, supported by the wealth of Rammelsberg, became a noted patron of literature and science and contributed substantially to the Renaissance. As mining extended underground, the free miner found that he could do little by himself, so he formed a partnership. As the operation grew, other men were required, and self-governing associations were born whose ownership and financial stake were supported by contributions memorialized in a “cost-book.” The cost-book association formed the model for company organiza- tion before the practice of issuing stock as evidence of proprietor- ship. In the 13th century, the German cost-book association usually consisted of 16 able-bodied men. As the scale of operation increased, it was necessary to add additional participating shares, and Agricola notes in his time that the number of shares at Achneeberg was 128, of which 126 were private owners in the mine, one to the state, and one to the church. Initially, production was divided among the shareholders, but as treatment and marketing became more complex, the sale became centralized. When a profit was made, it was divided among the “adventurers,” but when losses were experienced the adventurers were required to contribute in proportion to their holdings or risk loss of their ownership. Rarely was any money set aside as a reserve, and consequently, a decline in metal prices or grade generally resulted in mine closure. Growing demands for capital forced a search for outside capital, and gradually operators lost control to investors. The miners became contract workers. Guilds, originally organized by miners for charity and insurance, assumed objectives of indus- trial aggression. When public financing in Britain was made possible through the enactment of the Limited Liabilities Acts of 1855-1862 and repeal of the Bubble Act that had limited stockholders to eight, British capitalists came to the forefront in financing mineral development worldwide. Goldsmiths assumed a banking func- tion and issued printed receipts (or notes) payable to any bearer—the forerunner of present paper currency. During the 18th century, iron metallurgy made great strides and made possible the Industrial Revolution in Britain. Village craftsmen evolved into the factory system and the “Friendly Societies” legally took on the function of the trade unions after 1825. An industrial revolution is a period during which the econ- omy of an underdeveloped country is transformed into an indus- trial economy, stimulated by availability of energy sources and metal resources. This change took place in Britain during the 18th and early 19th centuries and spread to France, the United States, Germany, Japan, Russia, Sweden, Canada, Taiwan, and
- 17. HISTORY OF MINING 21 Korea in approximately that order. The developing technology was accompanied by a revolution in science and engineering, with empirical contributions from alert and observant workmen. The machine age introduced by the Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century also required minerals as raw materi- als and as a source of energy. Industrial power thus became a measure of political and military power, and exploration for the acquisition of minerals resources extended to nearly all parts of the world. Nations’ economies became interdependent. In an attempt to control the large-scale international flow of mineral resources, various commercial and political measures have been tried: monopolies, cartels, tariffs, subsidies, and quotas to name a few. The final result was that political and commercial control over mineral resources and their distribution played a leading role in both the maintenance and destruction of world peace (Leith et al., 1943). No mention of coal mining appears in the historical record of the West until late in the thirteenth century. Early references are either to “quarries” or “drift” material. Development of coal mines in Britain, Europe, and the United States supplied energy that powered the industrial revolutions. The structure of the coal industry traditionally was one of many small, low-capital, independent operators who supplied the retail and industrial markets, and a certain percentage of captive mines that supplied railroads, steel and electrical power requirements—all operating within their national boundaries. Depressed coal prices resulting from competition from oil and gas forced reorganization of the industry through aggregation by mergers and acquisition of small operations, mechanization, and a move to surface mining operations by larger companies able to afford this capital-intensive approach. This first occurred in the United States during the late 1950s and early 1960s, and internationally during the late 1960s and 1970s as coal markets were likewise expanded. The petroleum industry not only shared in the technological developments, but along with coal was in a large part responsible for supplying abundant, cheap, and flexible energy and chemical raw materials. It created demand as well as responding to demand. The story of aluminum is one of human ingenuity in the creation of