Ignou EPA 01 solved question papers

Administration has been defined as a cooperative human effort towards achieving some common goals. It is the action part of
the government, the means by which the purposes and goals of the government are realized.
Some well known definitions of Public Administration are:
"Public Administration is detailed and systematic execution of public law. Every particular application of law is an act of
administration" - L.D. White.
Public Administration is "the art and science of management applied to the affairs of the State" - D. Waldo.
"By Public Administration is meant in common usage the activities of the executive branches of the National, State and Local
Governments'' - H. Simon.
The Domain
Thus, the study of Public administration is basically focused on the 'executive" no doubt but an adequate understanding of public
Administration is not possible without taking-into account the legislative and the judicial administration as well.
The Scope
the scope of the discipline of Public Administration has to be wide enough to respond to the complex social realities of today.
Major concerns of the discipline are:
Promoting publicness: In a democratic society, Public Administration has to be explicitly 'public' in terms of democratic values,
power-sharing and openness. This calls for a new climate in the bureaucracy. Public Administration in practice has to absorb the
principles of democracy as an overarching form of the government.
Policy Sensitivity: As governments are called upon to play increasingly active roles in times of rapid changes and social crisis,
innovative and timely policy formulation becomes a prime necessity in the government. This would necessitate a new
preparedness within the administrative set-up that had hardly any precedence in the past.
Implementation Capability: Effective policy implementation is going to test the coping capacity of the governments in today's
complex situations. Goals have to be clearly set, planning, programming and projections have to be followed step by step and
project management in all its branches has to have top priority in government. The strength of administration and the legitimacy
of the government itself would depend more and more on the administration's capacity to deliver the goods in time and in
response to the demands of the citizens.
Shared understanding of social reality: The capacity to cope with social and administrative complexity can be enhanced by a
deliberate policy of organizational openness. The underlying assumption here is the administration needs to understand the
diverse interests and influences. In today's complex administrative world, construction of administrative reality has to be based
on the shared understanding of its actors such as the men at the top, the middle managers, the employees and the citizens. The
centralized insular bureaucracy does not fit in with the coetaneous socio-administrative reality.
Administration as a learning experience: Shifting social reality and complex environmental conditions impose certain hardness
on Public Administration today. Rusted 'principles' of the past or the administrative recipes of bureaucratic routine are no longer
appropriate tools for analysis and problem solving. Public Administration in modern times has to be proactive, innovative, risk-
taking, and often adventurous. This new, entrepreneurial zeal is expected to transform 'bureaucracy' into a new kind of learning
organization, more adaptable to changes, more open to new insights and innovations, and more accessible to the clientele.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN PUBLIC AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
The distinction between the public and the private sector is however, greatly influenced by the political philosophy of each
nation.
Considerations of general welfare should be the common concern of both public and business administration. Private
management can ignore the larger public interest only at its peril. At the other hand, Public Administration can hardly ignore the
needs of efficient management. Yet the two types are basically different as discussed below:
The major purpose of Public Administration is to serve the public hence general welfare and in specific case public satisfaction
are the ends that public administration must serve. By contrast business administration is basically oriented toward earning
profit for the business proprietors. Inability to earn profit will soon drive a private enterprise out of business.
Public Administration has to operate strictly according to law, rules and regulations adherence to law brings in a degree of
rigidity of operation in the public sector there is always the fear of audit or accountability that acts as a constraint on
performance On the contrary business administration is relatively free from such constraints of law and regulations. There are of
course general laws regulating business, but individual business firms have considerable flexibility to adapt their operations to
changing
situations. This is possible because of their relative freedom from specific laws and rules that abound in Public Administration.
The actions of Public Administration are much more exposed to the public gaze. An achievement rarely gets publicity, but a little
fault hits the newspaper headline. Organizations like the police have to be on their toes to make sure that their operations do
not incur the public wrath. This wide publicity is not to be found in business administration, nor is it so very closely watched by
the public and the media.
In Public Administration any show of discrimination or partiality will evoke public censure or legislative disorder. Hence the
administrators are to be very consistent and impartial in their dealings with the public. In business administration discrimination
is freely practiced due to competitive demands. In the choice of products and in fixing prices business administration overtly
practices discrimination which is almost a part of business culture.
Public Administration especially at higher levels of government is exceedingly complex. There are many pulls and pressures,
many minds have to meet and discuss consultations go on in several rounds of meetings before decisions are taken. Activities in
one department have ramifications that spread over several other departments. By contrast business administration is generally

speaking much more well knit and single minded in operation. There is much less complexity in organization and operations. The
pressures are certainly almost non-existent.
