Humancomputer Interaction Design Issues Solutions And Applications Sears
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- 6. Human- Computer Interaction Design Issues, Solutions, and Applications
- 7. Human Factors and Ergonomics Series Editor Published Titles Conceptual Foundations of Human Factors Measurement, D. Meister Designing for Accessibility: A Business Guide to Countering Design Exclusion, S. Keates Handbook of Cognitive Task Design, E. Hollnagel Handbook of Digital Human Modeling: Research for Applied Ergonomics and Human Factors Engineering, V. G. Duffy Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics in Health Care and Patient Safety, P. Carayon Handbook of Human Factors in Web Design, R. Proctor and K. Vu Handbook of Standards and Guidelines in Ergonomics and Human Factors, W. Karwowski Handbook of Virtual Environments: Design, Implementation, and Applications, K. Stanney Handbook of Warnings, M. Wogalter Human-Computer Interaction: Designing for Diverse Users and Domains, A. Sears and J. A. Jacko Human-Computer Interaction: Design Issues, Solutions, and Applications, A. Sears and J. A. Jacko Human-Computer Interaction: Development Process, A. Sears and J. A. Jacko Human-Computer Interaction: Fundamentals, A. Sears and J. A. Jacko Human Factors in System Design, Development, and Testing, D. Meister and T. Enderwick Introduction to Human Factors and Ergonomics for Engineers, M. R. Lehto and J. R. Buck Macroergonomics: Theory, Methods and Applications, H. Hendrick and B. Kleiner The Handbook of Data Mining, N. Ye The Human-Computer Interaction Handbook: Fundamentals, Evolving Technologies, and Emerging Applications, Second Edition, A. Sears and J. A. Jacko Theories and Practice in Interaction Design, S. Bagnara and G. Crampton-Smith Usability and Internationalization of Information Technology, N. Aykin User Interfaces for All: Concepts, Methods, and Tools, C. Stephanidis Forthcoming Titles Computer-Aided Anthropometry for Research and Design, K. M. Robinette Content Preparation Guidelines for the Web and Information Appliances: Cross-Cultural Comparisons, Y. Guo, H. Liao, A. Savoy, and G. Salvendy Foundations of Human-Computer and Human-Machine Systems, G. Johannsen Handbook of Healthcare Delivery Systems, Y. Yih Human Performance Modeling: Design for Applications in Human Factors and Ergonomics, D. L. Fisher, R. Schweickert, and C. G. Drury Smart Clothing: Technology and Applications, G. Cho The Universal Access Handbook, C. Stephanidis
- 8. Edited by Andrew Sears Julie A. Jacko Human- Computer Interaction Design Issues, Solutions, and Applications CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Boca Raton London New York
- 9. This material was previously published in The Human-Computer Interaction Handbook: Fundamentals, Evolving Technologies and Emerging Applica- tions, Second Edition, © Taylor & Francis, 2007. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-8885-4 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation with- out intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Human-computer interaction. Design issues, solutions, and applications / editors, Andrew Sears, Julie A. Jacko. p. cm. -- (Human factors and ergonomics) “Select set of chapters from the second edition of The Human computer interaction handbook”--Pref. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4200-8885-4 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Human-computer interaction. I. Sears, Andrew. II. Jacko, Julie A. III. Human-computer interaction handbook. IV. Title. V. Series. QA76.9.H85H85656 2008 004.01’9--dc22 2008049135 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
- 10. For Beth, Nicole, Kristen, François, and Nicolas.
- 12. vii CONTENTS Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Advisory Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii About the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv 1 Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces: Everything Is Designed: Why We Should Think Before Doing . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Suzanne Watzman and Margaret Re 2 Global/Intercultural User Interface Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Aaron Marcus 3 Conversational Speech Interfaces and Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53 Jennifer Lai, Clare-Marie Karat, and Nicole Yankelovich 4 Multimedia User Interface Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65 Alistair Sutcliffe 5 Multimodal Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85 Sharon Oviatt 6 Adaptive Interfaces and Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105 Anthony Jameson 7 Mobile Interaction Design in the Age of Experience Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131 Marco Susani 8 Tangible User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141 Hiroshi Ishii 9 Achieving Psychological Simplicity: Measures and Methods to Reduce Cognitive Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161 John C. Thomas and John T. Richards 10 Information Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 Stuart Card 11 Groupware and Computer-Supported Cooperative Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217 Gary M. Olson and Judith S. Olson 12 HCI and the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231 Helen Ashman, Tim Brailsford, Gary Burnett, Jim Goulding, Adam Moore, Craig Stewart, and Mark Truran 13 Human-Centered Design of Decision-Support Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245 Philip J. Smith, Norman D. Geddes and Roger Beatty 14 Online Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275 Panayiotis Zaphiris, Chee Siang Ang, and Andrew Laghos 15 Virtual Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293 Kay M. Stanney and Joseph V. Cohn 16 Human-Computer Interaction Viewed from the Intersection of Privacy, Security, and Trust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .311 John Karat, Clare-Marie Karat, and Carolyn Brodie Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
- 14. ix CONTRIBUTORS Chee Siang Ang Centre for HCI Design, City University London, UK Helen Ashman School of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Nottingham, UK Roger Beatty American Airlines, USA Tim Brailsford School of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Nottingham, UK Carolyn Brodie IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, USA Gary Burnett School of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Nottingham, UK Stuart Card User Interface Research Group, Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), USA Joseph V. Cohn Naval Research Laboratory, USA Norman D. Geddes Applied Systems Intelligence, Inc., USA Jim Goulding School of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Nottingham, UK Hiroshi Ishii MIT Media Laboratory, USA Anthony Jameson German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, and International University in Germany, Germany Clare-Marie Karat IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, USA John Karat IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, USA Andrew Laghos Centre for HCI Design, City University London, UK Jennifer Lai IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, USA Aaron Marcus Aaron Marcus and Associates, Inc., USA Adam Moore School of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Nottingham, UK Gary M. Olson School of Information, The University of Michigan, USA Judith S. Olson School of Information, The University of Michigan, USA Sharon Oviatt Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Oregon Health and Science University, USA Margaret Re Visual Arts Department, UMBC, USA John T. Richards IBM T. J. Watson Research Center, USA Philip J. Smith Institute for Ergonomics, Ohio State University, USA Kay M. Stanney Industrial Engineering and Management Systems, University of Central Florida, USA Craig Stewart School of Computer Science and Information Technology, University of Nottingham, and Department of Electronic Engineering, Queen Mary, University of London, UK Marco Susani Design for Seamless Mobility, Motorola, USA Alistair Sutcliffe School of Informatics, University of Manchester, UK John C. Thomas IBM T. J. Watson Research Center, USA Mark Truran University of Teesside, UK Suzanne Watzman Watzman Information Design, USA Nicole Yankelovich Sun Microsystems, USA Panayiotis Zaphiris Centre for HCI Design, City University London, UK
- 16. xi ADVISORY BOARD Noëlle Carbonell University Henri Poincaré–Nancy 1, LORIA, CNRS & INRIA, France Stuart Card User Interface Research Group, Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), USA John M. Carroll College of Information Sciences and Technology, The Pennsylvania State University, USA Jim Foley Georgia Institute of Technology, USA Ephraim P. Glinert National Science Foundation, USA Vicki L. Hanson IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, USA John Karat IBM T.J. Watson Research Center, USA Waldemar Karwowski Center for Industrial Ergonomics, University of Louisville, USA Sara Kiesler HCI Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, USA Arnold Lund Mobile Platforms Division, Microsoft, USA Aaron Marcus Aaron Marcus and Associates, Inc., USA Dianne Murray Independent Consultant, UK Jakob Nielsen Nielsen Norman Group, USA Gary M. Olson School of Information, University of Michigan, USA Judith S. Olson School of Information, Ross School of Business, and Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, USA Sharon Oviatt Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Oregon Health and Science University, USA Fabio Paternò Laboratory on Human Interfaces in Information Systems, ISTI–C.N.R., Italy Richard Pew BBN Technologies, USA Dylan Schmorrow Office of Naval Research (ONR), USA Michael Smith Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA Kay Stanney Industrial Engineering and Management Systems, University of Central Florida, USA Constantine Stephanidis Institute of Computer Science, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas (ICS-FORTH) Department of Computer Science, University of Crete, Greece Peter Thomas Carey Thomas Pty Ltd., Australia Susan Wiedenbeck College of Information Science and Technology, Drexel University, USA Hidekazu Yoshikawa Department of Socio-Environmental Energy Science, Kyoto University, Japan
- 18. xiii PREFACE We are pleased to offer access to a select set of chapters from the second edition of The Human–Computer Interaction Hand- book. Each of the four books in the set comprises select chapters that focus on specific issues including fundamentals that serve as the foundation for human–computer interactions, design issues, issues involved in designing solutions for diverse users, and the development process. While human–computer interaction (HCI) may have emerged from within computing, significant contributions have come from a variety of fields including industrial engineering, psychology, education, and graphic design. The resulting inter- disciplinary research has produced important outcomes includ- ing an improved understanding of the relationship between people and technology as well as more effective processes for utilizing this knowledge in the design and development of so- lutions that can increase productivity, quality of life, and com- petitiveness. HCI now has a home in every application, envi- ronment, and device, and is routinely used as a tool for inclusion. HCI is no longer just an area of specialization within more traditional academic disciplines, but has developed such that both undergraduate and graduate degrees are available that focus explicitly on the subject. The HCI Handbook provides practitioners, researchers, stu- dents, and academicians with access to 67 chapters and nearly 2000 pages covering a vast array of issues that are important to the HCI community. Through four smaller books, readers can access select chapters from the Handbook. The first book, Human–Computer Interaction: Fundamentals, comprises 16 chapters that discuss fundamental issues about the technology involved in human–computer interactions as well as the users themselves. Examples include human information processing, motivation, emotion in HCI, sensor-based input solutions, and wearable computing. The second book, Human–Computer Interaction: Design Issues, also includes 16 chapters that address a variety of issues involved when designing the interactions between users and computing technologies. Example topics include adaptive interfaces, tangible interfaces, information visualization, designing for the web, and computer-supported cooperative work. The third book, Human–Computer Interac- tion: Designing for Diverse Users and Domains, includes eight chapters that address issues involved in designing solutions for diverse users including children, older adults, and individuals with physical, cognitive, visual, or hearing impairments. Five additional chapters discuss HCI in the context of specific domains including health care, games, and the aerospace industry. The final book, Human–Computer Interaction: The Development Process, includes fifteen chapters that address requirements specification, design and development, and testing and evalua- tion activities. Sample chapters address task analysis, contex- tual design, personas, scenario-based design, participatory de- sign, and a variety of evaluation techniques including usability testing, inspection-based techniques, and survey design. Andrew Sears and Julie A. Jacko March 2008
- 20. xv Andrew Sears is a Professor of Information Systems and the Chair of the Information Systems Department at UMBC. He is also the director of UMBC’s Interactive Systems Research Center. Dr. Sears’ research explores issues related to human-centered computing with an emphasis on accessibility. His current projects focus on accessibility, broadly defined, including the needs of individuals with physical disabilities and older users of infor- mation technologies as well as mobile computing, speech recognition, and te difficulties information technology users ex- perience as a result of the environment in which they are work- ing or the tasks in which they are engaged. His research pro- jects have been supported by numerous corporations (e.g., IBM Corporation, Intel Corporation, Microsoft Corporation, Motorola), foundations (e.g., the Verizon Foundation), and government agencies (e.g., NASA, the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research, the National Science Foundation, and the State of Maryland). Dr. Sears is the author or co-author of numerous research publications including jour- nal articles, books, book chapters, and conference proceedings. He is the Founding Co-Editor-in-Chief of the ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing, and serves on the editorial boards of the International, Journal of Human–Computer Studies, the International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, the International Journal of Mobil Human–Computer Interaction, and Universal Access in the Information Society, and the advi- sory board of the upcoming Universal Access Handbook. He has served on a variety of conference committees including as Conference and Technical Program Co-Chair of the Association for Computing Machinery’s Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2001), Conference Chair of the ACM Conference on Accessible Computing (Assets 2005), and Pro- gram Chair for Asset 2004. He is currently Vice Chair of the ACM Special Interest Group on Accessible Computing. He earned his BS in Computer Science from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and his Ph.D. in Computer Science with an emphasis on Hu- man–Computer Interaction from the University of Maryland— College Park. Julie A. Jacko is Director of the Institute for Health Informatics at the University of Minnesota as well as a Professor in the School of Public Health and the School of Nursing. She is the author or co-author of over 120 research publications including journal articles, books, book chapters, and conference proceedings. Dr. Jacko’s research activities focus on human–computer interaction, human aspects of computing, universal access to electronic information technologies, and health informatics. Her externally funded research has been supported by the Intel Corporation, Microsoft Corporation, the National Science Foundation, NASA, the Agency for Health Care Research and Quality (AHRQ), and the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research. Dr. Jacko received a National Science Foundation CAREER Award for her research titled, “Universal Access to the Graphical User In- terface: Design For The Partially Sighted,” and the National Sci- ence Foundation’s Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers, which is the highest honor bestowed on young scientists and engineers by the US government. She is Editor-in- Chief of the International Journal of Human–Computer Interac- tion and she is Associate Editor for the International Journal of Human Computer Studies. In 2001 she served as Conference and Technical Program Co-Chair for the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2001). She also served as Program Chair for the Fifth ACM SIGCAPH Conference on Assis- tive Technologies (ASSETS 2002), and as General Conference Chair of ASSETS 2004. In 2006, Dr. Jacko was elected to serve a three-year term as President of SIGCHI. Dr. Jacko routinely pro- vides expert consultancy for organizations and corporations on systems usability and accessibility, emphasizing human aspects of interactive systems design. She earned her Ph.D. in Industrial Engineering from Purdue University. ABOUT THE EDITORS
- 22. Human- Computer Interaction Design Issues, Solutions, and Applications
- 24. ◆ 1◆ VISUAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR USABLE INTERFACES Everything Is Designed: Why We Should Think Before Doing Suzanne Watzman Watzman Information Design Margaret Re UMBC Making Things Easier to Use and Understand: Thinking about the User’s Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Defining Visual Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Role of the Designer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Process of Good Design—How Do We Get There from Here? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 An Information-Design Process Is an Informed Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Phase 1: The Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Audit Questions A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Audit Questions B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Phase 2:Design Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Phase 3:Implementation and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Visual Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Universal Principles of Visual Communication and Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Visual Design Tools and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 The Five Criteria for Good Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Visual Design Principles at Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Typography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 How the Human Eye Sees, and then Reads . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Typeface Size and Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Serif and sans serif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Families of type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Variations in Letterforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Variations in Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Variations inThick andThin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Variations in Serifs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Typographic Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 CombiningTypefaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Contrast in Weight (Boldness) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Output Device and Viewing Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Letter Spacing and Word Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Line Spacing/Leading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Line Length/Column Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Justified vs.Ragged Right (Flush Left) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Highlighting withType . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1
- 25. DecorativeTypefaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Black on White vs.White on Black and Dark on Light Background vs.Light on Dark Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Positive and negative type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Design Principles: Page Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Building the Design of a Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Gray page or screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Chunking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Queuing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Mixing modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Abstracting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Other Page DesignTechniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 White space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 The grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Field of vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Proximity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 The illusion of depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Charts, Diagrams, Graphics, and Icons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Tables,Charts,Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Icons and Visual Cues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Illustrations and Photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Visuals should reinforce the message . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Create a consistent visual language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Consider both function and style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Focus on quality vs.quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Work with a professional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Build a library to create visual consistency, organizational identity,and a streamlined process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Reinforce shared meaning (common visual language) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Basic Principles of Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Additive primaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Subtractive primaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 How to Use Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Less is more ...useful and understandable . . . . . . . . . 19 Create a color logic;use color coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Create a palette of compatible colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Use complementary colors with extreme caution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Decisions regarding color in typography are critical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Consider the viewing medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Context is everything . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Contrast is critical when making color choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Quantity affects perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Use color as a redundant cue when possible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 We live in a global world,so when in Rome . . . . . . . . 20 Creating a System: Graphic Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 What does a system cover? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Developing the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Designing the Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Effective and appropriate use of the medium . . . . . . 23 The element of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Consistent and Appropriate Visual Language . . . . . . . . 23 Navigational Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Graphics/Icons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Legibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Readability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Use the analogy of a poster as a guide to design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Design for the most difficult common denominator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Avoid overuse of saturated colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Consider different users’levels of skill . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Be aware of the fatigue factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Other differences to consider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Use the“squint test”to check the design . . . . . . . . . . 24 Challenges and Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 CreatingYour Own Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2 • WATZMAN AND RE Take a moment and visualize Las Vegas at night. What kind of image does this conjure up for you? Flashing lights from all di- rections, a hotel’s lighting display designed to outdo its neighbor as well as that of the casino signage down the street. At first glance, everything is exciting, colorful, and beautiful. Now add a fireworks display to your picture. More color, more excitement. Where do you look first? There is so much going on; it is hard to see it all, but you don’t want to miss a thing. Your head turns in all directions. You look there; then, out of the corner of your eye, you see something else. Look over there! Now the fireworks are at their peak, and the noise gets even louder. Any conversa- tion with companions is impossible, yet it is also impossible to fo- cus on any one thing for more than a split second. You are over- whelmed and overloaded. Everything is screaming for your
- 26. attention. Can you manage to pay attention? For how long? Do you begin to shake your head in despair, and give up? Do you wish you were somewhere else—NOW? MAKING THINGS EASIER TO USE AND UNDERSTAND: THINKING ABOUT THE USER’S EXPERIENCE The previous description is unfortunately an accurate analogy of many users’ experiences as they attempt to learn, work, play, and relax. New products, new services, and new tech- nology with which you are unfamiliar can create confusion. Users of these new products, services, and technology are cus- tomers, electricians, grandparents, clerks, pilots, and stu- dents—you and me. And for most of us, it’s a jungle out there! Las Vegas at night with fireworks, or monitors that are winking, blinking, distracting, disturbing, overwhelming—and, after a short time, visually deafening. Now add voices coming from boxes. . .! Although this may seem like an exaggeration, for many this situation is exactly their experience. User interface design focuses on designing flexible environments that have a positive impact on a user’s ability to experience and interact with a product, whether that product is a mobile communica- tion device, website, information kiosk, or appliance. It in- volves creating environments that include strong navigational devices that can be understood intuitively and used effort- lessly. Designers have a responsibility to create user experi- ences that are simple and transparent. To do their job well, they must advocate on behalf of the user, ensuring that the in- terfaces they design are not just merely exercises in technology but that they truly assist and guide the user from task to task, enabling work to be done, and ultimately improving quality of life. When designers succeed, their products can be used effortlessly and are even pleasurable to use. Good design does not needlessly draw attention to itself. It just works. This is the role of good design. DEFINING VISUAL DESIGN The nautilus shell is an example of the synthesis between form and function found in nature (Fig. 1.1). Its form is the result of evolution, which is both transparent and beautiful. The nautilus shell is a perfect analogy for design and the de- sign process because it creates valuable user experiences and usable interfaces. The word design functions as both a noun and a verb. Many people use it to refer to the outward appearance or style of a product. However, design also refers to a process— that of intentionally establishing a plan or system by which a task can be accomplished or a goal reached. It includes tan- gible and intangible systems in which objects or processes are coherently organized to include the environments in which these objects or processes function. Design affects all people in every aspect of what they do. Good design performs for people. It is concerned with economics and the transmission of ideas. The challenge presented to a design team is to plan a prototype with a clear purpose that is easy to use, meets user needs, addresses commercial considerations, and can be mass-produced. Its visual form, whether two- or three-dimen- sional, digital or analog, logically explains its purpose and ef- ficiently leads the user through its function. Design is not a series of subjective choices based on personal preference, at best a cosmetic afterthought considered if time and money are leftover. Good design is the tangible representation of product goals. An iterative and interactive process that requires active learning, design unifies a wide range of disciplines. Good de- sign is a significant activity that reveals multiple solutions to each problem. Design equally values different ways of think- ing. It allows people with a variety of skills and learning abil- ities to work cooperatively to bring insights and expertise to problems and opportunities in order to better develop new and innovative solutions. Problems can be analyzed using a multitude of viewpoints and methods. Writing, drawing, sta- tistical analysis, graphing, discussion, interviewing, personal observation, model-making, and diagramming are all legit- imate methods for examination as the physical, social, and cultural contexts of possible answers are considered (Davis, Hawley, McMullan, & Spilka, 1997) THE DESIGN PROCESS Design as a Catalyst for Learning, a publication funded in part by the National Endowment for the Arts, argued that effective design that responds to human problems uses the following steps (Fig. 1.2): • Problem identification and definition: A need or problem is identified, researched, and defined. 1. Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces • 3 FIGURE 1.1. Nautilus Shell.