a new metal, a new way of life, and a spate of new industries and technologies, as well as combined chemical, tech- nological, and geological cooperation and discovery. Aluminum was not isolated as a metal until 1825 and has been in commercial production for only 100 years. Its discovery was made possible through development of the dynamo by Faraday and Edison. Uranium, consistent with the history of copper and iron, was first used as a weapon. Its technology began in 1896 as a curious clouding of a photographic plate and evolved into a weapon, less than a half century later, of horrible destructive dimensions, first witnessed on the New Mexico desert in 1945 with the man-made thunder and lightning that was the atomic bomb. Finally, fascination for gold has lured explorers, invaders, investors, settlers, and “con men” to all parts of the world. It has served, and continues to serve, as an international medium of exchange and a measure of a nation’s wealth and financial stability. 1.1.2.1 Minerals and National Policy With the final peace settlement after World War I, Germany lost 68% of its territory, all of its gold, silver, and mercury deposits, 80% of its coal mines and iron-producing capacity, and entered into a period of depression and starvation. The German economy managed to recover with imported ores and a high degree of technical skill and efficient labor. The depression years of the 1930s resulted in economic na- tionalism and protective tariffs, and many markets were effec- tively closed. Since Germany and Japan were both dependent upon international trade, their standard of living plunged, and hunger, bitterness, and resentment flared. The Nazis came to power in Germany with promises of work, food, and prestige; rearmament began in 1933, and Japan followed suit shortly thereafter, leading the world into World War II (Lovering, 1943). The world’s mineral resources since the latter part of the 19th century have been primarily developed by Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, Japan, West Germany, and France. These countries have furnished the necessary science, technology, and capital and have supplied the markets. Local mineral wealth throughout history and social develop- ment has made first one nation rich and powerful, then another. The Phoenicians established worldwide trade and gained great wealth by developing and exchanging minerals for all manner of goods. Athens financed its ancient wars and “Golden Age” with silver from Laurium, Alexander funded his early conquests with gold from Macedon, the Romans expanded their Empire to acquire the silver of Carthage and the copper of Spain, and the Catholic crown of Spain became a world power by the exploita- tion of gold and silver from the New World. During the Middle Ages, Germany became the center of lead, zinc, and silver pro- duction and the leader in mining technology. Britain moved into the forefront during the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century and was successively the world’s leading producer of tin, copper, lead, and then coal. Her resources were bolstered by those of a vast empire, and she became the wealthiest nation in the world. The greater resources of the United States subse- quently supported its advance to become the richest nation; however, the future is already foreshadowed. Most of the Greek, German, and British high-grade mines are exhausted, and the United States is fast becoming dependent upon imports and preservation of peaceful world trade. Near East countries have experienced a rapid rise to great wealth based upon petroleum resources. This has been important in technological develop- ments, but historically is of short duration. New discoveries of high-grade metal deposits are very likely in the Soviet Union and in China but less likely in the United States. 1.1.2.2 Future Contributions of the Minerals Industry With few exceptions, no nation can achieve a high level of prosperity without a reliable source of minerals to supply its manufacturing industry. Through mining, emergent (Third- World) countries can finance growth progressively by the export of raw mineral resources, then by processing these raw materials prior to export, and finally by achieving progressive industrial development (Fig. 1.1.1). Mineral reserves, upon which the future of the human race depends, occupy less than 0.1% of the continental areas. Unfor- tunately, we are not at present sufficiently skilled to determine exactly where they occur or how large they may be. They remain elusive targets. Research in mining and metallurgical technology is essential. A new discovery may locate a mine, but a technological break- through can open up mines all around the world. The economic evolution of society that began in Neolithic prehistory was based then, as it is now, on minerals, and has led man into modern times. The 104 elements of the periodic table, all but a few of which are recovered from widely spaced, often remote, mineral deposits using a variety of complex mining and metallurgical techniques, form the foundation of modern society.