Public Administration as organization is thus much more complex compared to business or private organization. Any unit of
government administration is tied up with a network of allied public organizations and has to work in close interaction with
them. A private organisation by contrast, has more compactness, insularity and autonomy of action.
Public Administration has overarching responsibilities in terms of nation-building and shaping the future society. It is therefore
much more value oriented. Business organizations have to follow the guidelines laid down by the public authorities.
Examine the relationship between political science, economics, sociology and public administration. 20 marks
Discuss Politics - Administration Dichotomy 6 MARKS
Relation with Political Science
For a long time Public Administration has been regarded as a part of Political Science. About 100 years ago Woodrow Wilson
called for the separation of Public Administration from Political Science on the ground that the field of administration is the field
of business. Following Woodrow Wilson, Frank Goodnow yet another protagonist of the separation of Public Administration
from Political Science has observed that since a large pan of administration is not directly connected with politics it needs to be
removed from the control of political parties. Writers from the US were largely influenced by the above mentioned argument
and emphasized the need for overcoming the ill-effects of the 'spoils system' according to which the party coming into power
replaces the officials appointed by its predecessor with those chosen by it to run administration. However the hundred years
old history of Public Administration brings out the severe limitations to which the growth of Public Administration as an
independent discipline is subjected.
We know that the political system of every country is related to its administrative system. Indeed it is the country's political
system which creates its administrative system. Conventionally speaking, Political Science deals with policy making and the
implementation of policies is left to the administrators. Thus the administration is charged with the responsibility of translating
the political will of a country into practical forms of action. However this is easier said than done. Again, it would be noted that
the administration plays a significant role in the formulation of policies also. It follows that the political system and
administration influence each other to such an extent that it will be sometimes difficult to distinguish between the roles played
by them respectively in the given case in a parliamentary government like India. While the minister as a political leader and
member of Cabinet participates in policy making, but as the top boss of the Ministry/Department, is also involved in
administrative decision making. Similarly though the civil servants are supposed to administer implement the policy decisions,
the senior administrators are also involved in policy-formulations by way of providing data/information/advice to the Minister.
Administration is regarded as a powerful agent of change in most of the developing countries. But, the nature of the State itself
in such countries is the root cause of poverty inequality and injustice. In such cases we have to examine the prevalent political
system before we analyze the role of Public Administration in the country concerned. Thus the separation of Public
Administration from Political Science, according to some critical observers denies us the requisite 'political approach' to Public
Administration. The relationship between politics and administration is so close that they may be regarded as the two sides of
a coin.
Relation with Sociology
Sociology is concerned with the scientific study of social structure. It is a Science which studies the form of human actions in
society. It also studies the inter-relatedness of the other Social Sciences. It is called by some a 'super science' unifying the
generalizations of the other Social Sciences. Post colonial societies continue to be in the grip of an all pervasive bureaucracy.
They are marked by inequalities of every kind. This is why the policies and their implementation in such countries need to be
studied within a broad framework of class, caste and power.
Administration as we are aware operates in the context of the society of which it is a part. Hence just as the society is concerned
with goals, values, belief systems, so also should be the administration. Thus we notice a two way relationship administration
exists in a social setting and the pattern of administration theoretically is determined by society. Through administrative
leadership the society may be influenced. Sociology is concerned with the human behavior in a group, the various types of
groups and the ways in which they influence human instincts and activity. Administration is a cooperative Endeavour in which a
large number of people are engaged in achieving certain objectives. The administrators themselves form a distinct group known
as bureaucracy which while maintaining its identity frequently interacts with its social environment. If the organization is big
enough there will be small groups and even sub-groups within it. These small groups and sub-groups have their own loyalties,
sympathies, antipathies, ethics, outlook which would influence the administrative apparatus. Sociology offers to Public
Administration information about groups, their behavior, and the way they affect social life.
The classical theories of administration tell us about the importance of structures in administration considering human behavior
to be static. The contemporary theories regarding it as being dynamic, investigate why a particular decision is taken by an
administrator in a particular situation. In the course of such an investigation the study of social background of administrators will
be found necessary. The tools developed by Sociology are made use of by the scholars of Public Administration in order to
understand the sociology of administrators.