- 27. • Gathering and analyzing information: The focus is on learning what is not known. Assumptions are questioned. Wide and broad research is used to locate information and generate ideas. • Determining performance criteria for a successful solution: Research continues as imagery is selected. Rules are declared and what is known is specified. • Generating alternative solutions and building prototypes: Multiple solutions are generated. A variety of methods for analysis, such as drawing, interviewing, modeling or evaluat- ing statistics, are used. • Implementing choices: Project content, scope, and intent are formally established. Initial possibilities are represented and presented as prototypes. • Evaluating outcomes: Prototypes are assessed, tested, evalu- ated, and judged. The knowledge gained is incorporated into further studies and refinements. • Production: A prototype, which is a synthesis of the initial so- lutions made using this process, and specifications are re- leased for making multiples to a manufacturer. THE ROLE OF THE DESIGNER Visual design decisions are based on project goals, user per- spective, and informed decision making. While many aspects of design are quantifiable, there are visual principles that are less measurable but equally important. Even though the necessary skills to become visually literate and make competent design de- cisions can be learned, design involves a highly specialized knowledge base. A unique combination of creativity and skill dif- ferentiates and makes one design more attractive and desirable than another. Both education and talent are necessary to apply the principles required to present information in its most ac- cessible, useful, and pleasing form. The role of the designer in the development of interfaces for interactive products is to un- derstand the product goals and ensure that information is ap- proachable, useful, and desirable. In an environment in which the interface is the only tangible representation of a product and user perception determines product success, appropriate information presentation and visual design are key. Designers understand visual principles in context, and know how to apply them appropriately to create innovative, functional and aesthet- ically pleasing solutions. THE PROCESS OF GOOD DESIGN— HOW DO WE GET THERE FROM HERE? Interface designers are responsible for defining what the expe- rience will be like when a product is used. While print media dictates that users encounter content in a largely predeter- mined sequence, an interface offers the user greater flexibility over how content can be accessed based on users’ needs and wants. A successful interface can be easily navigated. Interface designers define, decide, and then create the experience for users, so that an experience with a product is useful, meaning- ful, even pleasant and empowering. The designer must maintain an attitude of unbiased discovery and empathy for the user. The designer must develop clearly defined goals in order to create a good design that includes an evaluation process that supports and enhances these goals, and includes the flexibility to respond to changes as the process continues and products evolve. AN INFORMATION-DESIGN PROCESS IS AN INFORMED DESIGN PROCESS An information-design process (IDP) is a method of visually structuring and organizing information to develop effective communication. Information design is not superficial or deco- rative, but is rather a merging of functional, performance-based requirements with the most appropriate form to present these requirements. A thoughtful, well-designed solution will, • Motivate users: It psychologically entices an audience, con- vincing members that information and tasks can be success- fully handled. • Increase ease of use and accessibility: The effort needed to comprehend information is decreased. A clear path that aids in skimming and referencing text and gives easy access is provided. • Increase the accuracy and retention of the information: Users learn and retain information better when it is visually mapped and structured in obvious and intuitive ways. • Focus on the needs of its users: Multiple audiences have dif- ferent requirements and styles of learning. Solutions should be developed that provide alternative means of accessing infor- mation for different types of users. An information-design ap- proach is part of a process that incorporates research, design, testing, and training to produce useful, cost-effective solutions. 4 • WATZMAN AND RE FIGURE 1.2. Interacting Design Loop. The interacting design loop developed by Richard Kimbell, founder of the Technology Education Research Unit at Goldsmiths College, and presented in Design as a Catalyst for Learning, captures the divergent, itera- tive and cyclical nature of the design process.
- 28. Phase 1: The Audit The goal of the audit is to create a blueprint for the project, much like architectural drawings are developed before con- structing a building (Fig. 1.3). The audit process begins by ask- ing and answering a number of questions and acknowledging ongoing change and an ever-increasing palette of products and services. Questions are asked throughout the entire product life cycle, since the answers/design solutions reflect the user/use environment and affect the ongoing usefulness and value of the product. To create an eloquent design, continually ask and answer the following questions: Audit Questions A • Who are the product users? • How will this product be used? • When will this product be used? • Why will this product be used? • Where will this product be used? • How will the process evolve to support this product as it evolves? After the first set of questions are asked and answered, a sec- ond set of questions must be asked and answered: Audit Questions B • What is the most efficient, effective way for a user to accom- plish a set of tasks and move on to the next set of tasks? • How can the information required for product ease of use be presented most efficiently and effectively? • How can the design of this product be done to support ease of use and transition from task to task as a seamless, trans- parent, and even pleasurable experience? • What are the technical and organizational limits and con- straints? An audit focuses on discovery. Many disciplines and organiza- tional resources must be consulted. Change is a given, since de- signers begin with assumptions and don’t know all they need to know yet. The answers to their questions and their analysis in the context of organizational objectives provide the basis for the audit report, which serves as the guide in design development. The audit report can be as simple as a two-page list or as com- plex as a comprehensive hundred-page report. Since the goal is discovery, it includes every aspect of the organization concerned with the product-development cycle: project management, us- ability engineering, technical development, user support and documentation, visual communication and design, and content management. With these goals, the result is unbiased, accurate, comprehensive information that serves as the basis for design. Phase 2: Design Development The design-development phase uses the audit report as a guide- line. This is an ongoing, iterative process with each iteration in- corporating user test results to make the product appropriate to the particular set of needs. In reality, the length of this process is often defined and limited by real-world deadlines such as product release dates. The design-development phase includes design and testing. The designer or design team creates a number of so- lutions based on results and objectives determined by the audit report as well as other project specifics. Initially, design ideas should be very broad, incorporating many ideas and options no matter how unrealistic or unusual. As ideas are tested, user feed- back incorporated, and other parameters defined, solutions nat- urally become more defined. Surviving design ideas are then based on solid information derived from user feedback, providing a strong basis for final design decisions. In the beginning, the fo- cus is on high-level concepts and navigation. How will the prod- uct work? What will it feel like to use? As initial concepts are re- fined, design details become more specific. When the conceptual model and organizational framework are approved, the design of the look or product package begins. By the end of this phase, a prototype design to be carried out in implementation and moni- toring is tested, approved, and specified. Phase 3: Implementation and Monitoring The implementation phase focuses on delivering what has been defined, designed, and documented in the preceding phases. It is the final part of a holistic process that defines everything necessary to make a product succeed on an ongoing basis. This includes not only the implementation of the design within the technology, but also any additional support such as the creation of training materials and other reinforcements that enhance use and productivity. Continuous monitoring is key to sustained success, because a successful product responds to evolving technology and user needs. This last phase is mostly consulta- tive and ongoing throughout the product lifecycle in order to ensure that changes such as new technology and product de- velopments are reflected in the product itself. These may in fact trigger another audit/design/testing cycle, although usually less extensive than the initial process. Though the implementation 1. Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces • 5 FIGURE 1.3. Information Design Process (IDP). IDP is phased to insure user and organizational needs are met. It is ongoing and iterative, throughout the lifecycle of a product. Any change can trigger a recycling of this process, to insure solutions remain appropriate and useful.
- 29. phase is called “the last phase,” it reveals the evolutionary process of design and development. The goal of ongoing mon- itoring of solutions is to be aware of changes in user needs, technology, and competition that impact user acceptance and satisfaction. Changes here often result in the need to reevalu- ate and redesign to incorporate this new knowledge gained. VISUAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES Interaction design bridges many worlds: that of visual design, information presentation, and usability with aesthetics. Donis A. Donis (1973a), in A Primer of Visual Literacy, argued that art and its meaning have dramatically changed in contemporary times from one that involved a concern with function to one that views the process of creating art as that of making emotional maps that spring from the province of the intuitive and subjective. This ar- gument extends to design. To someone unskilled in creating ef- fective communications, visual design is often understood as personal preference limited to style or appearance. However, any form of effective design is a result of rigorous study, a con- cern for organization and usability combined with knowledge of the basic design principles of harmony, balance, and simplicity. Visual design is in fact a form of literacy. UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION AND ORGANIZATION The principles of harmony, balance, and simplicity are related yet distinct in meaning and application. Harmony is the group- ing of related parts, so that all elements combine logically to make a unified whole. In interface design, as with other cate- gories of design, this is achieved when all design elements work in unity. Transitions from place to place are effortless and the techniques used to achieve this harmony are unnoticed by the user. Visual harmony achieves the same goal as musical har- mony in which notes combine to create a chord. The golden section, also known as the “golden mean” or “golden rectangle,” is one of the most widely used methods for creating harmony. Architects, artists, musicians, mathematicians, and designers have used the golden section extensively for centuries to create proportional relationships (Fig. 1.4). Balance offers equilibrium or rest. Donis stated that equilibrium is the strongest visual reference (Donis, 1973b). It provides the equivalent of a center of gravity that grounds the page. Without balance, the page collapses, all elements are seen as dispersed, and content is lost. Balance requires continual modification from page to page because while each page is part of a greater system, elements can vary and all have visual weight. In the same way that a clown balanc- ing on a ball while juggling objects of different weights must continually make adjustments for actions that are occurring, visual balance requires the same concerns and adjustments as in the physical world. Regardless of how a design is or- ganized, it must achieve stability and unity in order for a user to feel comfortable with the solution. Balance can be achieved a number of ways. One obvious method uses sym- metry, such as found on a page with text and image aligned on a centered axis. Deceptively simple, symmetry form is of- ten considered easy to make; however, unless handled care- fully a symmetrical composition can be predictable, boring, and static. Asymmetry employs nonaxial balance and uses contrast between elements such as weight, form, and color to create visual tension and drama. Both are valid approaches and require skill and knowledge of complex visual interac- tion to achieve. Simplicity is the embodiment of clarity, elegance, and economy. A solution that offers simplicity is unambiguous and easily understood. It offers clarity working effortlessly devoid of unnecessary decoration. It appears deceivingly easy, acces- sible, and approachable, even though it may be conceptually rich. Simplicity involves distillation—every element is indis- pensable, if an element is removed, the composition falls apart. Achieving simplicity is no easy task. Two guidelines for creating simple design solutions are (a) “Less is more!” (at- tributed to Mies van der Rohe) and (b) “When in doubt, leave it out!” (Anonymous). The most refined design is direct and includes only essential elements. Removing any element breaks the composition rendering it unintelligible or radically different. VISUAL DESIGN TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES New technologies are rapidly being created that extend past the simple automation of tasks and communication; they are revo- lutionizing processes and the resulting products. Before the rev- olution brought about by electronic publishing technology, many disciplines such as writing, editing, design, publishing, and programming were discrete units that handled a defined step within a larger process. Today’s new publishing environ- ments encourage the possibility of a renaissance publisher—a person who can create, design, publish, and distribute. Yet the process used to arrive at successful solutions is very com- plex and extends past technical knowledge to include a mas- tery of visual and verbal language in order to build effective 6 • WATZMAN AND RE FIGURE 1.4. The Golden Rectangle. Divide a square to find the center point (a) from which length (ab) is found. From point (a) the length (ab) is swung as an arc to point (c) to create a rec- tangle that uses the proportions of the golden section.
- 30. communication. Focus must be placed on the factors that de- termine success with constant evaluation and adjustment of these factors in light of new developments. The Five Criteria for Good Design Before any work begins, all participants in the process should have a clear understanding of the criteria for good design. The following questions are guidelines for evaluation of design so- lutions before, during, and after the process to ensure that all solutions remain valid as products, technology, and user needs evolve. • Is it appropriate? Is the solution appropriate for the par- ticular audience, environment, technology, and/or culture? • Is it durable? Will the solution be useful over time? Can it be refined and transitioned as the product evolves and is redefined? • Is it verifiable? Has the design been tested by typical users in the environment that it will be used in? Has feedback been properly evaluated and used to improve the product? • Does it have impact? Does the design solution not only solve the problem, but also impact the look and feel, so that the user finds the product experience comfortable, useful, and desirable? • Is it cost effective? Can the solution be implemented and maintained? Are individuals with the necessary skills and un- derstanding to create, refine, and maintain the design available throughout the product’s life? The cost of any design begins with the audit and design phases, but continues after the im- plementation phase to insure that it remains advantageous and cost-effective. The hard and soft costs of delivering the solu- tion plus ongoing maintenance add up to the real design costs. Visual Design Principles at Work The following sections outline the disciplines and principles used to create quality design solutions. Each topic is worthy of extended study, because there is much to understand when evaluating how to effectively present information. As the de- sign process evolves, insights and information are discovered that impact a solution. It is optimistic to base solutions on an ini- tial exercise because the very nature of process means discov- ering what is unknown yet critical. Therefore, all members in- volved in the design process must remain open and ready to incorporate new information, which may change or delay re- sults, but more accurately reflect user needs. For example, if a new feature is developed that changes a product’s target audience from mid-level managerial to execu- tive users, most methods for critical interaction and content de- livery should be reconsidered. Executives have less time and need different information. The result might be a simpler inter- face with streamlined content that uses a larger typeface and a more conservative visual language. The most important princi- ple to remember when thinking about design is that there are no rules, only guidelines. Everything is context sensitive. Always consider and respect the users. Typography In The Elements of Typographic Style, the poet and typographer Robert Bringhurst (2005) described typography as frozen lan- guage. Typography is the visual representation of spoken and unspoken thought that allows an idea to be shared across time and distance independent of its creator. A functional and ex- pressive art that shares many of the same concerns as writing and editing, typography involves organizing text so that its meaning is communicated according to an author’s intent. In design, a literacy that provides an understanding of typography and how text can be structured in space is as important as a lit- eracy that understands how to structure grammar in order to explicate content. Typography is made from type, individual characters orga- nized by visual characteristics into typefaces. Type is the smallest definable part of a design, much like a pixel is to a screen display. James Felici (2003), who has worked through evolutions in type- setting technologies in The Complete Manual of Typography, de- fined a font as the electronic file that contains the programming code needed to make the characters found in a typeface. Histori- cally, a typeface consists of all the individual characters or glyphs at a given size: letterforms, punctuation, numbers, mathematical symbols, diacritical marks, and other accessory characters needed to fully compose a text. This definition serves as a reminder to read a text carefully and consider all needs before selecting a type- face and developing a presentation form (Fig. 1.5). Effective typography is rational. It is concerned with clarity and comprehension; the ease in which characters and word shapes are recognized in reading environments and the ease in which they can be used. It extends past the shapes of in- dividual letters and their potential combinations to include the relationships found between word and interword shapes, functional groupings that ultimately progress into issues of type weight, slope, width and scale, characteristics that act as interpretative devices in order to create influential and 1. Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces • 7 FIGURE 1.5. Type Family. A type family is built around four core members: roman, bold, italic, and bold italic. Additional members may include typefaces whose weight and width are vari- ants of the core group. A family can also contain expert sets that offer additional or alternate characters such as small caps, frac- tions and non-aligning numbers.