- 18. Fig. 1.1.1. Stages of mineral and metal production of an industrial country. (Modified from Lovering, 1943, p. 18.) Fig. 1.1.2. The role of fuel and nonfuel minerals in the US economy (estimated values for 1990). (Modified from annual publications of the US Bureau of Mines.) They provide its heat, light, shelter, transportation, communica- present state without them (Tables 1.1.2 and 1.1.3 and Fig. tion, and food. The standards of living of the industrialized 1.1.2). nations—which developing nations are striving to attain—are Mineral deposits within the border of any country represent based upon minerals, and societies could not continue in their potential national wealth: they can be transformed into actual
- 19. HISTORY OF MINING 23 Table 1.1.2. Per Capita Consumption of Minerals in the United States (1970) levels by in-service training, attraction of overseas investment capital, and creation of national wealth (Gregory, 1980). Commodity Quantity Major Uses Steel 1400 lb Transportation Aluminium 44 lb Kitchenware, buildings Copper 20 lb Electrical appliances Tin 1 lb Cans Petroleum 3.4 tons Transport, heating, industrial Natural gas 2.5 tons Heating, industrial Coal 2.3 tons Electricity generation, steel pro- duction Salt 440 lb Chemicals Sulfur 70 lb Fertilizer Sand and gravel 4 tons Roads, buildings Modified from McDivitt and Manners. Conversion units: 1 lb = 0.4536 kg 1 ton = 0.9072 t Table 1.1.3. Source of Power (1987). United States Utility Companies Generated 2.5 Trillion Kw-Hr of electricity in 1987 Source of Power kWh in Billions Coal 1464 Nuclear power 455 Natural gas 273 Hydroelectric 250 Petroleum 118 Geothermal, others 12 Source: Energy Information Administration, U.S.A. Today. material wealth (and contribute to the gross national product) only by being mined. Among the benefits to the state are an increase in employment levels (one mining job carries approxi- mately a 5:1 multiplier effect), an enhanced level of self-suffi- ciency, and improved balance of trade. The latter results from fewer imports and greater exports of commodities mined, a spir- ited search for more minerals, a build-up of technical manpower REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Anon., 1979, “History of Mining and Minerals,” John Myers Marketing, Engineering and Mining Journal, NY, 1 p. Agricola, G., 1556, De Re Metallica, H.C. and L.H. Hoover translation, 1912, The Mining Magazine, London, 638 pp. Brandon, S.G.F., ed., 1971, Milestones of History, Norton, NY, 396 pp. Collins, W.F., 1918, Mineral Enterprises in China, Heinemann, London, 308 pp. Derry, T.K. and Williams, T.I., 1961, A Short History of Technology, Oxford, New York, 782 pp. Dorr, A., 1987, Minerals—Foundations of Society, 2nd ed., American Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA, 96 pp. Fitzgerald, C.P., 1966, A Concise History of East Asia, Heinemann, Mel- bourne. Flawn, P.T., 1966, Mineral Resources: Geology, Engineering, Economics, Politics, Law, Rand McNally, New York. Gregory, C.E., 1980, A Concise History of Mining, Pergamon, Oxford, 259 pp. Knox, B.E., Griffiths, J.C., and Matson, F.R., 1986, A Study Guide to: Out of the Fiery Furnace, Penn State University Press, University Park, PA, 124 pp. Leith, C.K., Furness, J.W., and Lewis, C., 1943, World Minerals and World Peace, Brookings Inst., Washington, DC, 253 pp. Lovering, T.S., 1943, Minerals in World Affairs, Prentice Hall, NY, 394 pp. Madigan, R.T., 1981, Of Minerals and Man, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Parkville, Victoria, 138 pp. Morrison, T.A., 1976, “Some Historical Notes on Mining in the Harz Mountains, Germany,” Transactions, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Vol. 85, pp. A5l-56. Parker, G., ed., 1986, The World: An Illustrated History, Harper and Row, NY, 480 pp. Poss, J.R., 1975, Stones of Destiny, Michigan Tech. Press, Houghton, MI. Raymond, R., 1984, Out of the Fiery Furnace, Macmillan, Melbourne, 274 pp. Rickard, T.A., 1932, Man and Metals, Vols. 1 and 2, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1068 pp. Singer, C., Holmyard, E.J., Hall, A.R., and Williams, T.I., 1954-1978, A History of Technology, Vols. l-6, Clarenden, Oxford, 5541 pp. Viljoen, D.A., 1979, “Minerals from the Dawn of Mankind to the Twen- ty-First Century,” Journal South African Institute Mining and Met- allurgy, Sep., pp. 410-420. Williams, T.I., 1982, A Short History of Twentieth Century Technology, Clarenden, Oxford, 411 pp.