Relation with Economics
Economics is a science concerned with those aspects of social behavior and those institutions which are involved in the use of
scarce resources to produce and distribute goods and services in the satisfaction of human wants. Definition suggests that
economics is as much concerned with human behaviour as any other Social Science. The major objectives of administration

during 18th and a good part of 19th century were maintenance of law and order and collection of revenue. In the wake of
Industrial evolution there occurred a radical transformation of the concept of the State. This was due to its being compelled to
become more responsive to the needs of the masses especially the working classes than ever before. Industrial Acts fixing
working hours and minimum wages extended an enormous pressure on the administration. Goals like the establishment of a
socialist society led to the expansion of the role of administration in development. Those industries which had been till now
managed by the private sector had come under the direct administration of the government. The fast growing Public sector
illustrates the relationship between Economics and Public Administration. Indeed the expanding role of the Public Sector and a
direct intervention of the government to regulate extreme swings in the economy place a great burden on Public Administration.
Planning has been chosen as the means to realize the goal of Socialist society, If efficient implementation of plans ensures goal
attainment the task of the administrators is to choose methods for effective implementation of plans. The administrators today
have been entrusted with the responsibility of managing railways, insurance companies and tackling issues concerning
agriculture, banking, etc. They therefore have got to have an understanding of the economic problems of the country.
Relation with History
According to E,H. Cart, 'history is a continuous process of interaction (between the historian and his facts) an unending dialogue
between the present and the past’. History provides an insight into the past. The study of historical background of a country
enables us to understand its administrative systems. Historians have recorded not only political events like battles and the deeds
of rulers but also particulars of administration. History tells us how administrative problems arose in the past and how they were
solved. Significantly, modem historians have been paying increasing attention of the prevalent administrative systems.
Relation with Law
According to Malinowski L aw is 'sanctioned norm'. According Goodhart, Law is any rule recognized as being obligatory by the
bulk of the community. In other words violation of norms is usually followed by counteraction. A legal norm is marked by
probability that it will be enforced by specialized staff. The authority to enforce rules is vested in administration. This explains
the relationship between Law and Public Administration.
Public Administration has to function within the framework of the law of the country. In other words law sets the limits of
administrative action though it allows considerable discretion to the administration. A subject common to these two disciplines
is Administrative Law. Legislature enacts aws (acts) which the administration has to implement. The role of administration is not
restricted to implementation only it has a role to play in law-making also. Civil servants have a say in the formulation,
presentation and enactment of laws.
Examine the evaluation of public administration under the broad paradigm of liberal democracy unit 4
Kautilya advocated a strong centralized authority vested in the monarchy'. Discuss
The evolution of Public Administration was examined in the framework of absolutist, liberal democratic and Marxian traditions.
The State in the ancient times was dominated by an absolutist monarchical system for a long time. kuautilya's ArtIaasastra
describes the science of Administration in relation to the authoritarian monarchy. Some of the principles of administration
described in 'Arthasastra' have relevance to the Present time probably because of the continuation of authoritarian traditions in
the modem state. The Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and 19th Century resulted in the emergence of a liberal democratic
state in many parts of the world. The modern Public Administration is a byproduct of the liberal democratic state. Different
phases in the evolution of Public Administration in a liberal democratic state reflect those of the social transformation in these
societies. The events of the October Revolution of 1917 in Soviet Union resulted in the study of Public Administration from a
Marxian perspective. The proponents and critics of Marxism and socialist practices have enriched the field of inquiry in Public
Administration. The diversity of human experience in respect of governance and the ideological moorings of the people provide
a battle gourd for the ideas and practices in Public Administration.
Discuss the different types of Comparative Administrative Studies. 12 marks
Broadly there are five types of studies. They are:
Inter-institutional Analysis: It involves a comparison of two or more administrative systems. For instance, a comparison of the
structure and working of the Home Ministry of the Government of India with the Defense Ministry will be a case of inter-
institutional analysis. Such comparisons could involve the whole of an administrative organisation or its various parts.
Intra-national Analysis: When an analysis in a comparative perspective is taken up among various administrative systems
functioning within a country, it would be an intra-national analysis.' Comparison of district administration in Bihar and Punjab
would be an example of such an analysis
Cross-national Analysis: When two or more administrative systems (or their parts) are compared in the settings of different
nations, this would be cross-national analysis. For example, comparing the recruitment of higher civil service of China, Thailand
and Tanzania will form an example of a cross-national analysis.