- 31. persuasive form. If the principles of good typography can be un- derstood and applied, then these same principles can be ex- tended to more complex issues that follow such as page and product design. Typographic choice affects legibility and read- ability, the ability to easily see and understand what is on the page, in all media. Walter Tracy (1986), in Letters of Credit: A View of Type Design, offered the most useful definitions for legibility and readability. Legibility, the speed at which letters and the words built from them can be recognized, refers to perception. Readability, the facility and ease with which text can be read, refers to comprehension. Legibility and readabil- ity are related. Regardless of media, legibility and readability are determined by variables such as point size, letter pairing, word spacing, line length and leading, resolution, color, and or- ganizational strategies such as text clustering. Together, legi- bility and readability comprise typography’s functional as- pects. Good typography, like good design, is invisible to the user—it just works (Fig. 1.6). Selecting an appropriate typeface for a specific purpose and context requires experience and understanding (Fig. 1.7). With thousands of typefaces to choose from and numerous ways to manipulate them, finding the typeface best suited for an audi- ence is not easy. With its lack of control, multiple media, and var- ied viewing contexts the current publishing environment makes this a complex task. Typeface choice impacts whether and how a communication is read. Distinct typefaces and typographic styles create envi- ronments that influence a user’s perception of text. The physi- cal nature of the presentation itself helps determine content and acceptance. A typeface with extremely thick and thin strokes may appear sophisticated and readable in print but may look naïve and render text unreadable in a digital environment. Typefaces are frequently designed to solve issues of legibility and readability created by a technology. A typeface made for online use can increase page legibility, as well as the overall per- ception of approachability, quality of an interface, and ultimately product acceptance (Fig. 1.8, 1.9, & 1.10). An informed selection can make reading enjoyable and ef- fortless rather than frustrating and fatiguing. Though typography 8 • WATZMAN AND RE FIGURE 1.6. Legibility and Readability. The letters, letter pairs and words shown above are examples of what can happen if the designer is not sensitive to issues of legibility and readability. FIGURE 1.7. Univers “U”. Univers, a type family designed by Adrian Frutiger and released for commercial use in 1954, is com- posed of twenty-one fonts that together offer a wide range of weights, widths and slopes that allows a text to be organized so that its form is visually coherent and easily read. FIGURE 1.8. Bell Centennial: Technology-specific typefaces. AT&T commissioned Bell Centennial, a typeface designed at a very small size, for telephone directory use, in order to solve an indus- trial problem created by changing typesetting and printing tech- nologies. The resulting type family designed for maximum legibil- ity, readability and spatial efficiency provided the user with a clear information hierarchy. It reduced paper use and directory assis- tance calls. Here, Bell Centennial is shown at six point, the size at which it was intended to function. might seem to be an insignificant issue to a non-designer, it af- fects overall usability. A clear understanding of the concepts and principles that affect legibility and readability is crucial to determining effective typography.
- 32. HOW THE HUMAN EYE SEES, AND THEN READS Herbert Spencer (1969) in The Visible Word, a publication with an objective of introducing and uniting those who re- search legibility with those who work with typography, pre- sented that the eye uses both outline word shapes and their internal patterns to move along a text line and steps and jumps as it groups text to form comprehensible phrases of information. This motion of the eye during reading is known as “saccadic movement.” Sometimes during this process, the eye regresses and returns to what has been read. Optimal ty- pography allows for fewer backward movements. Spencer ar- gues that possessing a mastery of reading mechanics is im- portant to a mastery of content. Typeface selection directly affects this skill, making it easier or more difficult for the eye to group, read, and understand information (Fig. 1.11, 1.12, & 1.13). TYPEFACE SIZE AND SELECTION Type size is given in points, a measuring system unique to typography. In digital typesetting systems, a point equals 1/72 of an inch. Type size cannot be determined by physically mea- suring a letterform because when type existed solely in metal, the technology in which it was first used, size was measured by the height of the metal block on which a letter sat. This is one of the reasons why the same letter repeatedly set in differing typefaces at the same point size appears dissimilar when com- pared. Lowercase letters set in the same point size with differ- ing typefaces can appear larger or smaller in comparison to each other due to variations in x-height. Other variables such as stroke weight, letter width, and ascender and descender length influence size perception and help make some type- faces more or less readable and legible than others. Type size is also dependent on the resolution offered by output and view- ing devices, color usage, context, and other design issues. It is crucial to understand not only the characteristics of a type- face but also usage context and application environment when selecting a typeface. Serif and sans serif. Serif and sans serifs are general cat- egories used for classifying type. Serif refers to a typeface with serifs, the short strokes that project off the end of letter strokes, as opposed to sans serif, a typeface without serifs. It is debat- able whether serif typefaces, conventionally used for setting text in print, are more readable than sans serif typefaces, which have an even stroke weight and more open counters that have proven useful for setting text for on-screen reading. And, while sans serif is considered easier to read on screen, serifs can be made equally legible if the appropriate typeface, size, and color is specified. Some designers think that, in print, serifs aid in character recog- nition and readability; they help differentiate individual letters creating horizontal lines for the eye to follow. This has not been proven conclusively. Other designers hold the view that “we read best what we read most.” It’s likely that this discussion will con- tinue. Recent technological developments that subdivide a pixel into red, green, and blue elements on LCD screens have resulted in new technologies that create a better immersive environment 1. Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces • 9 FIGURE 1.9. Bell Centennial: Technology-specific typefaces. Bell Centennial’s forms were opened to increase legibility and readability. Curved strokes were straightened and the horizontal and vertical juncture were notched so that they did not clog with ink when printed. Select letterforms shown at 32 point for Bell Centennial (bottom) and Helvetica (top) illustrate this. FIGURE 1.10. Pixel Font. Pixel fonts are screen fonts designed specifically for use with or as on-screen navigational elements. Their block-like forms are the result of working with the actual pixels themselves. FIGURE 1.11. Now Read This. The phrase, Now Read This, is shown in full, cropped at the bottom, and from the top suggest- ing the importance of outline word shape and internal pattern.
- 33. for online reading. This, in turn, will spark new explorations in ty- pographic form and its presentation. Families of type. Many design students first learn to clas- sify typefaces into five chronological families or organizational groupings popularized by James Craig et al., (2006) in Design- ing with Type: (1) old style, (b) transitional, (c) modern, (d) Egyptian, and (e) contemporary. Classifying typefaces into these families makes it easier to understand the differences and similarities in structure and fitness. Like anything else, type de- sign does not happen in isolation. These categories, as with those of many other classification systems, are formed around historical junctures in which the overall design of letterforms shifted dramatically in response to technological, political, cul- tural, aesthetic, and economic concerns. Typefaces within each set have passed through the tenures of metal, photocomposi- tion, and been adapted for digital technologies. Many of the problems solved through these older forms have proven inspi- rational to contemporary type designers who, as their prede- cessors did, continue to explore new forms for new purposes. Verdana, a sans serif screen font designed by Matthew Carter, whose roots lie in the Industrial Revolution, was commissioned by Microsoft and released in 1996. Its form, which uses a visu- ally even stroke with wide counters, helped signal a new soft- ware release. Verdana’s members consist of Roman, italic, bold, and bold italic. It has two peers that use nonLatin alphabets: Verdana Greek and Verdana Cyrillic. Verdana is related to Tahoma, a condensed variation of Verdana designed for use in situations that require more information to fit in less space— such as with dialog boxes and menus; and Nina, a spatially effi- cient sans serif designed for situations that require more infor- mation to fit in even less space—such as with small handheld devices. John Berry (2004), who writes and consults extensively on typographic matters, said in Now Read This that Meiryo, Ver- dana’s daughter, evolved partially as a response to technologies that enhance photometric resolution permitting more complex writing systems such as scripts to be optimally read on screen, and a demand for a Japanese type that weaves the character sets of Kanji, Kana, Katakana and Romanji together, fashioning a favorable reading environment for screen and print. Meiryo, too, has Greek and Cyrillic companions. That one family has siblings and offspring, manufactured around a variety of alphabets and writing systems, speaks in part to the economic and political concerns of an international corporation that must respond to the demands of different cultural markets as much as it does to the need for multilingual communication (Fig. 1.14). 10 • WATZMAN AND RE FIGURE 1.12. Anatomy of a letter. The typographic terms defined and illustrated above are used by designers in discussing principles that affect the legibility of type and overall quality of the communication. FIGURE 1.13. Hqx Illustration. The x-height of a typeface (based on the actual height of a lower-case x) is a key characteristic when deciding the visual size of a typeface, particularly when readability is critical. While the above typefaces are the same point size, some seem larger (e.g., Helvetica) and easier to read than others (e.g., Serifa).
- 34. VARIATIONS IN LETTERFORMS Variations in Stress Early type designers mimicked scribal letterforms because they knew and understood these forms. Old-style typefaces have a diagonal stress, a backwards slant—a visual remnant of the pen—that distributes weight through the thin part of the letterform. Over time, the stress traveled several degrees to the right as seen in transitional typefaces. With modern typefaces, the stress becomes rigidly vertical. Egyptians such as Century Schoolbook have a slight diagonal stress; other Egyptians with a stronger slab serif such as Serifa have no stress. Contemporary typefaces have no noticeable stress. Variation in Thick and Thin The degree of contrast between the thick and thin strokes of the letters can vary. Old style typefaces have little contrast in strokes. This contrast increases in transitional faces. Extreme stroke con- trast is a dominant characteristic of modern typefaces. Egyptian typefaces return to less contrast. Contemporary typefaces have no perceptible thick and thin strokes. Variations in Serifs Serifs differ in weight and bracket, which is the shape created by the serif joining the vertical stroke of the letter. Old-style type- faces have heavy concave serifs with thickset brackets. The meticulous serifs of modern typefaces are refined and thin and without brackets. Many Egyptians have heavy, straight serifs with little or no bracket. Sans serifs are considered contemporary typefaces (Fig. 1.15). TYPOGRAPHIC GUIDELINES Combining Typefaces Sans serif and serif typefaces can be effectively combined if changes are limited to prevent visual chaos. The key is to ensure that the result respects the content and reinforces the informa- tion hierarchy and overall design goals. When combining type- faces, decide whether harmony or contrast is important. Gener- ally, do not use more than two different type families in a document. Remember, at a minimum, a type family offers a Ro- man, italic, bold, and bold italic. Consider the pattern and tex- ture that the x-heights and stroke weights weave when com- bined. Excellent typography does not impede the user and the information. Too many typefaces jar and confuse the reader, create visual intrusions, and slow the reading process. Contrast in Weight (Boldness) Combining two classic typefaces with a strong differential fac- tor such as Helvetica Extra Bold with Times New Roman can add useful contrast. Be wary of combining intricate typefaces such as Gill Sans Bold and Souvenir, which have structures that may not create compatible reading environments. Too much contrast and visual complexity can be detrimental. Output Device and Viewing Environment The quality of publishing technologies and viewing environ- ment vary greatly—laser printer versus video versus electronic 1. Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces • 11 FIGURE 1.14. Type Classification. These five A’s are representa- tive of typographic style from the 1600s to present day, reflecting changes in tools, fashion and current events. Ultimately, choice of output media should determine typeface selection, given details such as stress, the thick and thin parts of letterforms, neg- ative space, viewing environment, output resolution, etc. FIGURE 1.15. Serif Versus Sans Serif. The serif typeface Cen- tury above versus the san serif typeface Univers, below.Under- standing a typeface’s physical characteristics and how it per- forms in different environments is important. Set a paragraph of text in both a serif and sans serif with exactly the same line length, size and spacing and compare the differences on screen and on paper.
- 35. media, etc. In choosing a typeface, its style, size, spacing, and leading, think about the final output medium, and examine this technology’s effect on legibility. Low-quality monitors and poor lighting have a major impact: serifs sometimes disappear, let- ters in small bold type fill in and colored type may disappear altogether. Letter Spacing and Word Spacing While the spaces within and between letterforms and words are determined by a type designer in order to set a rhythm that reads well, this spacing can be altered or kerned. However, be careful! When letter spacing is too tight, the letters are hard to distinguish from each other and legibility decreases. When let- ter spacing is too wide, letter groups are not easily recognized. Spencer argues that optimal letter spacing is inconspicuous, the user can read quickly and easily and understand content. Tight word spacing makes distinguishing individual words difficult. When word spacing is too wide, word groups fall apart. When there is greater space between words than there is between lines, the reader’s eye naturally falls to the closest word, which may be below instead of across the line. This frequently occurs with low-resolution or low-cost products. Line Spacing/Leading Leading is the distance measured in points between the baseline of one line of text and the baseline of the text line below it. As- cender and descender length influences how closely lines of type can be stacked. The space between lines of text, or leading, should increase in relation to type size. This adjustment is visual not mathematical. Overall legibility may be improved by in- creasing the leading in relation to column width. Line Length/Column Width The correct line length is just long enough for the eye to sweep across without losing its place and easily drop down to continue reading the following lines. A good rule of thumb is that a line of average length contain between 39 and 52 characters. Justified vs. Ragged Right (Flush Left) A justified text column can leave uneven word spacing, creat- ing rivers, or vertical white spaces, within the paragraph. Rivers cause the eye to move vertically down the page, natu- rally connecting with what is closest in proximity, instead of moving easily across the line. It is very difficult to prevent rivers in justified text columns without spending considerable effort. Unless the type is manually set or adjusted, which is a time- consuming activity, it’s better to use type that is set flush left, ragged right (Fig. 1.16). Highlighting with Type Content can be highlighted by modifying type weight, slope, or case. Weight can be shifted from Roman to bold or extra bold. Slope can be altered from Roman to italic. Be mindful that italics are appropriate for short phrases and not long text passages. The italic appears lighter and smaller on the page when com- pared with its companion Roman and its complex forms are more difficult to read. Case can change from upper and lower- case to all capitals or small caps. Using all caps for extended text passages impedes readability since word outlines are rectangu- lar and harder for the eye to differentiate. Limited shape and size cues are available to help differentiate between letters, words, and sentences to create meaning. Use only one high- lighting technique for emphasis. Decorative Typefaces Decorative typefaces are of limited use for body text, because their irregular design lessens legibility and should be used in headlines with caution. Because they are essentially typographic fashion statements, decorative typefaces can either reinforce or distract from the overall message or brand of a particular product or organization. Black on White vs. White on Black and Dark on Light Background vs. Light on Dark Background Positive and negative type. White on black (or light on a dark background) is generally regarded as less legible and much more difficult to read over large areas. To the eye, white letters on a black background appear smaller than their re- versed equivalent. The amount of contrast between the color of type and the background is an especially important factor for 12 • WATZMAN AND RE FIGURE 1.16. With current technology, the difference between a justified text column and ragged right text column can make a huge difference in readability. In a poorly justified column, spaces within a justified line connect vertically down the page, distract- ing the eye from easily reading across a line of text.