Cross-cultural Analysis: A cross-cultural analysis of administrative system involves countries forming part of different cultures
this would be called a cross-cultural analysis. For instance, comparing the administrative system of the USSR (a socialist state)
with the U.S. (a capitalist system) could be termed a cross-cultural analysis. Even a comparison between developed countries
(e.g. France) with a developing country (e.g. Algeria) or between a developing democratic country(e.4. Philippines) and a
developing Communist regime (e.g. Vietnam) will be covered in a cross-cultural comparison. Thus-the word "cultural" in the
category "cross-cultural" has a broad connotation and involves an aggregation of distinctive political, economic and socio-
cultural traits of a particular system and its environment.

Cross-temporal Analysis: Such a comparison involves different time-frames for analysis. For instance, a comparison between the
administrative system prevailing during Ashoka's reign and during Akbar's regime would be a cross-temporal analysis. Likewise,
comparisons, between the administrative systems of ancient Rome and modem Italy, or between the administrative practices
prevailing during the period of Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi would fall under the rubric of cross-temporal analysis. A
cross-temporal analysis may be inter-institutional, intra-national, cross-national or cross-cultural.
Discuss the: major trends noticeable in Comparative Study of Public Administration 12 marks
Fred Riggs had observed that there were three trends which were noticeable in the comparative study of Public Administration.
These were: 1)"normative" to "empirical" 2) "ideographic" to 'nomothetic" and 3) "non-ecological" to "ecological".
Normative to empirical: Efficiency and economy were considered to be the primary goals of all administrative systems and there
were certain principles of formal organisation which helped in the achievement of these goals. Therefore a few models of
administration, primarily of the western democratic world, were considered to be useful for all other administrative systems. As
a number of developing countries emerged on the scene and with the success of the communist systems in various parts of the
world, it became clear that a limited culture bound normative approach to the study of Public administration was not adequate.
The behavioral approach highlighted the value of studying the facts and reality in a significant manner and therefore the
comparative study of Public Administration after the Second World War started assigning greater importance to the study of
administrative "reality" existing in different countries and cultures. These studies were more interested in finding out facts about
structural patterns and behaviors’ of administrative systems rather than in describing as to what was good for each system.
Ideographic to Nomothetic: The words "ideographic" and "nomothetic" have been used by Riggs in specific contexts. An
ideographic approach concentrates on unique cases, e.g. a historical event, study of single agency, single country or even a single
cultural area. Nomothetic approach, on the other hand seeks to develop generalisations and theories which are based on
analysis of regularities of behaviour of administrative systems.
Thus earlier studies of Comparative Public Administration which were ideographic in character focused on the study of individual
nations or institutions and their approach was primarily descriptive. No serious attempt was made to compare various nations
and systems. Generally, within a volume on comparative governmental administration, there were separate chapters on
different nations, without any attempt to look at the similarities or differences among such nations in terms of their
administrative systems. These studies therefore were comparative only in name and did not help in the process of theory-
building or in developing generalisations concerning the functioning of administrative system in different settings.
Nomothatic studies analyse various administrative systems in comparative context in a manner that will help in the generation
of hypothesis and theories. The objective of such studies is to look at the similarities and differences of various administrative
systems existing in different nations and cultures and then draw certain generalisations relating to administrative systems
functioning at various levels and in different settings.
Non-ecological to Ecological: The traditional studies of Comparative Public Administration were mainly non-ecological,
These studies mentioned about the environment of administrative system only in a casual manner, there was no serious attempt
to examine the relationship between the administrative system and its environment, thus it had become very difficult to identify
the sources of differences among various administrative systems. However, studies undertaken after the Second World War
have been specifically looking at similarities and differences among environmental settings prevailing in different nations and
cultures and have been attempting to examine the impact of environment on the administrative system at the one hand and the
influence of the administrative system on the environment, on the other. The well known ecological approach relates to the
study of interrelationship between the system and its environment. This approach, popularised by Fred Riggs, has been regarded
as an important development in the study of Public Administration.
Discuss the scope and significance of comparative Public administration. 12 marks
The scope of Public Administration has increased enormously during the twentieth century. The importance of Public
Administration has grown substantially with the success of the Russian revolution, increased role of state during and after the
Second World War, measures of welfare adopted in most of the countries and growth of large number of developing countries.
Today Public Administration influences almost all aspect of human life. Even in a capitalistic country like the USA the role of
government has expanded in an effective manner. The net result of this increased role of state or government has been that
large numbers of specialised branches of Public Administration have come up on the scene. Some of these branches are
economic administration, social administration, educational administration, health administration, transport administration,
space administration, etc. Besides, there are areas such as state administration, urban administration, rural administration,
financial administration and personnel administration which have become integrated parts of the vocabulary of government.
Therefore, when we compare administrative systems existing in various nations or cultures, we can compare either the whole of
the administrative systems or some important parts of such systems. It becomes clear that the scope of Comparative Public
Administration is as vast as that of its mother discipline Public Administration.
While discussing the scope of Comparative Public administration, not only the specialised branches of administration have to be
taken into account Further it also needs to be that comparative studies can be conducted at macro, middle-range and micro
levels. These studies can be inter-institutional, cross-national, cross-cultural and cross-temporal.
The importance of the study of Comparative Public Administration is well accepted today. There are two factors that make
comparative studies significant. The first factor relates to the academic study of Public Administration. It is believed that through
Comparative Public Administration hypotheses, generaliaations, models and theories can be constructed which can collectively
help in the scientific study of Public Administration. The old orthodoxy of principles of administration is not considered valid
anymore and therefore now it is believed that generalisations relating to administrative structures and behaviour are emerging

out of comparative studies in different nations and cultures can help in formulating theoretical constructs which can provide a
scientific basis to the study of Public administration. The study of comparative Public Administration also contributes to a greater
understanding of the individual characteristics of administrative systems functioning in different nations and cultures. Besides,
comparative studies also help in explaining factors, responsible for cross-national and cross-cultural similarities as well as
differences in the administrative systems.
The second important function of Comparative Public administration relates to its relevance to the empirical world. Through a
study of comparative Public Administration administrators, policy makers and academicians can examine causes for the success
or failure of particular administrative structures and patterns in different environmental settings. It is interesting to find out
through comparative analysis as to which important environmental factors help in the promotion of administrative effectiveness
and which administrative structures function appropriately and successfully in what type of environmental settings. Through
comparative Public Administration we learn about the administrative practices followed in various nations and then we can
Endeavour to adopt those practices which can fit in our own nations and systems.
Briefly explain POSDCORB' 6marks
Both Gulick and Urwick were heavily influenced by Taylor and Fayol. Gulick used five elements of administration viz., Planning,
Organisation, Command, Coordination and Control as a framework for his neutral principles. Gulick condensed the duties of
administrator into a famous acronym POSDCORB. Each letter in the acronym stands for one of the seven activities of
the administrator. They are as follows:
Planning (P): that is working out in broad outline the things that need to be done and the methods for doing them to accomplish
the purpose set for the enterprise;
Organizing (O): that is the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which work subdivisions are arranged,
defined, and co-ordinated for the defined objective;
Staffing (S): that is the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the staff and maintaining favorable conditions of
work;
Directing (D): that is the continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and general orders and
instructions and serving as the leader of the enterprise;
Co-Ordinating (CO): that is the all important duty of interrelating the various parts of the work; OR that means is a common
thread that run through all the activities of the organisation.
Reporting(R): that is keeping those to whom the executive is responsible informed as to what is going on, which thus includes
keeping himself and his subordinates informed through records, research, and inspection;
Budgeting (B): with all that goes with budgeting in the form of planning, accounting and control.
This list of activities is an improvement over Fayal‘s elements of administration. The term POSDCORB came into wide use, in the
administrative processes. With its merits and demerits, it served a number of writers well in dealing with dissimilar
characteristics of administration.
Discuss the principles of organisation formulated by Gulick and Urwick. 20 marks
Discuss the major principles of organization, as formulated by Gulick and Urwick. 20 marks
Highlight the Principles of Organization as identified by Luther Gulick 12 marks
Urwick(OCRSSSCD) recognized eight principles of administration applicable to all organisations. The principles are:
1. The "principle of Objective" —that all organisations should be an expression of a purpose;
2. The "principle of Correspondence‖ —that authority and responsibility must be co-equal;
3. The "principle of Responsibility‖—that the responsibility of higher authorities for the work of subordinates is absolute;
4. The "Scalar Principle‖—that a paramedical type of structure is built up in an organisation;
5. The "principle of Span of Control";
6. The "principle of Specialization‖—limiting one's work to a single function;
7. The "principle of Coordination"; and
8. The "principle of Definition‖—clear prescription of every duty.
Gulick expounded ten principles of organisation‘. In expressing these principles Gulick was very much influenced through Henry
Fayal‘s 14 basic elements of administration.The principles of Gulick are:
1. Division of work or Specialization;
2. Bases of departmental organisations;
3. Coordination through Hierarchy;
4. Deliberate Coordination;
5. Coordination through Committees;
6. Decentralization;
7. Unity of Command;
8. Staff and Line;
9. Delegation; and
10. Span of control.
Work Division According to Gulick "work division is the foundation of organisation, indeed, the cause for organisation. Work
division is necessary because "men differ in nature, capability, and skill, and gain greatly in dexterity through specialization‖. In
assigning functions to groups of people, their first principle is homogeneity based on the identity or simplicity of four factors:

The purpose they serve, (function); The procedure they use; The persons or things they deal with (clientele); and The place
where they work.