- 36. online communication. Color adds exponential levels of complex- ity to these considerations since displays are inconsistent from one situation to another (Fig. 1.17 & Fig. 1.18). (Dair, 1967) DESIGN PRINCIPLES: PAGE DESIGN Typography deals with legibility and page design focuses on read- ability, the ability to read and comprehend information. Can the user find what is needed on the page? The two important functions of page design are motivation and accessibility. A well-designed page is inviting, drawing the eye into the information. Users are motivated to accept the invitation. An effective page design ensures that the reader continues by increasing the ease of understanding and accessibility of the information. (For purposes of simplicity, the term page design is used interchangeably to mean page, screen, and document design.) Motivation and accessibility are accom- plished by providing the reader with ways to quickly understand the information hierarchy. At a glance, the page design should re- veal easy navigation and clear, intuitive paths to discovering addi- tional details and information. This is called “visual mapping.” A page, site, or product visually mapped for easy navigation has, • an underlying visual structure or grid, organizational land- marks, graphic cues and other reader aids (Fig. 1.19) • distinctly differentiated information types • clearly structured examples, procedures, and reference tools • well-captioned and annotated diagrams, matrices, charts, and graphics. This kind of visual structuring helps the reader and provides an obvious path through the materials, aids in skimming, gives a conceptual framework, and prevents a feeling of informa- tion overload. A table of contents is a simple visual map. It quickly provides a general overview of the order and some details about the structure and content. What it does not reveal, however, are pri- orities. Site maps or other diagrams provide this type of infor- mation as well. Building the Design of a Page Effective visual mapping is apparent in the sequence shown be- low that demonstrates the evolution of an accessible page from plain text. As design elements are added, the page becomes inviting to read and content becomes attainable. The final ex- ample organizes the content into units of information using line spacing and vertical thresholds or queues. Differentiation in typeface, weight, and scale reinforce structure. Information de- sign techniques, drawn from cognitive science, can be used to improve communication effectiveness and performance. Gray page or screen. Raw text interests few readers. When information is presented as a uniform, undifferentiated mass, it is difficult and irritating to use and easy to ignore (Fig. 1.20). Chunking. Structure the visual field by breaking like kinds of information into manageable groups according to subject matter. Chunks in close proximity are read as related. Graphic devices such as rules and line spaces are used to reinforce a grouping and separate chunks (Fig. 1.21). Queuing. Order information chunks visually to reflect the content hierarchy by addressing the user’s requirements of sub- ject matter, order, and importance (Fig. 1.22). Filtering. Simplify linguistic and visual order by filtering out unnecessary background noise, which interferes with the in- formation being transmitted. Filtering builds a sense of layers of information by using color, visual cues and symbols, and bul- leted lists and headers to make a page effective for a range of users and uses (Fig. 1.23). Mixing modes. People learn through different cognitive modes or styles. Some users favor text, others may prefer illus- trations, photos, diagrams, or formulas. To suit these varied learning preferences, information must be translated into sev- eral different modes that are then carefully presented to rein- force content and organization (Fig. 1.24). 1. Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces • 13 FIGURE 1.17. Black on White vs. White on Black. The x-height of a typeface (based on the actual height of a lowercase x) is a key characteristic when deciding the visual size of a typeface, particularly when readability is critical. While the above typefaces are the same point size, some seem larger (e.g., Helvetica) and easier to read than others (e.g., Serifa).Letterforms often appear as black/dark shapes on white/light backgrounds. The eye also reads the reverse, or negative shape around a letterform, which can create a shape that visually distracts and makes text diffi- cult to read.Try setting a paragraph of type black on white background, then set the same exact paragraph with white type on a black background. You can also try this same exercise with a dark color on a light background, and then try the reverse. You will notice that the greater the contrast (e.g. white type on black) the harder it is to read in large amounts.
- 37. 14 • WATZMAN AND RE FIGURE 1.21. Chunking. FIGURE 1.22. Queuing. FIGURE 1.23. Filtering. FIGURE 1.18. Typographic Contrasts. This figure, which builds on the relationships of contrasts discussed and illustrated in Design with Type by Carl Dair (1967), shows typographic contrasts that can be easily used to build information heirarchies. FIGURE 1.19. Grid. The lines that appear in this rectangle pro- vide an understanding of what the grid, or underlying structure, is of this page. The grid is used as a guide to create more pages that use similar relationships for placement and alignments. It is a point of departure for one who understands the system, to cre- ate variations, be a bit more playful, yet still provide a consis- tent “feel” to the user. FIGURE 1.20. Gray page or screen.
- 38. Abstracting. The individual page or screen is a microcosm of the complete book, site, or product. The result is a complete codified system of graphic standards, which is effective for both the reader and the producer. Abstracting builds a system of stan- dards that simplifies text organization, creates consistent ap- proaches to preprocessing information, and establishes a cus- tomized look for an organization’s products (Fig. 1.25). Other Page Design Techniques White space. White space (or empty space) is an under- utilized but extremely effective design tool. It visually opens up a page, provides focus, helps group like kinds of information, provides resting points for the reader’s eye, and creates the per- ception of simplicity and ease of use. The grid. A grid is a controlled system of organization that allows for the distribution of visual elements in an intelligible or- der. A grid, as part of an overall design system, provides an un- derlying structure that determines the horizontal placement of columns and the vertical placement of headlines, text, graph- ics, and other artwork. A grid is built on a series of consistent relationships, align- ments, and spatial organizations. It acts as a blueprint that can be repeatedly used to create sequential pages, which are related but respond to different content. When the grid system is un- derstood, it forms the basis for consistent application and ex- tension of the design by others who also understand the inten- tion of the system. Every strong design uses an underlying structure or grid to create a consistent look and feel to any form of visual communication. An analogy can be created between the horizontal and vertical lines that compose a grid used on a page and the metal beams that systematically make up the over- all supporting structure of a high-rise building. While the struc- tural supports in a building are consistent from floor to floor, the configuration of the space within each individual floor is based on each occupant’s needs. The same holds true with the grid on a page. An important tool that improves usability, a grid enables a user to navigate a page quickly and easily. A grid spec- ifies placement for all visual elements. The user anticipates where a button will appear or how help is accessed. Product or program usefulness and ultimately success are greatly increased through the consistency offered by a grid. Field of vision. Field of vision refers to what a user can see on a page with little or no eye movement; it is the main area where the eye rests to view most of the page. A good design places key elements in the primary field of vision, reflecting and reinforcing the information hierarchy. Size, contrast, grouping, relationships, and movement are tools that create and reinforce field of vision. The user first sees what is visually strongest, not necessarily what is largest or highest. This is particularly true for online information due to the limitations of page real estate and dense information environments. These concepts, as well as the strength of peripheral vision, can be experienced when viewing a page that has a banner ad- vertisement or moving graphic. It is virtually impossible to ignore or focus attention on the primary field of vision when there is winking and blinking else- where. In fact, superfluous visual devices reduce information’s value by distracting and disturbing the user’s desire and ability to focus, read and understand. Proximity. This concept applies to the placement of vi- sual elements physically close to each other so that it is under- stood that these are related elements. 1. Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces • 15 FIGURE 1.24. Mixing Modes. FIGURE 1.25. Abstracting.
- 39. The illusion of depth. Though the online world exists in two-dimensions, contrast can be used to create the illusion of depth. Contrasts created through size, weight, structure, direc- tion, color, texture, and layering can form cues that reinforce hi- erarchy by giving the illusion that an element is on top of or in front of another. CHARTS, DIAGRAMS, GRAPHICS, AND ICONS The goal of any visual device is to provide the fastest, most effi- cient path to understanding ideas and to make these ideas clear and compelling. Useful, effective graphics act like visual short- hand, particularly important when the real estate of the page is limited (Fig. 1.26). A good visual eliminates the need for text and communicates across cultures. A bad graphic with an un- clear meaning that must be reinforced by a long caption can be worse than none at all. The old cliché, a picture is worth a thou- sand words, is true only if the picture is efficient and effective. In stressful or difficult situations, people do not have time to read or the ability to focus on text and/or complex visuals. Though more difficult to achieve, brevity and simplicity in such cases have greater value. Product users prefer well-designed charts, diagrams, and illustrations that quickly and clearly communicate complex ideas and information. Studies show that visual images are retained long after the reader is finished. Designed correctly, visual images can make information memorable and effective. At a minimum, a powerful illustration or graphic can often improve performance simply because it increases user motivation. Visuals are robust communication tools used to (a) visualize and ana- lyze data; (b) present new or abstract concepts; (c) make phys- ical and technical concepts invisible to the eye; and (d) sum- marize information efficiently and effectively. Visuals explain and reinforce concepts, relationships and data, making them tangi- ble. Photographs, charts, illustrations, icons, or diagrams be- come thinking tools. The information is clarified, made easier to evaluate, and has greater impact. Visuals are a very effective way to communicate a message, but choosing the appropriate pre- sentation for a concept is critical to the user’s ability to effec- tively comprehend a message. Understanding the limitations of the display medium is crucial to creating a successful visual. Tables, Charts, Diagrams These three types of graphics are discussed in order of com- plexity. Tables are the least difficult to create, charts the second most difficult, and diagrams the third. Illustrations, graphics, and other images and visuals are the most complex, require more conceptual and visual sophistication, and may require a consultant to create. When is one more appropriate than the other? Determining which format is the most effective is illus- trated in Fig. 1.27. In addition to this list, it is important to re- member that visual cues such as color, shading, texture, lines, and boxes should be considered redundant cues and only used to provide additional emphasis to support the concept. Icons and Visual Cues Icons and other visual cues are a form of visual shorthand, which helps users locate and remember information. Develop- ing an easily understood style that is consistent with the overall program style is not easy. Choose a style that is simple and con- sistently reinforced throughout a product. More complex and unique symbols and icons can be used if usage takes place over a longer period, allowing product familiarity and learning to take place. The MasterCard logo consists of two intersecting circles. After many years of reinforcement, most people imme- diately recognize it without accompanying text or other expla- nation. It is very difficult to create an icon that, without expla- nation, communicates a concept across cultures. For example, the use of a freestanding rectangular box with an open door flap indicates mailbox or in-box. This kind of mailbox is rarely used today and was never used in Europe where mail is placed in slots or upright boxes. Even the concept of mail delivery can be considered strange. This is a case where meaning had to be learned. Although simple ideas presented as icons are appro- priate, a program with many complex concepts using colloquial images can make using a program agonizing for users from other cultures. There is an important difference between an icon and an illustration, though the two concepts are often con- fused. If an icon must be labeled, it is really an illustration. The icon’s value as visual shorthand is lost. Better to use a word or short phrase rather than word and image when screen space is at a minimum. A successful icon is memorable with minimal reinforcement. If after viewing an icon several times a user cannot remember its meaning, then the icon is valueless and should be eliminated. Icon sets should share a similarity of style (businesslike or play- ful) and possess formal presentation properties consistent with the overall program or product to which they belong (Fig. 1.28). 16 • WATZMAN AND RE FIGURE 1.26. Zen calligraphy is an example of the historically close relationship between word and image. The Zen master Hakuin (1768–1865) created this symbol to mean “dead”, with additional notes saying “Whenever anyone understands this, then he is out of danger”.
- 40. Illustrations and Photographs As technology improves, the only limit placed on the use of complex images will be by the designer. The most important consideration is appropriateness of the image for the intended audience. Do not use cartoons for a company brochure, or a low-resolution photograph of a control panel when a line illus- tration is more effective. While understanding the meaning and implications of illus- trations and photographs is no easy task, there are guidelines for making choices. A photograph can easily represent an exist- ing object, but issues related to resolution and cross-media pub- lishing can make it unintelligible. If a photograph can be repro- duced with proper resolution, cropping and contrast, and emphasize a required detail, then photography is a good choice. A photograph can provide orientation and contextual cues that are more difficult to achieve in an illustration. No matter how simplified or cropped to focus attention, a photograph’s repro- duction quality is often unpredictable. In this situation, a tech- nical illustration such as a line drawing is more effective. An ob- vious advantage of illustration is that it can present abstract concepts or objects that do not yet exist, or that may never ex- ist. Another benefit is the ability to focus the viewer’s attention on detail. For example, a line drawing can place attention on a specific machine part by changing line weight. To achieve a sim- ilar result in a photograph adds time, complicates the image, and possibly never simplifies the explanation. Regardless of the method used to create a visual explanation, it must clarify and reinforce content. If the purpose of the image 1. Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces • 17 FIGURE 1.27. FIGURE 1.28. AIGA/DOT Icons. These six icons, all from the same set, were developed by the American Institute of Graphic Arts and the U.S. Department of Transportation for use in sig- nage. From upper left to lower right: restaurant, no smoking, trash, stairway leading up, information and taxi.
- 41. is to explain where to locate a piece of equipment, then an overview of the equipment in the environment is appropriate. If the goal is to show an aspect, such as a button location, then the illustration should only focus attention on that aspect. An image can be cropped to focus attention on what is being explained; it depends on the goal of the photograph or illustration. Situations exist in which it is more effective to use a combi- nation of photography and illustration than either alone. For ex- ample, a photograph of an object in its usage environment con- veys more information than that of the object itself. If the objective is to show the location of a part of that object, then a line drawing in close proximity to or inset in the photograph is more useful than a photograph or illustration alone. Guidelines Visuals should reinforce the message. Don’t assume that the audience understands how a visual reinforces the ar- gument (Fig. 1.29). A clear and concise argument must still be made that helps shorten the process of comprehension and learning and causes the user to say, “Aha, that’s how it works together!” Visuals should, • clarify complex ideas • reinforce concepts • help the user understand relationships Create a consistent visual language. Create a consis- tent visual language that works within the entire communica- tion system. Graphics attract attention. When the user sees a screen, the eye automatically jumps to a visual, regardless of the fact that it may interrupt reading. Graphics should conform to all elements on a page. Unharmonious graphics impede com- prehension by increasing the effort needed to understand the relationship between the text and the visual. Consider both function and style. It is important to consider function versus decoration. Albeit wonderful to see an artistically illustrated tax form, is it appropriate to the content or image of both the message and organization it represents? The best graphic is appropriate to the context of the communi- cation and reinforces and validates the message (Fig. 1.30). Focus on quality vs. quantity. Graphics are only effec- tive if they are carefully planned, executed, and used sparingly. A well-considered diagram with a concise caption is more ef- fective than several poorly thought-out diagrams that require long explanations. Work with a professional. Many individuals within an organization can write an internal report but a writer or public relations firm is usually commissioned to find the most effective, relevant, and interesting way to communicate a public message such as presented in an annual report or company brochure. Similarly, a designer or visual communications firm should be retained to oversee the development of user interfaces, graphics, 18 • WATZMAN AND RE FIGURE 1.29. Thirty centuries of development separate the Chinese ancient characters on the left from the modern writing on the right. The meaning of the characters is (from top to bot- tom): sun, mountain, tree, middle, field, frontier, door. FIGURE 1.30. It is obvious which of the above examples com- municates an important message most quickly. The goal for the designer is to communicate the message in the most direct way, so that the user can understand and make decisions based on that information. Obviously some situations are more critical than others, but it is no less important to begin design with con- sideration of the needs of users.