Coordination If sub-division of work is inescapable, Gulick declared, coordination becomes mandatory. Based on his experience,
Gulick says that coordination can be achieved in two primary ways:
By organisation, that is inter-relating the sub-divisions of work through allotting them to persons who are appropriately placed in
the structure of authority, so that the work may be coordinated through orders reaching from the top to the bottom of the
whole organisation.
By dominance of an idea, that is, the development of intelligent singleness of purpose in the minds of those who are working
together so that each worker will voluntarily fit his task into the whole with ability and enthusiasm.
These two principles of coordination, he observes, are not, mutually exclusive, but together both are really effective. Size and
time are the great limiting factors in the development of coordination. So, he pointed out, coordination, must be approached
with different emphasis in small and in large organisations, in-simple and in complex situations, in stable and in new or changing
organisations. Thus Gulick maintains that "coordination is not something that develops through accident. It must be won by
Intelligent, vigorous, persistent and organized effort".
Unity of Command Gulick and Urwick believed that "well managed administrative units in the Government are almost without
exception headed by single administrators". They were against boards or commissions. Leadership is vested in one man against a
plural body. They reiterated Fayol's maxim of unity of command, knowing that rigid adherence to this principle may lead to
absurdities. They were emphatic that "A man cannot serve two masters". A workman subjected to order from more than one
supervisor will be ―confused, inefficient; and irresponsible", a workman subjected to order from but one superior may be
"methodical, efficient, and responsible".
Line and Staff A special mention should be made of the Gulick - Urwick principle of staff assistance to the executive and the
relations between the" Line” and “staff officials ". They borrowed these principles from their experience in military
administration. However, no management theory has yet been clear about the meaning of the Line and Staff principle in civilian
organisations. According to Gulick the staff experts have to" devote their time exclusively to the knowing, thinking and planning
functions". They must not be given any administrative authority or responsibility but they should get the results by the"
authority of ideas" Thus, they emphasized the necessity of special staff to assist the higher executives. Public officials in
their every ay work do not have time to read, think and meet their subordinates; hence they need assistance in their central
tasks of command, control and coordination. Such assistance should be extended by general staff, coordinating the work of staff
specialists. Thus, the general staff and special staff relieve the top executive from the burdensome details of administration; they
free him to concentrate upon the most important tasks and enable him to exercise a larger span of control.
The Span of Control To Urwick,”no supervisor can supervise directly the work of more than five or at the most six subordinates
whose work interlocks". The limit of control is due to the limits of knowledge, time and energy, and different, kinds of works and
sizes of organisations. It raises in part from the differences, in the capacities and work habits of individual executives and in part
from the non-comparable character of work. Thus, the element of diversification of function, the element of time and the
element of space govern the principle of span of control. The failure to attach sufficient importance to these variables limits the
scientific validity of the principle.
Write a note on the early works of F.W Taylor 12 marks
Taylor's contribution to the development of scientific management was recorded in his papers. Of these early ones are A Piece-
Rate System, Shop Management, and The Art of Cutting Metals. Among his early works, Taylor also discussed defects of
management and Time and Motion Study.
A Piece-Rate System: Taylor's first paper on Piece-Rate system was considered as an outstanding contribution to the principles
of wage payment. He proposed a new system consisting of three parts: (a) observation and analysis of work through time study
to set the 'rate' or standard, (b) a 'differential rate' system of piece work, and (c) 'paying men and not positions'.
Shop Management: In his second paper on Shop Management he discussed at length workshop organisation and management.
He focused attention, in this paper, on his philosophy of management as given below:
 The objective of management must be to pay high wages and nave low unit production costs to achieve the increased
industrial efficiency.
 Management has to apply scientific methods of research and experiment to the management problems.
 Standardization of working conditions and placing the workers on the basis of scientific criteria.
 Management must give formal training to workers and specific instructions to perform the prescribed motions with
standardized tools and materials.
 Friendly cooperation between workers and management on the basis of scientific system of labour organisation.
Taylor waned to develop a new and total concept of management. He advocated that the traditional managers should develop a
new approach and change to a more comprehensive arid broader view of their jobs incorporating the elements of planning,
organising and controlling.
Art of Cutting Metals: Taylor experienced bitter labour-management conflict particularly between foreman and workers over
the quantity of output. He failed to resolve the problems by persuasion and force. Realising that a new industrial scheme was
essential to prevent encounters, he began searching for a science of work. In the process he conducted a series of experiments
for more than two decades. He experimented with machine tools, speed, metals, materials, etc. His Experiments at the Midvale
and Bethleham Steel Company led to the discovery of high speed metal and revolutionised the art of cutting metals, his paper on
"The Art of cutting Metals" presented to ASME was considered as the most remarkable piece of research ever presented at a

conference. The paper was based on the longest and most exhaustive series of about 30,000 experiments conducted over a
period of 26 years, at a cost of about $2,00,000. The achievements of metal cutting experiments were considered more
important than Taylors other contributions, because they initiated a major breakthrough in the development of American
industry.
Time and Motion Study: In his other experiments he studied through motion and time study and analysed how the workers
handled materials, machines and tools, arid developed a coordinated system of shop management. Taylor set out to determine
scientifically the ability of workers in dealing with equipment and materials and this approach led to the true beginning of
scientific management. In the development of his shop system Taylor wished to know that under optimum conditions, how long
a man or a machine would or should take to perform in given task, in a specified process, using specified materials and methods.
He used scientific fact-finding methods to determine empirically the right ways to perform tasks with the help of stop watch.
Taylor also recognised the need for scientific method of selecting the right men for the right jobs considering their initial
qualifications and potential for further learning, He wanted effective supervision of a worker and his working conditions after
placing the worker in the right place. Taylor wanted to lay down the foundation for sound personnel management i.e. to match
the worker's abilities to the job.
Discuss Taylor's concept and principles of Scientific Management 20 marks
Concept of management: Taylor pointed out that management is a true science resting upon fixed laws, rules and principles. He
argued that management comprised a number of principles which are applicable to all organisations-both private and
government. The main object of management, according to him is to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled
with the maximum prosperity for each employee. His philosophy of scientific management is that there is no inherent conflict in
the interest of the employers, workers and consumers. The primary concern of Taylor was that the results of higher productivity
should equally benefit all people i.e. workers, employers, and consumers in the shape of higher wages to the workers, greater
profits to the management and payment of lower prices for the products by the consumers. Taylor observed that management
neglected its functions and shifted its burden to the labour while keeping for itself minor responsibilities. He advised that
management should take the responsibility of determining standards, planning work, organising, controlling and devising
incentive schemes.
Principles of Scientific Management: Taylor advocated, in the interest of societal prosperity, close collaboration and deliberate
cooperation between the workmen and the management. His philosophy of management was based on mutual interests and on
four basic principles of scientific management:
 The development of true science;
 The scientific selection of the workmen;
 The scientific education and development of workmen; and
 Intimate and friendly cooperation between the management and the men.
Development of a True Science of Work: When science is viewed as an 'organised knowledge' every act of a workman can be
reduced to a science. In the interests of the worker and management, it is necessary to know as to what constitutes a fair day's
work. It saves the worker from the unnecessary criticism, of the boss, and enables the management to get the maximum work
from worker. This needs a scientific investigation of a 'large daily task' to be done by qualified workers under optimum
conditions. The investigation can take the form of collecting information about worker's past and present working methods. The
results of investigation have to be classified, tabulated, and reduced into rules and laws to find out the ideal working methods or
what is called 'one best way of doing the job'. Such development of science of work enables the organisation to produce more;
enables the worker to receive higher wages and a much larger profit to the company.
Scientific Selection and Progressive Development of the Workmen: To ensure effective performance of the work which is
developed through scientific investigation, there is also a need to select only those workers who possess the necessary physical
and intellectual qualities. This needs a deliberate study of the aptitude, nature and performance of the worker and finding out
what possibilities and limitations one has for, future development. Taylor believed that every worker has potentialities for
development. He insisted that every worker must be systematically and thoroughly trained. Taylor felt that it is the responsibility
of the management to develop the worker offering him opportunities for advancement to do the job to the fullest realisation of
his natural capacities. It is necessary to ensure that the employees accept the new methods, tools and conditions willingly and
enthusiastically.