- 42. and other visual elements that impact the look and feel and ul- timately the overall success of a program. Build a library to create visual consistency, organi- zational identity, and a streamlined process. Because graphics require a professional, they can be very time consuming and expensive to create. Once a visual language and style are es- tablished, start building a graphics library. If concepts are re- peatedly illustrated, streamline the development process by col- lecting the supporting illustrations and making them available for reuse. An organizational style can be created for these visual explanations. Through repetition, users can learn to associate a style and method of explanation with an organization, which aids in understanding and reinforces product brand and identity. Reinforce shared meaning (common visual language). A serious issue to consider when creating graphics, particularly conceptual diagrams, is shared meaning, whether it be across an organization or the globe. Individuals can interpret the same dia- gram in a variety of ways based on backgrounds and experiences. Truly effective graphics require extra time and effort, but the payoff is tremendous. Graphics are invaluable tools for promot- ing additional learning and action because they (a) reinforce the message, (b) increase information retention, and (c) shorten comprehension time. COLOR Though color should be considered a reinforcing, or redundant, visual cue, it is by far the most strongly emotional element in visual communication. Color evokes immediate and forceful re- sponses, both emotional and informational. Because color is a shared human experience, it is symbolic. And like fashion, the perception of color changes over time. In all communication, color can be used to trigger certain reactions or define a style. For example, in Western business culture, dark colors such as navy are generally considered conservative, while paler colors such as pink are regarded as feminine. In other cultures, these color choices have an entirely different meaning. The appropriate use of color can make it easier for users to absorb large amounts of information and differentiate informa- tion types and hierarchies. Research on the effects of color in advertising show that ads using one spot of color are noticed 200% more often than black-and-white ads, while full-color ads produce a 500% increase in interest. Color is often used to: • show qualitative differences • act as a guide through information • attract attention/highlight key data • indicate quantitative changes • depict physical objects accurately All in all, color is an immensely powerful tool. Like the tools of typography and page design, it can easily be misused. Re- search shows that while one color, well used, can increase com- munication effectiveness, speed, accuracy, and retention, mul- tiple colors when poorly used actually decrease effectiveness. Because it is readily available, it is very tempting to apply color in superficial ways. For color to be effective, it should be used as an integral part of the design program, to reinforce meaning and not simply as decoration. The choice of color—while ulti- mately based on individual choice—should follow and rein- force content as well as function. Basic Principles of Color Additive primaries. The entire spectrum of light is made up of red, green, and blue light, each representing a third of the spectrum. These three colors are known as “additive pri- maries,” and all colors are made up of varying amounts of them. When all three are combined, they produce white light. Subtractive primaries. If you add and subtract the three primaries, cyan, yellow, and magenta are produced. These are called “subtractive primaries.” Green Blue – Red Cyan Red Blue – Green Magenta Red Green – Blue Yellow Color on a computer display is created by using different combinations of red, green, and blue light. In print, colors are created with pigments rather than light. All pigments are made up of varying amounts of the subtractive primaries. The three at- tributes of color are, 1. hue—the actual color 2. saturation—the intensity of the color 3. value—includes lightness and brightness “Lightness” refers to how light or dark a color appears. “Bright- ness” is often used interchangeably with lightness; however, light- ness depends on the color of the object itself, and brightness de- pends on the amount of light illuminating the object. How to Use Color Less is more . . . useful and understandable. Just as you can overload a page or screen with too many typefaces, you can have too many colors. Given the unpredictability of color dis- plays, users, and viewing situations, the choice can get very com- plicated. Color is often best used to highlight key information. As a general rule, use no more than three colors for primary infor- mation. An example is the use of black, red, and gray—black and red for contrasting information, gray for secondary. When think- ing about color online, one must remember that each display will output color in a different way. Add to that the lighting situation and a variety of users. All these factors affect color choice. Create a color logic; use color coding. Use a color scheme that reinforces the hierarchy of information. Don’t mis- cue the audience by using different colors for the same ele- ments. Whenever possible, try to use colors that work with the 1. Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces • 19
- 43. project identity or established visual language. Create a color code that is easily understood by the user and reinforces the information. Create a palette of compatible colors. Harmonious color is created by using a monochromatic color scheme or by using differing intensities of the same hue. However, make them different enough to be easily recognized and simple enough to be easily reproduced, no matter what medium you are using. Use complementary colors with extreme caution. These are colors that lie opposite each other on the color wheel. Let one dominate and use the other for accents. Never place them next to each other because the edges where they meet will vibrate. Though this was the goal of pop art in the 1960s, it makes pages impossible to read. One must check each particu- lar display, as the calibration of monitors can unexpectedly cause this to happen. Decisions regarding color in typography are critical. Colored type appears smaller to the human eye than the same type in black. This is important to consider when designing user interfaces. One must also consider the “smear” effect on typog- raphy in displays, based on the color chosen and interaction with colors around it. Additionally, quality and calibration of dis- plays impact characteristics of color online. Consider the viewing medium. The same color looks different when viewed on different viewing media such as a computer display, an LCD projector, color laser printer versus dot-matrix output, glossy versus dull paper. Context is everything. Though printed color is very fa- miliar and more controllable, projected color is inconsistent and varies depending on such things as lighting, size of the color area, size and quantity of colored elements, lighting, and output device. One must check all output/viewing possibilities to insure that a color is readable as well as legible, and not depend on cross-media specification for insuring consistency. What might look good on a laptop may not be readable when projected in a room for hundreds of people to view, and may look com- pletely different when printed in a corporate brochure. The amount of color will affect how it is viewed as well as the best background choice. A blue headline is very readable on a white background, but if that background becomes a color, then read- ability can be reduced dramatically, depending on how it gets presented on each particular display. Contrast is critical when making color choices. Contrast is the range of tones between the darkest and the light- est elements, whether one is considering black and white or color. The desired contrast between what is being “read” (this includes graphics, photographs, etc.) must be clearly and easily differentiated from the background it is presented against. If there is not enough contrast (of color, size, resolution, etc.), it will be difficult or impossible to read. This is particularly a prob- lem with online displays, as the designer has no control of qual- ity of the output display. Quantity affects perception. A small amount of color will be perceived differently than the same color used in a large quantity. In the smaller area, the color will appear darker; in the larger area, the color will appear lighter and brighter. Use color as a redundant cue when possible. At least 9% of the population, mostly male, is color-deficient to some degree, so it is generally not a good idea to call out warning points only through color. With a combination of color and a dif- ferent typeface, etc., you won’t leave anyone in the dark. We live in a global world, so when in Rome. . . Re- member that different colors have different connotations within various cultures, religions, professions, etc. For example, in the United States on February 14th, red means love, but in Korea, red means death, and in China, red is used in weddings and symbolizes good luck and fortune. In many other countries, red means revolution. To a competitor, red means first place, and to an accountant, red means a negative balance. To a motorist, red means stop, and in emergencies, a red cross means med- ical help (Fig. 1.31). CREATING A SYSTEM: GRAPHIC STANDARDS With the explosion of new publishing media in a global market- place, the need for guidelines for developing and producing consistent, quality communication has taken on a new urgency. New technologies make it easy to generate images, offering a wealth of options for experienced and inexperienced publishers alike. The danger lies in creating visual chaos, with every element demanding attention beyond the point of sensory overload. With new tools, chaos can happen faster, at a lower cost, and with greater distribution. A graphic standards manual prevents this confusion. A graphic standards manual is the physical manifestation of an identity system. The design historian and educator Philip Meggs (1998) writes in A History of Graphic Design that identity systems arose in the 1950s with the rise of multinational corpo- rations that began to recognize the value and power found in presenting a cohesive visual image globally. A quality-control agent, a standards manual allows an organization to document guidelines and provide tools for organizing and structuring communications and reinforcing brand identity to diverse in- ternal and external audiences. It explains the methodology be- hind the design, specifies written and visual language, produc- tion materials, and methods, and gives examples of how to and not to use the identity system so that standards can be imple- mented by different people, in different places, at different times. A standards manual supports expansion by explaining how to maintain a consistent brand and organizational look and feel as new products, features, and technology are introduced. A graphic standards system provides • Built-in quality: The system ensures that the correct organi- zation/product image is communicated to all audiences. Standards promote consistency in handling information across product lines, divisions, projects, etc. 20 • WATZMAN AND RE
- 44. 21 FIGURE 1.31. Trying Examples in Your Context. Since color is not available in this particular edi- tion, try your own experiment. Take a look at this illustration, and recreate a paragraph of text, with the background graded from 100% to 0%, choosing one color for the background. Then set lines of type in a variety of typefaces and sizes, to see where it becomes legible or totally impos- sible to read. The important thing to remember is to test out whatever choices you make within the particular context and parameters, including viewing/projecting devices. Such things as light- ing, projection distance, and users’ physiological constraints can make all the difference as to whether something can be read or not.
- 45. • Control over resources: A system provides dramatic manage- rial control over resources that use time, money, and materi- als. Well-developed standards build in flexibility. New com- munications are easily developed without the original designer and in many instances are developed within the or- ganization itself. • Streamlined development process: A graphic standards system helps structure thinking for content, design, and production by providing a guideline of predetermined solutions for com- munication problems. Typical problems are solved in advance or the first time they occur. Most importantly, a graphics stan- dards system encourages the organization as a whole to progress to higher-level issues of communication effectiveness. What does a system cover? Graphic standards histori- cally have been applied to an organization’s logo, stationery, business cards, and other printed materials. As the online por- tion of an organization’s identity dominates, providing for cross- media guidelines is even more critical. Graphic standards are generally communicated to the organization in print and elec- tronic form. Documentation often includes: • Corporate identity manuals: Style guides available in print and online illustrate the application of the standards across the company’s publications and provide specifications for production and expansion. • Templates and guidelines: Templates and guidelines are avail- able in paper and electronic form and are used to develop pages for both environments. • Editorial style guides: Editorial guides determine the use of product/service names, punctuation, spelling, and writing styles. Developing the system. When developing a corporate graphics standards system, consider the global publishing needs of the company, the resources available for producing docu- ments, and the skill level of those in charge of production. To re- sponsibly determine overall needs, a team effort is required. Personnel from areas such as information systems, graphic de- sign, usability, and marketing along with engineers, writers, and users should be involved in the process. This team approach helps build support for, and commitment to, the corporate stan- dards. The development of a comprehensive system follows the information design process of audit, development and implementation. Audit. The audit is a critical step in determining the scope and parameters of an organization’s corporate graphic stan- dards. Specific questions for the audit phase include: • What is the purpose? • Who are the audiences? • What are the differences and similarities between audiences? • Who will do the work? • How long will it take? • What tools will be used? • What is the desired company or product image? Development. Goals for the development phase include: (a) the design of standards that are easy to read, use, and pro- ject a consistent corporate image; (b) design of products that fit within the production parameters of the company. Implementation. The implementation phase must en- sure that the system is accepted and used properly. This re- quires training and support, easy procedures for distributing and updating materials, and a manual explaining how to use the system. The development of standards is in itself an educa- tional process. It requires all participants to be aware of com- munication objectives and what is needed to meet them. As al- ternatives are developed and tested, management has the opportunity to evaluate its company’s purpose, nature, and di- rection as well as its working methods and communication pro- cedures. The process requires commitment and involvement across many departments and levels. The result is an empow- ering of the organization—planting the seeds for growth and in- creased effectiveness. DESIGNING THE EXPERIENCE The heart of interface design is to define and create the user’s experience; what it is really like for people facing the monitor, using a cell phone, or an ATM. Though presentation possibilities are expanding day by day, our capacity to understand, use, and integrate new information and technology has not grown at the same rate. Making the most appropriate media choices, whether image, animation, or sound, to explain complex ideas to widely varied audiences is no easy task. The most important guideline is to understand that there are no rules, only guide- lines. It is a generalization to say that a visual principle works a certain way because any change in context changes the appli- cation of the principle. For example, in the early days of the soft- ware industry, research showed that a specific blue worked well as a background color. Now, however, depending on monitor calibration, as well as environmental lighting, that blue could be a disaster. In fact, that blue can often vibrate if type in par- ticular colors is placed on it. Of course, it depends on the type quantity, size, weight, viewing situation, etc. Sound complex? For this reason, it’s important to understand the principles, test the ideas, and then test results on every output device that will be used. Putting known guidelines together with experience continually gathered from the field allows the designer to de- velop a clear understanding of what works well in a well-defined environment and user situation. The next key guideline is to keep it simple. Although many tools are available, there is only one goal: to clearly communicate ideas. The designer must al- ways ask, “What is the most efficient and effective way to com- municate this idea?” A good illustration might work better (and take less bandwidth) than an animated sequence. Text set in a simple bold headline might allow the user to read the page more efficiently than text placed in a banner moving across the top of a page that constantly draws the eye upward. Animated icons are entertaining, but are they appropriate or necessary for serious financial information? It’s tempting to use new tools. The best tip is to use a tool only if it can explain an idea better 22 • WATZMAN AND RE
- 46. than any other tool, enhance an explanation, or illustrate a point that otherwise could not be made as effectively or efficiently. The best design is not noticed; it just works. Products are used to accomplish tasks, not to draw attention to the design. The best test of product success is the ease with which a user can understand and complete a task and move on to the next task. Real estate and online real estate are alike in that they both stress location, location, location! With such a premium on space, and so much to accomplish in so little time, be consid- erate and efficient with online real estate. Use the elements found in a product’s graphic standards ap- propriately. Constantly consider choices and context and review design principles. The following are issues and considerations to continually evaluate when presenting interactive information. Effective and appropriate use of the medium. Tran- sitioning a print document to an online environment requires rethinking how the document is presented. Viewing and navi- gating through online information requires radically different design considerations and methods. Users do not necessarily view the information in a linear way, in a specific order, or time- frame. Interactive media viewed on computer screens have quite different characteristics and potential, particularly as in- formation crosses platforms, resolutions, and environments. The rich medium of print allows a book—a product—to be held, viewed, and read in a sequence determined by the user. The physicality of a book provides sensory cues that are not present on a two-dimensional monitor. Interface designers must find ways to provide equivalent cues that encourage people to handle products comfortably and with confidence. The element of time. The element of time is the critical difference between static and interactive media. The sense of in- teraction with a product impacts the user’s perception of useful- ness and quality. Animated cues such as blinking cursors and other implied structural elements like handles around selected areas be- come powerful navigational tools if intuitively understood and predictably applied. Consider how the product will be used. Will the user sit down and calmly use the product or will he or she panic and fumble with a keypad? Will the task be completed at one time or at intervals over hours, days, months, and years? The ele- ment of time contributes to the design criteria and choices. CONSISTENT AND APPROPRIATE VISUAL LANGUAGE A major issue is the unpredictability and vastness of products. Providing way-finding devices that are easy to recognize, un- derstand, and remember, include: • clear and obvious metaphors. • interface elements consistent with the visual style of other program parts, including consistent style for illustrations, icons, graphic elements, and dingbats. • guidelines for navigational aids such as color, typography, and page/screen structure that are consistent with other parts of product support. Navigational Aids Progress through a book is seen and marked in many ways. Bookmarks and turned corners serve as placeholders. Pens act as mnemonic devices highlighting or underlining text. Table of contents and indices reveal content location. A finger marks a passage to be shared with a colleague as a book is cradled. Unlike a book, a digital document or program cannot be seen or touched in its entirety. If a document cannot be held, how is specific location known in relation to overall location? How do users return to or move forward through content? How do users travel through unfamiliar space? Navigational aids provide users with highways, maps, road signs, and landmarks as they move through the online landscape. They enhance discovering and communicate the underlying structure; thereby providing a sense of place so that users know where they are, where they have been, and how to move else- where or return to the beginning. Using or building on already fa- miliar visual elements, such as those found in other products and earlier releases, leverages existing knowledge. Graphic standards support this as well. Consistent use of page layout and grid struc- ture makes it easier to remember how information is organized and where it is placed or zoned. This ensures that whatever visual cues are applied can take advantage of the user’s experience, ul- timately saving time for both the designer and user. Graphics/Icons Visual representations such as site maps, graphics, and icons are effective devices for orienting users within a program. A site map offers an overall product view and shows sections or units of information and how these units are related. In the digital en- vironment, graphics and icons assume the role of contents, in- dexes, and page numbers and can be more effective guides through and around a program than their counterparts in print, because tools such as roll-overs highlight functionality. Creat- ing effective graphics and icons requires that intent and action are defined and designed. Metaphor Prior knowledge makes it easier to learn because it provides a conceptual framework on which information can be associated and expanded. When it was first introduced, the metaphor of a desktop with a filing system for a software interface that orga- nized data in a program was easy to grasp because it built on a known experience. Using familiar visual analogies helps users easily understand and organize new information. Color Color is a free and very seductive design tool once a monitor is purchased. Use it intelligently. A monitor offers limited work- space. Color can replace or reinforce written explanations when meaning is assigned to it and it is applied methodically. A blue background is always utilized in a testing section and a yellow background in a section overview. 1. Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces • 23
- 47. Legibility Legibility is the ability to read information on the page. The page can be a screen, and as such, has special considerations. Color, size, background, movement, viewing environment, light- ing, and resolution play a critical part in legibility. Readability Readable screens demand intelligent visual representations and concise, unambiguous text. Meaning can be implied or inferred by the placement of elements in designated areas or zones re- served for distinct information. This makes optimal use of a lim- ited space and increases comprehension and accessibility. Guidelines Use the analogy of a poster as a guide to design. A home page is the equivalent of an attention-grabbing poster unpredictably placed in uncontrollable locations. Unlike a home page were a mouse-click on a speaker’s name can give bio- graphical information and a click on location can find directions, a poster’s static format restricts the amount and depth of infor- mation that it can offer. In print, information is presented in a fixed order. On the web, information is organized hierarchically in a manner that is radically different. Individual users can access the information offered on a website in a sequence that suits their intents and purposes. Online environments offer little regulation over how and in what order the product is accessed. While designers can make suggestions and guesses, this lack of control requires fundamental differences in information presentation. A well- designed home page, like a well-designed poster, should hint at all topics contained in the site, provide high-level information about these topics, and suggest easy paths to access this infor- mation. If information goes beyond a single screen, its design must visually communicate location through strong visual hints, so that the user investigates beyond what is immediately visible. Imagine the design considerations required for smaller, hand- held, voice-activated devices. Design for the most difficult common denominator. Design the interface in anticipation of a worst-case scenario. If a manager will use a product in a quiet office with a fast con- nection, perfect lighting, and a large monitor, then the prob- lem is different from that of a contractor accessing critical information on a laptop in the field. User profile is often un- known because new technologies define new categories as new opportunities are recognized. Consider the breadth of possibilities. Design from the user’s perspective. Testing, view- ing, and questioning can make the difference of product ac- ceptance or not. Avoid overuse of saturated colors. Saturated colors such as red tend to jump out at the viewer and can be distract- ing and irritating. Red is usually not a good choice for large areas of on-screen color. High impact is dependent on the contrast between background and foreground colors. On a black back- ground, both yellow and white have a higher impact than red. Consider variations in every viewing situation including how these variations affect contrast among page elements and over- all legibility and readability. Consider different users’ levels of skill. Navigational tools should be simple enough for a novice to use, but should not impede an expert. Detailed visual maps and other graphics should be available for those who need them, without hindering an experienced user who wants to bypass an explanation. Be aware of the fatigue factor. Although there is no definitive answer on fatigue caused by looking at a computer screen for long periods of time, it is a central factor to consider. According to Color and the Computer, by H. John Durrett, look- ing at a well-designed computer screen should not cause any more fatigue than reading a book or writing a report. Though some would disagree with this statement, many people spend more time with their computer than a book and no doubt could offer additional opinions on this subject. As interactive media becomes a commodity, the focus will not be on what a program does, but on how it does it. This will make the difference be- tween product acceptance and product failure. Success or fail- ure will be judged by the ease with which a product is used and how easily users perceive its interface. Other differences to consider. There are many dif- ferences that impact how and why interfaces are designed, and many of these differences are discussed in more detail in other chapters. A designer should never forget that physical and men- tal impairments impact an ability to read, comprehend, and use interfaces. Use the “squint test” to check the design. The squint test is a very simple self-test that checks visual hierarchy. Simply squint at the page so that details are out of focus. What is the first, most dominant element on the page? Is this what should be seen first? What has secondary importance? Cognitive psy- chology calls this “visual queuing.” Successful interaction de- sign creates a visual order that the user can easily follow. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES Creating Your Own Guidelines Interactive communication designers face great challenges. How can products that are seen, read, understood, and acted upon be created? Given increasing variety and complexity, how can the power of new technologies be harnessed? How can in- formed visual choices be made? WARNING: No book, seminar, or technology will turn someone into a professional designer! Design is not a craft dependent upon aesthetic ability. Design requires education, training, and experience in a variety of related disciplines equivalent to that of an architect, engineer, surgeon, or cabinetmaker. The following guidelines are offered as starting points, first steps in understanding how to make informed design 24 • WATZMAN AND RE
- 48. decisions—design that provides the best, most thoughtful, and appropriate integration of both form and function. • There are no universal rules, only guidelines. If there were rules, everything would look the same and work per- fectly according to these rules. Each situation is different with its own context and parameters. • Remember the audience: be a user advocate. Think about audience needs first throughout the development process. Who is in the audience? What are their require- ments? How and where will the audience use the product? The evaluation criteria used in the design-development process springs from the answers to these and other ques- tions. Designers must understand and advocate for the user. • Structure the messages. Analyze content to create a clear visual hierarchy of major and minor elements that reflects the information hierarchy. This visual layering of information helps the user focus on context and priorities. • Test the reading sequence. Apply the squint test. How does the eye travel across the page, screen, or publishing medium? What is seen first, second, and third? Does this sequence sup- port the objectives and priorities as defined in the audit? • Form follows function. Be clear about the user and use en- vironment first. An effective interface design represents and reinforces these goals. • Keep things simple. Remember the objective is to com- municate a message efficiently and effectively, so that users can perform a task. Fewer words, type styles, and graphic el- ements mean less visual noise and greater comprehension. An obvious metaphor enhances intuitive understanding and use. The goal is to transfer information, not show off features or graphics. • People don’t have time to read. Write clearly and con- cisely. Design information in an economical, accessible, intu- itive format that is enhanced by a combination of graphics and typography. Graphics, if well thought out and designed as an integral part of the page, are very powerful and can ef- ficiently and effectively provide explanations while saving space on a page. • Be consistent. Consistent use of type, page structure and graphic and navigational elements creates a visual language that decreases the amount of effort it takes to read and un- derstand a communication piece. The goal is to create a user experience that seems effortless and enjoyable throughout. • Start the design process early. Don’t wait. Assemble the development team of designers, usability professionals, en- gineers, researchers, writers, and user advocates at the be- ginning of the process. With interactive media, the traditional review and production process will change. The process is less of a handoff and more of a team effort; it’s more like making a film than writing a book. Successfully applying the principles of good design enables an organization to com- municate more effectively with its audiences and customers, improving the worth of its products and services and adding value to its brand and identity. • Good design is not about good luck. Good design for us- able interfaces appropriately applies the fundamentals of vi- sual design to interactive products. Creating the most use- ful, successful design for an interactive product is difficult. The design process is iterative and experiential. There are usually several possible ways to solve a problem, and the final design decision is dictated by the best choices that work within the parameters at any particular time. Advocate on be- half of the user. Users are why designers are here and have this work to do. Users are everywhere, often in places not yet imagined. As the world grows smaller and becomes even more connected, the opportunity lies in where and what has not been discovered. 1. Visual Design Principles for Usable Interfaces • 25 Berry, J. D. (Ed.). (2004). Now read this: The Microsoft clear type font collection. (pp. 15–17, 61–69). Microsoft Corporation. Bringhurst, R. (2005). The elements of typographics style (pp. 17–24). Point Roberts, WA: Hartley Marks Publishers. Craig, J. et al. (2006). Designing with type: The essential guide to typography (pp. 23–26). New York: Watson-Guptill Publication. Dair, C. (1967). Design with type (pp. 49–70). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Davis M., Hawley, P., McMullan, B., Spilka, G. (1997). Design as a catalyst for learning (pp. 3–12). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Donis, D. A. (1973a). A primer of visual literacy (p. ix). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Donis, D. A. (1973b). A primer of visual literacy (pp. 22–23). Cam- bridge, MA: MIT Press. Felici, J. (2003). The complete manual of typography: A guide to set- ting perfect type (p. 29). Berkeley, CA: Peachpit Press. Meggs, P. B. (1998). A history of graphic design (p. 363). New York: John Wiley Son. Re, M. (Ed.) (2002a). Reading Matthew Carter’s Letters. Typographical speaking: The art of Matthew Carter (p. 20). Baltimore: Albin O. Kuhn Library Gallery. Re, M. (Ed.) (2002b). Reading Matthew Carter’s Letters. Typographical speaking: The art of Matthew Carter (p. 23). Baltimore: Albin O. Kuhn Library Gallery. Re, M. (Ed.) (2002c). Reading Matthew Carter’s Letters. “Type Vocabu- lary.” Typographical speaking: The art of Matthew Carter (p. 82). Baltimore: Albin O. Kuhn Library Gallery. Spencer, H. (1969). The visible word. New York: Hastings House. Tracy, W. (1986). Letters of credit: A view of type design (pp. 30–31). Boston, MA: David R. Godine Publisher. References
- 50. ◆ 2◆ GLOBAL/INTERCULTURAL USER INTERFACE DESIGN Aaron Marcus Aaron Marcus and Associates, Inc. Globalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Definitions of Globalization, Internationalization,Localization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Advantages and Disadvantages of Globalization . . . . . . . . 31 Globalization Development Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Critical Aspects for Globalization: General Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 User demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Metaphors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Mental models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 An Example of Specific Guidelines: Appearance . . . . . . . 33 Layout and orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Icons,symbols,and graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Typography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Language and verbal style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Globalization Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Planet Sabre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Culture Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Introduction to Culture Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Culture: An Additional Issue for Globally Oriented UI Designers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Power Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Individualism versus Collectivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Masculinity versus Femininity (MAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Long- versus Short-TermTime Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Design Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Conclusions and Future Research Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 27
- 51. User interfaces (UIs) for successful products and services enable users around the world to access complex data and functions. Solutions to global user interface design consist of partially uni- versal and partially local solutions to the design of metaphors, mental models, navigation, appearance, and interaction. The UI development process must account for many complex local- ization issues, in particular, the user group’s culture. Culture dimensions, i.e., those proposed by anthropologists and other analysts of culture, can provide insight into how designers can/should adjust UIs to better serve users. By managing users’ experiences of familiar structures and processes, the UI de- signer can achieve compelling solutions that enable the UI to be more useful and appealing. Users across the globe will be more productive and engaged with the products and services. The concept of User Interfaces for All, as set forth by Stephanidis (2000), implied the availability of and easy access to computer-based products and services among all peoples in all countries worldwide. Successful computer-based products and services developed for users in different countries and among different cultures (even within one country) consist of partially universal, general solutions and partially unique, local solutions to the design of UIs. Global enterprises seek to mass- distribute products and services with minimal changes to achieve cost-efficient production, maintenance, distribution, and user support. Nevertheless, it is becoming increasingly im- portant, technically viable, and economically necessary to pro- duce localized versions for certain markets. UIs must be de- signed for specific user groups, not merely translated and given a superficial “local” appearance for quick export to different markets. Insufficient attention to localization can lead to embarrassing and sometimes critical miscommunication. For example, in Chi- nese, Coca-Cola means “bite the wax tadpole” or “female horse stuffed with wax,” depending on the dialect, which caused the company to change its name to a phonetic equivalent, which means “happiness in the mouth.” Similarly, Pepsi’s slogan “Come alive with Pepsi” becomes “Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the grave.” (Hendrix, 2001). Differences of culture can lead to significant business implications. For example, Saudi Arabia’s Higher Committee for Scientific Research and Islamic Law banned Pokemon video games because they “possessed the minds” of Saudi children, thus closing off one of the Middle East’s largest markets to the Japanese Nintendo’s multibillion- dollar enterprise (Associated Press). By contrast, attention to localization of language leads to greater comprehension, which can lead to a drop in customer- service costs when instructions are displayed in a user’s native language. Moreover, localization can lead to greater attention and retention on the part of viewers/customers. This implica- tion is especially significant for Web-based communication, where Forrester (1998) reported that visitors remain twice as long reviewing local-language sites as they do English-only sites, and business users are three times more likely to buy when communication is in their own language. Developers in the Eu- ropean Union are faced with the daunting but unavoidable chal- lenge of providing websites in more than a dozen languages to succeed in national markets. By managing the user’s experience with familiar structures and processes, surprise at novel approaches, and preferences/ expectations, the UI designer can achieve compelling forms that enable the UI to be more usable, useful, and appealing. Us- able is defined by the International Standards Organization in Switzerland (ISO) as effective, efficient, and satisfying. Global- ization of product distribution requires a strategy and tactics for the design process that enable efficient product develop- ment, marketing, distribution, and maintenance. Globalization of UI design, whose content and form is so much dependent upon visible languages and effective communication, improves the likelihood that users will be more productive and engaged with computer-based products and services in many different locations globally. From the designer’s perspectives, two primary objectives are (a) provide a consistent UI, and, more generally, user experi- ence across all appropriate products and services, and (b) de- sign products and services with their necessary support systems that are appropriately internationalized (prepared for localiza- tion) and localized, i.e., designed for specific markets. Before discussing globalization, localization, and culture issues, we re- view briefly essential concepts of UI design. Demographics, experience, education, and roles in organi- zations of work or leisure characterize users. Their individual needs and wants, hence their goals, as well as their group roles define their tasks. User-centered, task-oriented design meth- ods account for these aspects and facilitate the attainment of effective UI designs that acknowledge and respect users. UIs conceptually consist of metaphors, mental models, nav- igation, interaction, and appearance, which may be defined as follows (Marcus, 1995, 1998): • Metaphors: essential concepts conveyed through words and images, or through acoustic or tactile means. Metaphors con- cern both overarching concepts that characterize interaction, as well as individual items, like the “trash can” standing for “deletion” within the “desktop” metaphor. • Mental models: organization of data, functions, tasks, roles, and people in groups at work or play. The term, similar to, but distinct from cognitive models, task models, user models, etc., is intended to convey the organization observed in the UI itself, which is presumably learned and understood by users and which reflects the content to be conveyed, as well as the user tasks. • Navigation: movement through mental models, afforded by windows, menus, dialogue areas, control panels, etc. The term implies dialogue and process, as opposed to structure, i.e., sequences of content potentially accessed by users, as opposed to the static structure of that content. • Interaction: the means by which users communicate input to the system and the feedback supplied by the system. The term implies all aspects of command-control devices (e.g., keyboards, mice, joysticks, microphones), as well as sensory feedback (e.g., changes of the state of virtual graphical but- tons, auditory displays, and tactile surfaces). • Appearance: verbal, visual, acoustic, and tactile perceptual characteristics of displays. The term implies all aspects of vis- ible, acoustic, and haptic languages (e.g., typography or color; musical timbre or cultural accent within a spoken lan- guage; and surface texture or resistance to force). 28 • MARCUS
- 52. It is important to bear in mind that localization concerns go well beyond only language translation. They may affect each component of a UI: from choices of metaphorical references, hierarchies in the mental model, and navigation complexity, to choices of input techniques, graphics, colors, sounds/voice/mu- sic, and use of vibration. This chapter discusses the development of UIs intended for users in many different countries with different cultures and lan- guages. The text presents a survey of important issues, as well as recommended steps in the development of UIs for an interna- tional and/or intercultural user population and products/services intended for most platforms, including desktop, Web, mobile de- vices, and vehicles. With the rise of the Internet and applica- tion-oriented websites, the challenge of designing good UIs be- comes an immediate, practical matter, not only a theoretical issue. This topic is discussed from a user perspective, not a tech- nology or code perspective. The chapter will (a) introduce funda- mental definitions of globalization in UI design; (b) demonstrate why globalization is vital to the success of computer-based com- munication products; (c) introduce culture dimensions; (d) show their effect on one particular platform of desktop Web designs, suggest alternate culture dimensions, and recommend other issues that might relate to culture and user experience. GLOBALIZATION Definitions of Globalization, Internationalization, Localization “Globalization” refers to the entire process of preparing products or services for worldwide production and consumption and in- cludes issues at international, intercultural, and local scales. In an information-oriented society, globalization affects most computer- mediated communication, which, in turn, affects UI design. The discussion that follows refers particularly to UI design. “Internationalization” refers to the process of preparing code that separates the localizable data and resources (that is, items that pertain to language and culture needed for input and out- put) from the primary functionality of the software. This sepa- ration may include the ability for the UI to work on different platforms in one or more geographic regions where technical, financial, political, and legal matters may affect the designs. Soft- ware created in this way does not need to be rewritten or re- compiled for each local market. International issues refer to ge- ographic, political, linguistic, and typographic issues of nations or groups of nations. The UI is the International Standards Or- ganization’s (ISO) draft of human factors standards in Europe for color legibility standards of cathode-ray tube (CRT) devices (International Organization for Standardization, 1989) is an ex- ample of an effort to establish international standards for some parts of a UI. Other examples are the legal requirement for bilin- gual English and French displays in Canada, and the quasi-legal denominations for currency, time, and physical measurements, which differ from country to country (Table 2.1). Intercultural issues refer to the religious, historical, linguistic, aesthetic, and other, more humanistic issues of particular groups or peoples, sometimes crossing national boundaries. Ex- amples (Table 2.2) include calendars that acknowledge vari- ous religious time cycles; terminology for color, type, and signs reflecting various popular cultures; and organization of content in Web search criteria reflecting cultural preferences. Some- times these issues reach national political importance, such as the debate in the redesigned society of Iraq during 2005 over whether Thursday and Friday (the Moslem Sabbath) should constitute the “weekend” rather than Saturday (the Jewish Sab- bath) or Sunday (the Christian Sabbath) (Kuhn, 2005). “Localization” refers to the process of customizing (includ- ing language translation but potentially other changes, also, such as content hierarchies, graphics, colors, and icons/symbols) the data and resources of code needed for a specific market. Trans- lation is accomplished manually by in-house staff or one or more outside contractors performing that service. Translation can also be accomplished semi-automatically using software provided by third-party firms, such as Systran (www.Systran.com). Localiza- tion can take place for specific, small-scale communities, often with unified language and culture, and usually at a scale smaller than countries, or significant cross-national ethnic “regions.” Ex- amples include affinity groups (e.g., French “twenty-some- things,” or U.S. Saturn automobile owners), business or social or- ganizations (e.g., German staff of DaimlerChrysler or Japanese golf club members), and specific intranational groups (e.g., In- dia’s untouchables, Swedish househusbands, or young Japan- ese professional women who are rejecting marriage as a life pat- tern.). Used informally, localization may apply to “corporate cultures” or other groups that may be geographically dispersed. With the spread of Web access, the term “localization” may be used more often to refer to groups of shared interests that may be geographically dispersed. Note: this broad definition of “cul- ture” is not accepted by all theorists. For example, see Clausen (2000), as reported by Yardley (2000). However, for the purposes of this chapter, this broad definition is used. TABLE 2.1. Examples of Differing Displays for Currency, Time, and Physical Measurements Item USA Examples European Examples Asian Examples Currency $1,234.00 (US Dollars) DM1.234 (German marks) ¥1,234 (Japanese yen) Time Measures 8:00 P.M., August 24, 1999 20:00, 24 August 1999 (England) 20:00, 1999.08.24, or Imperial Heisei 11, 8:00 P.M., 8/24/99 20:00, 24.08.99 (Germany, traditional) or H11 (Japan) 20:00, 1999-08-24 (ISO 8601 Euro standard) Physical Measures 3 lb, 14 oz 3.54 kg, 8.32 m (England) 3.54 kg, 8.32 m in Roman or Katakana chars. 3 10, 3 feet and 10 inches 3,54 kg, 8,32 m (Euro standard) 2. Global/Intercultural User Interface Design • 29
- 53. Localization changes may need to consider any or all of the following: Address formats Alphabetic sequence and nomenclature Arithmetic operations symbolism Business standards (quotes, tariffs, contracts, agreement terms, etc.) Calendar Character handling Colors Content categories Date and time formats Documentation nomenclature and formats Electrical and electronic plug formats and nomenclature Energy formats Environmental standards (“green”-compliancy, low energy, low pollution, etc.) File formats Font nomenclature, sizes, faces, and byte formats Frequency (i.e., gigahertz) Hyphenation and syllabification Icons and symbols TABLE 2.3. Examples of Differing Cultural References Item N. America/Europe Example Middle-Eastern Example Asian Example Sacred colors White, blue, gold, scarlet Green, light blue Saffron yellow (Judeo-Christian) (Islam) (Buddhism) Reading direction Left to right Right to left Top to bottom Item USA France, Germany Japan Web search “Culture” doesn’t imply political “Culture” implies political “Culture” implies tea discussions ceremony Discussions Discussions Sports references Baseball, football, basketball, Soccer Sumo wrestling, baseball, golf is a sport golf is a religion Intellectual property (protection via patents, copyrights, trademarks) Keyboard formats Language differences Legal processes Licensing standards Measurement units (length, volume, weight, electricity, energy, temperature, etc.) Monetary or currency formats Multilingual usage Name formats Negative formats Numeric formats and number symbols: Packaging Paper formats Punctuation symbols and usage Reading/writing direction Sorting sequences Style formats Telephone/fax, temperature formats Text length Video recording and playback formats Voltage/amperage units and formats Weight formats 30 • MARCUS TABLE 2.2. Examples of Differing Displays for Other Data Formats (Partly from Aykin) Item USA Examples European Examples Asian Examples Numerics 1,234.56 (also Can., China, UK) 1 234,56 (Finland, Fr, Lux., Portugal., Sweden) 1,234.56 1.234,56 (Albania, Arg,, Denmark, Greece, Neth.) 1’234.56 (Switz: Ger., Ital.) 1’234,56 (Switz: French) Telephone Numbers 1-234-567-8901, ext. 23 1234 56 78 90 (Austria) 1-53-478-1481 (Japan) 1.234.567.8901 (123) 4 5 6 78 90 (Germany) 82 2 3142 1100 (Korea) (123) 456-7890 (12) 3456 789 (Italy) 2-(0)2-535-3893 (Korea) 46(0)12 345 67 86 12 34567890 (China) 49 (1234) 5678-9 (Switz) Address Formats Title, First Name, MI, Last Name Paternal Name, Maternal Name, First Name Family Name, First Name Department Company, Department Department Company Street, Number Company Number, Street, City, District/Region Number, Street, Neighborhood, District City, State, Zip Code Zip Code, Country Zip Code, City Country (Order may vary from country to country) (Japan)
- 54. Table 2.4 demonstrates the complexities, even within English-language users. Preparing texts in local languages may require use of additional or different characters. The ASCII sys- tem, which uses seven or eight bits to represent characters, supports English, and the ISO 8859-1 character set supports Western European languages, including Spanish, French, and German. Other character encoding systems include EBCDIC, Shift-JIS, UTF-8, and UTF-16. ISO has established specific char- acter sets for languages such as Cyrillic, Modern Greek, Hebrew, Japanese, etc. The new Unicode system (ISO 10646) (Graham, 2000) uses 16 bits to represent 65,536 characters, which is suf- ficient to display Asian languages, like Japanese and Korean, and permits easier translation and presentation of character sets. Advantages and Disadvantages of Globalization The business justification for globalization of UIs is complex, but compelling. Clear business reasons can drive decisions to local- ize content on websites or for Web/mobile applications: Research shows that Web-site visitors stay twice as long at local language sites as they do at English-only sites, business users are three- times more likely to buy when the site is in their own language, and contacts with customer service decline when instructions are shown in the users’ native languages (Forrester, 1998). If the content (functions and data) is likely to be of value to target populations outside of the original market, it is usually worthwhile to plan for international and intercultural factors in developing a product or service, so that it may be customized ef- ficiently, e.g., having separate text files that can be translated more easily. Rarely can a product achieve global acceptance with a “one-size-fits-all” solution. Developing a product for inter- national, intercultural audiences usually involves more than merely a translation of verbal language, however. Visible (or oth- erwise perceptual, e.g., auditory) language must also be revised, and other UI characteristics may need to be altered. While increasing initial development costs, developing prod- ucts or services ready for global use gives rise to potential for increased international sales. However, for some countries, monolithic domestic markets may inhibit awareness of, and in- centives for, globalization; e.g., because the United States has in the past been such a large producer and consumer of soft- TABLE 2.4. Comparison of English–Language User Community Conventions United States United Kingdom Dates Month/Day/Year: Day/Month/Year: March 17, 2001, 3/17/01 17 March 2001, 17/03/01 Time 12-hour clock, A.M./P.M. 24-hour clock No leading zero (8:32 A.M.) Leading zero (08:32) Currency $29.56, 56¢ GB£29.56, £29.56, 56p Spelling Center Centre Color Colour Terminology Truck Lorrie Bathroom Toilet Book spine title Top-down Bottom up ware, it is not surprising that some U.S. manufacturers have tar- geted only domestic needs. However, as many U.S. industries, such as movie making and games development, have discov- ered, foreign sales may be a significant portion of total sales or even larger than domestic sales. In order to penetrate some markets, the local language may be a nearly absolute require- ment as in France. Recent reports show that European Union (EU) countries must provide local variations in order to gain user acceptance. As an example: English-only portals are a bar- rier to EU business success (Vickers, 2000). Some software products are initiated with international ver- sions (e.g., typically five to seven languages for global products originating in the United States), but they are usually released in sequence because of limited development resources. Other products are “retrofitted” to suit the needs of a particular coun- try, language, or culture, as needs or opportunities arise. In some cases, the later, ad-hoc solution may suffer because of the lack of original planning for globalization. Globalization Development Process The “globalized” UI development process is a sequence of par- tially overlapping steps, some of which are partially, or com- pletely iterative: • Plan: Define the strategy, including the challenges or oppor- tunities for globalization; establish objectives and tactics; de- termine budget, schedule, tasks, development team, and other resources. Globalization must be specifically accounted for in each item of project planning; otherwise, cost over- runs, delays in schedule, and lack of resources are likely to occur. In most cases, business managers will expect to see a return-on-investment (ROI) analysis of the expected benefits, basis for benchmarking, likely tools and process, and met- rics to be used in “proving” the results are better. • Research: Investigate dimensions of global variables and techniques for all subsequent steps, e.g., techniques for analysis, criteria for evaluation, media for documentation, etc. In particular, identify items among data and functions that should be targets for change and identify sources of national/ cultural/local reference. Globalized user-centered design stresses the need to adequately research users’ wants and needs according to a sufficiently varied spectrum of poten- tial users, across specific dimensions of differentiation. Re- cently, Fortune, a major business publication, noted that Mi- crosoft hired a significant number of anthropologists to undertake ethnographic analyses and evaluations in the course of product development (Murphy, 2005). During the past few years, many companies have had anthropologists and ethnographers attend user interface conferences and anthropology conferences to report on their findings. One Internet-based discussion group, Anthropologists in Design (see URL references) regularly tracks inquiries about best in- formation resources, tools, educational institutions, and any case studies related to current job tasks. Local informal gath- erings within some urban environments enable designers and anthropologists/ethnographers to get together to ex- change experiences. 2. Global/Intercultural User Interface Design • 31
- 55. Another Random Document on Scribd Without Any Related Topics
- 56. News Letter. Hayden, Stone Company, and Paine, Webber Company, of Boston and New York, are said to have much influence with the Boston News Bureau, a newspaper which features news of mines and mining share markets. The Boston News Bureau at times has printed no display advertisements and at other times has. It is considered by Boston mining-stock brokers who handle the Michigan and Arizona copper securities as a necessary complement to their market literature. Walker's Copper Letter and the Boston Commercial are other examples. Walker's Copper Letter, which carries no advertising, for years has said the very nicest things about copper securities promoted and fathered by important Boston and New York interests. Needless to state, what Walker's Copper Letter, the Boston Commercial and the Boston News Bureau say about the mining propositions of their friends is as a rule based on fact. The point is that promoters find it necessary that news happenings regarding the markets, the securities and the mines in which they are interested be given broad publicity. It was the idea of the owners of the Mining Financial News, of which B. H. Scheftels, president and 25 per cent. owner of the capital stock of B. H. Scheftels Company, was not one, that anybody who would supply the sinews while the paper was getting on its feet and was establishing itself, was entitled to all the publicity which the paper could consistently and honestly give it. With this understanding the Scheftels company assumed to take all of the income of the Mining Financial News and pay all of the running expenses until such period as the newspaper might become self-sustaining. In doing so it performed a stupendous service to the entire mining industry in that the space devoted to the Scheftels enterprises therein did not average more than one-eighth of the whole, and it spent dollars to supply the news of all stocks where other mining financial publications in its field spent pennies.
- 57. To make sure that the public understood the Mining Financial News was the quasi house-organ of the Scheftels company many precautions were taken. No application was made for admission to the mails as second-class matter, and the paper was mailed under one and two-cent postage. The name of Harry Hedrick was lifted to the top of the page as vice-president of the corporation owning the Mining Financial News, Mr. Hedrick being openly employed by the Scheftels company as head of its correspondence department. My own name was later placed at the head of the editorial page as editor, the Scheftels company making no bones about my position as absolute head of its publicity department, its promotion enterprises, and of all markets for the Scheftels promotion stocks. The connection had before been established even closer than this. I had formerly been advertised as vice-president of Nat. C. Goodwin Company of Reno and vice-president of the Rawhide Coalition Mines Company; and the Scheftels company had advertised that Nat. C. Goodwin was its own vice-president. Further, the Scheftels company announced in its market literature that it had selfish interests in protecting the market for the stock because of the Nat. C. Goodwin affiliation. Occasionally market articles under the signature of B. H. Scheftels were published on the front page of the Mining Financial News. Whenever anybody made a request for the Scheftels Market Letter a copy of the Mining Financial News was quite regularly mailed to him without cost. Articles under the signature of other officers and employees, formerly of Nat. C. Goodwin Company of Reno and later of B. H. Scheftels Company of New York, were very frequently printed in the Mining Financial News. Probably the most important reason why the Scheftels company made this sort of arrangement with the Mining Financial News was that it could do so with only a very small additional outlay. The Scheftels company found it necessary to employ correspondents in all mining and market centers, and the same correspondents could
- 58. work for both enterprises. Another economic argument was that an enormous saving could be made in telegraph tolls, all dispatches addressed to the newspaper being sent at press rates. These dispatches were always available to the Scheftels corporation and its clientele. It was the idea of the Scheftels organization that the mining-stock investing public sorely needed right direction and that any brokerage house which led it right would soon be unable to transact all the business that would be offered to it. And that is just what happened. Before the Scheftels company was six months old the fifteen men in its accounting department were compelled to work day and night—time and again throughout the night until 6 A.M.—to catch up with their work. If the Scheftels news service was as nearly perfect as money and brains could make it, its facilities for the execution of orders on the New York Curb, the Boston Curb, San Francisco Stock Exchange, Salt Lake Stock Exchange, Toronto Stock Exchange, and other mining markets were unsurpassed. Its New York and Boston offices were connected with branch offices in Philadelphia, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee and Providence by exclusive private wires, and the service to out-of-town offices was almost instantaneous. The New York offices were located right in front of the Curb market on Broad Street on the ground floor of the big Wall Street Journal building, 50 feet by 200 feet deep—occupying about 10,000 square feet of floor space. The Boston office, occupying two floors, was located within 100 feet of the Curb market in that city. The public wires of the telegraph companies gave quick service between San Francisco, Salt Lake and Toronto, where business was transacted through members of the mining-stock exchanges of those cities. The private wires of the Scheftels company were constantly flooded with
- 59. rapid quotations and market, mine and company news during every trading hour. In New York the Curb brokers in the Scheftels employ, some on salary and some on commission, rarely numbered less than ten and at one period exceeded twenty. The correspondence department was presided over for a long period by two of the best posted mining-market men that could be employed for money. From this department were usually graduated the managers of out-of-town offices. In the cashier's cage six men were engaged at an average salary of above $100 a week, registering stocks, receiving stocks, paying money and drawing checks. The payroll of the mailing department, which was operated in conjunction with the Mining Financial News, was comparatively small. Money-saving machinery for the handling of the large output of market letters and newspapers gave excellent and economic service. About ten stenographers were regularly employed in the correspondence department. Occasionally, when a special effort was being made to interest the public in some security in which the corporation was particularly concerned, a force of forty additional typists was pressed into service for short periods. THE SCHEFTELS PRINCIPLES When the corporation of B. H. Scheftels Company opened its doors in New York it had no affiliations with any other Wall Street interests. It had no axes to grind except its own. It was practically a free-lance. It cracked up its own wares, careful always to keep within the facts, and never minced words about the quality of the goods of its contemporaries. The principle of both the Scheftels corporation and the Mining Financial News was to be always right in their market forecasts. The general order to mine and market news- gatherers and market prognosticators was to GIVE THE FACTS.
- 60. The law laid down was this: If the news is bad and is likely to injure the interests of our best friends, tell it in the interests of the investor. If it is good and the backers of the stock affected happen to be our worst enemies, tell it. No matter on what side of the market you think B. H. Scheftels Company is committed in any of its own speculations, give the customer all the news. Put the cause of the mining-stock trader in front of you as the one to further always. Never exaggerate. Eventually, this policy must redound to our credit and profit. Eventually, this policy resulted in our ruin. Our truth-telling policy was directly responsible for the loss of millions to competing promoters, and they banded together to destroy us. The publicity, promotion and brokerage activities of the corporation were of such magnitude, and withal so simple, that they at once challenged the attention of the Street. Before the Scheftels corporation was half a year old veterans of the financial game began to opine that some big interest was behind the concern. Its dashing market methods, its mighty publicity measures and its unbridled assurance attracted much notice. From every quarter expert views reached the Scheftels company that its manner of doing things was convincing on the point that it knew the business. But the general opinion of the talent seemed to be that the new corporation was spending too much money and that it could not win out unless a big boom in mining shares ensued. The market tactics adopted by the Scheftels company in its promotion enterprises were as old as the hills. On the New York Stock Exchange they had been employed in a thousand instances before. The method will probably survive all time. The corporation sought to distribute the stocks of which it became sponsor in turn— first Rawhide Coalition, then Ely Central, later Bovard Consolidated and finally Jumbo Extension—by the approved Wall Street system of establishing public interest and inquiry and causing an active market.
- 61. The aim was to establish higher prices for the securities, always within the bounds of intrinsic and reasonable speculative value. All efforts were directed this way. Plans like this are, however, sometimes thwarted. Markets get sick. More stock presses for sale than the inside has money to pay for. Stocks break in price. Then the promoter can't make any money and might lose a lot of it. Since money-making is his primary object, and stock distribution secondary, he has got to do some close figuring when markets are subject to the price-breaking habit. That's where B. H. Scheftels Company, through its brokerage business, found, after a short period, that it held within its grasp the power to insure itself against declining markets. Without promotion stocks on hand—obtained by wholesale at lower figures than values warranted—in which it could profit to the extent of hundreds of thousands of dollars on a rising market, the million- dollar annual expense of the Scheftels company would not have been justified. Once the market sought lower levels and no profit could be made on the promotions, it meant a discontinuance of the business on the large scale. The corporation's insurance was the open market in stocks on the general list and its brokerage business. From time to time it openly shorted tens of thousands of shares of stocks in which it had no promoter's interest whatever, by going out in the open market and selling them to all bidders against future delivery, by borrowing them from brokers and selling them for immediate delivery, and by short sales generally. Speculators play the market and so did the Scheftels company, but never against its own stocks. Speculators, however, buy mining shares outright or on margin because they want to gamble. The Scheftels company played the market for just the opposite reason. It didn't want to carry its eggs in one basket and wanted insurance
- 62. against market declines to cover promotion losses that must ensue if a general market slump occurred. And the Scheftels company did not inaugurate any fake bookkeeping system or otherwise hide behind any bushes in doing this. Moreover, the corporation didn't take advantage of anybody. The cards were not marked. The deck was not stacked. There was no dealing from the bottom. Market opinion for which the corporation was directly or indirectly responsible was genuine to the last utterance. No news was suppressed on any stock. The corporation divulged to its customers and to the general public every piece of important outside or inside information regarding any stock on the general list that was in its possession. At the very moment when it was going short of stocks in greatest volume its market prognostications were winning for it a reputation for accuracy never before recorded. If the stocks which the corporation went short of—stocks on the general list and amounting to probably 15 per cent., of the volume of its entire business, the remainder of the transactions being all in house stocks (these house stocks it could not be short of because of its promoter's options on hundreds of thousands of shares)—if the stocks on the general list thus shorted went up in price and the corporation was compelled to go into the market later and cover at a great loss, it was always in the corporation's heart to sing a pæan of thanksgiving, for it could well afford to pay the losses sustained by it in the general list out of the greater profits which would be made in the house stocks, which must, forsooth, share in the general upswing. Collateral securities put up by customers as margin for the purchase of other stocks were credited to the customers' accounts and mixed with the company's own securities. In every case proper
- 63. endorsement of certificates, put up for collateral margin, was required. Every certificate of stock bears on the reverse side a power of attorney, in blank. The signature thereto of the person to whom the certificate was issued makes it negotiable by the broker. It was the rule of the house always to inform those who brought collateral to the offices for margin that the stocks would be used and that they would not receive the identical certificates back again. In a number of cases objection was made. Acceptance of the stock as collateral margin was then promptly refused. If there were any scattering exceptions to this rule, it was contrary to instructions and due to neglect or ignorance. Whenever a customer closed his account and demanded the return of his collateral, stocks of the same description and denomination were recalled and delivery made. The same rule applied to stocks pledged with the corporation for loans, it being specifically set forth in the promissory note which the borrower signed that the privilege of using the stock was granted to the lender. This practice is so common and the rule so generally understood by mining-stock traders that objection was rarely made by customers. To test the general custom, a friend at my suggestion not long ago sent certificates of stock to 17 stockbrokers now doing business on Wall Street. Three of these were members of the New York Stock Exchange and 14 were members of the New York Curb, Boston Curb, or of a mining exchange. A letter substantially as follows was sent to each of the 17: Enclosed please find ...... shares of ...... stock to be used as collateral margin for the purchase of an additional block of ...... shares. Please buy at the market and report promptly.
- 64. The 17 orders were executed by the 17 individual houses. A month later when the stock ordered purchased had advanced in the market, the following letter was sent to each of the 17: Please sell the ...... shares of ...... stock which you purchased for me a month ago at the market and return to me the certificate of stock which I sent you as collateral with check for my profits. It took nearly two months for all of the 17 to make delivery. When they did, not one of them returned the same certificate that had been put up as collateral. Don't be shocked, dear reader, at this disclosure. It is the custom. And don't, please, think mining-stock brokers are alone given to the general practice. If you order the purchase of a block of stock on cash margin from any New York Stock Exchange house or send a certificate of stock as collateral in lieu of cash to one of them for the purchase of more stock, you will receive a confirmation slip of the trade which will generally read something like this: We reserve the right to mix this stock in our general loans, etc. That is, the right is reserved, and actually exercised, of immediately transferring ownership of the certificates to the broker. Unless a certificate stands in a customer's name and is unendorsed by him, he has no control over it. According to law, a broker has a right to hypothecate or loan securities or commodities pledged with him, for the purpose of raising the moneys necessary to make up the purchase price, and such stocks have no earmarks. In other words, the customer is not entitled to specific shares of stock, so
- 65. that stocks bought with one customer's money may be delivered to another customer. As for the Scheftels company laying itself open to the charge of bucketshopping in shorting stocks, such a possibility was never dreamed of. The penal law of the State of New York, sections 390 to 394, inclusive, is the only criminal statute covering market operations commonly known as bucketing and bucketshops. In each section and subdivision it is provided that where both parties intend that there shall be no actual purchase or sale, but that settlement shall be made on quotations, a crime has been committed, the language of the statute being, wherein both parties thereto intend, etc., or where both parties do not intend, etc. The Scheftels company was never a party to any such arrangement. And it always made it a practice to make delivery of stocks ordered purchased within a reasonable period after the customer had paid the amount due in full. Now, neither myself nor the Scheftels corporation is responsible for brokerage conditions as they exist, nor for the laws as written. Custom and practice are responsible. The purpose here is to communicate the exact nature of the business methods of the Street as I found them and to lay particular stress on those that are open to criticism. THE SCHEFTELS COMPANY AGAINST MARGIN TRADING The Scheftels company did not encourage margin trading by its customers. In fact, it railed against the practice. Time and again the Mining Financial News, editorially, denounced the business of margin trading. The Weekly Market Letter of the corporation sounded the same note. On several occasions, in large display advertisements published in the newspapers, the Scheftels company decried the practice and urged the public to discontinue trading of this character.
- 66. There were selfish reasons for this. In the marketing of its promotions the Scheftels company found that not more than 20 per cent. of the public's orders for these stocks given to other brokers were being executed, or, if executed, that the stocks were at once sold back on the market, the brokers or their allies standing on the trade. Had the Scheftels company been able to destroy the practice by its campaign of publicity, it would undoubtedly have been able, during the nineteen months of its existence, successfully to promote three or four times as many mining companies as it did, and its profits would have been fourfold. It, however, appealed to the public in vain. Loud, frequent calls to margin traders to pay up their debit balances and demand delivery of their certificates, which would compel every broker to go out in the market and buy the stocks he was short to customers, failed miserably. The lesson of this experience was that the speculating public did not give a rap whether their brokers were short of stocks to them or not. All they wanted, apparently, was to be assured that when they were ready to close their accounts, their stocks, their profits or their credit balances would be forthcoming. What is the evil of short selling of the kind described herein? The only evil that I could ever discover was that the market is denied the support which the actual carrying of the stock is calculated to afford. This hardship weighs heaviest on the promoter. There appears to be no cure. Even if a broker does buy the stock and does not himself sell it out again, there is no law that denies him the right to borrow on it or loan it to somebody else. And it is to the interest of the broker, because he gets the use of the money, to loan the stock always. Stocks are rarely borrowed by anybody except to make deliveries on short sales.
- 67. What about the broker who doesn't execute his order at all but stands on the trade from the beginning and sells the stock short to his own customer, delaying actual purchase until delivery is demanded? This practice is even less damaging to the customer than the one of actually executing the buying order for the customer at the time the order is given and then selling the stock right back on the market again for the account of the broker or his pal—the usual practice when the object of going short is sought. When a broker buys stocks in the market he must bid for them, and actual purchase generally means a higher cost price to the customer than that at standing quotations. The rule of the Street is to charge the customer interest on all debit balances. When a broker lends to a short seller a stock which he is carrying for his customer, he is paid the full market value, as security for its return. In that case the broker ceases to incur interest charges for the customer, and is actually able, in addition, to lend out at interest the cash marginal deposit put up by the customer. Maybe you think, dear reader, that a broker who charges his customer interest at the rate of six per cent. per annum on money which he has ceased to advance is crooked. Very well. If that be so, then all members of the New York Stock Exchange must be labelled crooks. Here is how it works, even among the highest class and most conservative members of that great securities emporium: John Jones orders the purchase by his broker of 1,000 shares of Steel on margin. He pays down 10 per cent. of the purchase price. Mr. Jones receives a statement at the end of the month charging him with interest at the rate of six per cent. per annum, or more if the call-money market is higher, on the 90 per cent. of the purchase price advanced by the house.
- 68. On the same day that the order of John Jones is received, William Smith orders the same house to sell short 1,000 shares of Steel at the market. This order is also promptly filled. Thereupon the broker uses the 1,000 shares of Steel, which he bought for the account of John Jones to make delivery through the Clearing House for the account of William Smith. Sometimes a fictitious William Smith is created, known as Account No. 1, A. S. Account, E. Account, etc. This is usually done when a broker wants to hide from his bookkeepers that he or an associate is taking the other end of the customer's trade. The broker is out no money, yet he charges Mr. Jones the regular rate of interest on his debit balance. As a matter of fact, too, the stock bought for Mr. Jones is never even delivered to his broker. The Clearing House, because of the short sale, steps in and delivers it to the broker to whom it is due on balance. Custom and practice cover a multitude of remarkable transactions— don't they? You have the framework of the Scheftels structure and of its Wall Street environment outlined in this chapter. Some of the narrative is undoubtedly dry-as-dust, but its recital has appeared to be necessary to enable the lay reader properly to interpret the chronology of stirring events which forms the concluding installment. In the foregoing I have endeavored to lay bare many practices that are common to Wall Street. Wherever I have laid them at the door of B. H. Scheftels Company, I have given that corporation much the worst of it, because in the recital I have omitted to mention a multitude of happenings that were creditable to an extreme to the Scheftels company. Most of these had to do with the experiences of the Scheftels company as publicity agents and promoters. Its wide- open publicity and promotion policy called forth the ire of influential Wall Street pirates and caused the pressure at Washington which resulted in the Federal raid of the Scheftels offices.
- 69. I have reserved this dramatic series of events for my last chapter.
- 70. CHAPTER XI A Fight to the Death In professional quarters the Scheftels corporation was regarded as an interloper from the day it set foot in the financial district. Its first offense was to reduce its commission rates. This move set the whole Curb against the enterprise. But as the play progressed it proved to have been unimportant in comparison to the unspeakable crime of telling the truth about other people's mining propositions that were candidates for public money. The Scheftels corporation had laid it down as a set rule that an established reputation for accuracy of statement was a great asset for any promoter or broker to have. To gain such prestige the principle was followed in the nation-wide publicity which emanated from the house that, no matter whom the truth hurt or favored, it must be told always, when publishing information regarding the value of any listed or unlisted security. Space in the Scheftels Market Letter or the news columns of the Mining Financial News was unpurchasable. The enforcement of this rule was a wide departure from prevailing methods. But that didn't make us hesitate. Having felt the speculative pulse for years, I knew its throb. The public, after losing billions of dollars, were becoming educated. The rank and file of mining promoters—high and low—in Wall Street still believed that one is born every minute and none dies. But I and my associates didn't. An uneducated public had been unmercifully trimmed in scores of enterprises backed by great and respected names. Speculators were ravenous for the truth. We decided to give it to them. We gave it to them straight.
- 71. This publicity system brought about the ruin of the Scheftels corporation through the powerful enemies it made. The policy was right all the same. Persisted in, nothing was or is better calculated to strengthen the demand for all descriptions of meritorious securities. The Scheftels corporation was the pioneer in the exploitation of this principle as a fundamental and underlying basis of brokerage and promotion. In pioneering this policy, however, the Scheftels company was sacrificed to the prejudices and wrath of the old school of promoters. THE FIRING OF THE FIRST GUNS Before the Scheftels corporation was on the Street three months it almost came a cropper. On the strength of excellent mine news it purchased nearly 300,000 shares of Rawhide Coalition in the open market, up to 71 cents per share. A determined drive was made against the stock by mining-stock brokerage firms which had sold it short. Bales of borrowed stock were thrown on the market by the crowd operating for the decline. The Scheftels company took it all in. Letters and telegrams were sent broadcast by market enemies urging stockholders to sell. A powerful clique had been losing big sums on the rise. The Scheftels company published advertisements calling upon margin traders to demand delivery of their certificates. This expedient proved of small utility. The brokers continued to hold off deliveries to customers and sold and delivered to us all the stocks that they could borrow or lay hands on. The continued selling finally made inroads on the Scheftels corporation's cash-reserve to a point that forced it one day to stand aside and leave the market to the sharpshooters. That day, in a few hours, approximately half a million shares of Rawhide Coalition changed hands out of a capitalization of 3,000,000 shares. The corporation's loans were called. This forced it
- 72. to throw large blocks of stock on the market. A sharp break ensued. That was just what was wanted by the interests which were gunning for us. They covered their short sales at great profit. In the midst of the mêlée the Scheftels company tendered a Stock Exchange house of great prominence, which had loaned it for the account of a Salt Lake firm of brokers $12,500 on 50,000 shares of Rawhide Coalition, the money to take up the loan. A representative of the Stock Exchange house sheepishly stated that his firm had loaned part of the pledged stock to out-of-town brokers. He asked for time. Under threat of dire consequences the Stock Exchange firm bought stock back from us in the open market that afternoon to supply the deficiency, and then made delivery of this stock back to us in lieu of that which they had parted with. It had been specifically stipulated by the Scheftels company when the loan was made that the certificates must be held intact and that the stock must not be loaned out or sold while the money loan was in force. This experience was repeated frequently during the Scheftels career on the Curb. It cost B. H. Scheftels Company more than one million dollars, during the nineteen months of its existence, in giving loyal market support, in times of professional attack, to the stocks it had fathered or promoted and felt moral responsibility for. Time and again the Scheftels company found among stocks delivered to it, against purchases made in the open market, the identical certificates it had pledged with loan-brokers as collateral for loans, and which had been hypothecated by it with the specific proviso that the certificates were not to be used. It opened our eyes to one of the most commonplace practices, not only on the Curb, but also on the Stock Exchange. Hardly a failure occurs on any of the Exchanges or on the Curb that does not reveal customers' certificates, which were originally pledged with the understanding that they were not to be used, in the strong-boxes of others.
- 73. The first grievous offense of the publicity forces of the Scheftels corporation against Wall Street's Oh-let-us-alone promotion combine was a wallop in April and May, 1909, through the Scheftels market literature, at Nevada-Utah. The combination which owned control took with bad grace the strictures on the property. We heard an awful underground roar. At that time the price of Nevada-Utah stock was around $3. The Scheftels Market Letter said that there was probably not 30 cents of share value behind the property. The price immediately began to crumble. It has been tobogganing ever since. The stock at the beginning of September of this year was quoted at 37½ to 50 cents. Such a thing as printing facts which would enlighten stockholders and the public as to the actual value and condition had not before been heard of when such enlightenment ran contrary to the plans of strongly entrenched promoters on the Street. The campaign against Nevada-Utah, therefore, directed widespread attention to B. H. Scheftels Company and the Mining Financial News. Following the Nevada-Utah disclosure, the Daily Market Letter and the Weekly Market Letter of the Scheftels corporation and the Mining Financial News took a good, strong, husky fall out of the La Rose Mines Company, capitalized for $7,500,000. The La Rose owns one of the greatest producing mines in the Cobalt silver camp. A market scheme was in progress, with La Rose as the medium, and W. B. Thompson, of Nipissing fame, as a chief manipulator. We called a halt to the game when the price reached a high of $8.50, and saved the public a huge sum of money. Under our campaigning the stock declined to $4, a decrease of $6,750,000 in the market value of the capitalization. This made W. B. Thompson and his associates the implacable enemies of the Scheftels company and myself. We didn't worry much. We were catering to the public. Indeed, we were pleased with our work.
- 74. Following this incident, the Scheftels Market Letter and the Mining Financial News took a smash at a mining-stock deal in which W. B. Thompson and the Guggenheims were jointly interested. It was the now notorious Cumberland-Ely-Nevada Consolidated merger. Later the merger was enlarged and took in the Utah Copper Company, or rather the Utah Copper Company took in the others, and the Scheftels propaganda found another opportunity to do a great service for the stockholders of Nevada Consolidated. Our attack hurt the Guggenheim reputation among investors all over the country and contributed to reduce their influence over the large stockholding body—more than 6,000 men and women—of Nevada Consolidated. Though finally successful, the Guggenheims were sore from the lashing and exposures to which they had been subjected. As for the Scheftels company and the Mining Financial News, they had still further established the honesty and value of their publicity service. A market scheme to balloon the price of Ray Central Copper Company shares to several times their value was a precious enterprise against which we trained our publicity guns and fired several effective broadsides. The effort of the promoters to connect with the public purse here would not have been half so sensational if men of lesser prominence were identified with the operation. In our bear publicity on this one we minced no words. In doing so we again hit another powerful interest—the Lewisohns. Later the exposure by the Mining Financial News and the Scheftels Market Letter of market manipulations of the Lewisohn-controlled Kerr Lake still further endeared the members of these two organizations to that powerful faction, and more closely cemented the ties of fellowship between the ruling powers.
- 75. Keystone Copper, another Lewisohn baby, was put through its courses on the Curb while Kerr Lake was being played in a stellar rôle. The deal in Keystone was an unobtrusive little thing, but awful good as far as it went from the one-sided point of view. I turned the searchlight of publicity on Keystone. The Scheftels Market Letter and Mining Financial News disclosures in the interests of speculators and investors regarding Nevada-Utah, La Rose, Cumberland-Ely, Nevada Consolidated, Utah Copper, Ray Central, and Kerr Lake were sensational enough, but they by no means included all of the work in this line. During 1909 this publicity literature took in practically every important mining company whose shares were traded in on the New York Curb. The unpleasant truths these forces were obliged to tell from time to time touched the delicate sensibilities of many leading lights on the Street. These had grown accustomed to an unvarying diet of sweets. It would seem that their appetite for saccharine provender would have become cloyed and that a change would be a grateful relief. It was not. The truth was distasteful. It interfered with the noble industry of mining the public and it cut down the profits of that end of the game. In keeping up the record of day-by-day market and mine developments these publicity agents punctured many a rainbow-tinted balloon. Very frequently they gave to the public its first definite and intelligent idea of real value behind promotions and in properties. Where market prices represented an overplus of hopes and expectations the truth was told. The aim was to take mining speculation out of the clouds and plant its feet firmly on earth. In this laudable effort we ran counter to the plans of the mighty. We also violated the vulgar unwritten rule of some of the Wall Street fraternity—never educate a sucker. Our publicity work caused a readjustment of judgment and market values, besides those already mentioned, on such stocks as First National, Butte New York, Trinity Copper, Micmac, Ohio Copper, United Copper, Davis-Daly,
- 76. Montgomery-Shoshone, Goldfield Consolidated, Combination Fraction, British Columbia, Granby, Cobalt Central, Chicago Subway, and sixty to eighty others. The live wires of our publicity service blistered the flesh of the Guggenheims, the Thompsons and the Lewisohns, and perturbed their widely diffused affiliations, connections and allies, including John Hays Hammond, J. Parke Channing, and E. P. Earle; also Charles M. Schwab, E. C. Converse, B. M. Baruch, United States Senator George S. Nixon, George Wingfield, Hooley, Learned Company, many other New York Stock Exchange houses, a group of powerful corporation law firms, a noted crowd of influential politicians, Curb stockbrokers who had grown fat executing manipulative orders for the inside, bankers who carried on deposit the cash balances of the mining companies, and even J. P. Morgan Company, who were partners of the Guggenheims in their Alaska ventures and were for a time said to be meditating a merger of the copper companies of the country with those controlled by the Guggenheims as a nucleus. THE STORY OF ELY CENTRAL By keeping speculators out of stocks that were selling at inflated prices, the Scheftels corporation and the Mining Financial News became endeared to a great popular moneyed element. The public was saved huge sums of money. This, however, only carried out the negative end of a grand idea. The affirmative demanded that the Scheftels corporation must put its followers into a stock or stocks where they could actually make money. The Scheftels corporation was on the eager lookout for a genuinely high-classed copper-mining proposition. It found what it was looking
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