Bringing together the Science of Work and Scientifically Selected and Trained men: To enable the worker to do his job and to
ensure that he may not slip back to the earlier methods of doing work, there must be somebody to inspire the workers. This
Taylor felt is the exclusive responsibility of the management. He believed that workers are always willing to cooperate with the
management, but there is more opposition from the side of management. Taylor maintained that this process of bringing
together causes the mental revolution.
Division of Work and Responsibility: In the traditional management theory, the worker bore the entire responsibility for work
while management had lesser responsibilities. But Taylor's scientific management assumes equal responsibility between
management and worker. The manager unlike in the past is equally busy as the worker. This division of work creates
understanding and mutual dependence between them. There will also be constant and intimate cooperation between them. All
this results in elimination of conflicts and strikes. However, none of these four principles could be isolated and called scientific
management. It is a combination of all elements described above. We can summarise the philosophy of these principles as
under:
a) Science, not rule of thumb;

b) Harmony, not discord;
C) Cooperation, not individualism;
d) Maximum output, in place of restricted output; and
e) Development of efficiency and prosperity.
Define Human Relations and discuss different Socio -Economic factors that influenced the theory and practice of Human
Relations. 20 marks
Explain the factors which influenced the emergence of the theory and practice of Human Relations. 12 marks
The term human relation mostly refers to relations between workers and employer which are not regulated by legal norms.
These relations are concerned with moral and psychological rather than legal factors. However, the term industrial relations
which embraces both the above mentioned concepts should not be confused with human relations. The human relations
concept is concerned with devising concrete methods for ideological orientation of workers in the factory. Human relations
approach lays emphasis on people and their motivation unlike classical theorists who emphasised on structure and principles.
Several socio-economic factors influenced the emergence of the theory and practice of human relation the most important of
them are: Economic depression, Capital intensive industry, Technological progress, Reaction to Taylorism, Class antagonisms.
Economic depression: The theory took shape in the twenties and thirties of this century when there was a general crisis in the
capitalist countries. The United States of America may be mentioned as the most suitable example since it was hit by-the
unprecedented economic crisis of 1929-32. The problem became acute due to increased production as a result of
mechanisation. Mechanisation reduced physical stress considerably but it had increased mental strain. Employers found
themselves compelled to focus their attention on the psychological or human factor in industry. The interest of the employees in
their work began to determine the productivity levels to an increasing degree. Growing concentration and specialisation of
production demanded better coordination in the work of all sections of an enterprise. Researchers and executives established
that the relations between members of production teams were important with regard to the attainment of this end.
Capital intensive industry: During this period, industry was becoming more capital intensive. A breakdown of equipment strikes
and high labour turnover used to cause the monopolies enormous losses. It is thus not surprising that the giants of monopoly
capital started showing much more interest in ensuring that the workers showed a 'dedicated' attitude to their work and the
interests of the company.
Technological progress: Technological progress produced major changes in the workers as well. Their level of education and
professional skills rose considerably. Consequently the worker's sense of personal dignity had asserted itself and their material
and cultural aspirations had changed beyond recognition. Thus the workers started demanding more and more resolutely and
insistently that they be treated as human beings.
Reaction to Taylorism: The human relations approach was also partly a reaction to the one sided nature of the Taylor system.
Taylorism dominated the scene in the twenties and thirties. It was criticised as a design to intensify exploitation by raising
productivity levels through improved organisation of production and the maximum utilisation of the worker's physical capacities.
Taylor openly stated that "each shop exists for the purpose of paying 'dividends to its owners". He regarded the worker as an
appendage to the machine blindly carrying out a specific set of mechanical operations.
Although the Taylor system did result in a certain rise in productivity of labour, eventually the system found itself at a dead end.
In the thirties, apathy among the workers, depression heightened irritability and a complete loss of interest in work etc became
widespread. These phenomena could not but arouse uneasiness among employers since they led to a drop in labour
productivity, to absenteeism and high labour turnover. In addition, it led to a deterioration in relations between the workers on
the one hand and the owners and the management on the other.
Class antagonisms: The worsening of class antagonisms and the resolute character of the Trade Union movement in the United
States accelerated the introduction of the human relation approach. A few critics stated that the interest of the monopolists can
be explained largely by the growth of the labour movement and the expansion of the trade unions.
Examine the importance of coordination in an organization unit 11
Organization is a cooperative system'. Discuss.
Barnard seeks to develop his theory around one central question viz. under what conditions cooperative behaviour of man is
possible? For him organisation is a cooperative system. He maintains that 'cooperation originates in the need of an individual to
accomplish purposes which he individually cannot achieve'. As many individuals are engaged in cooperative behaviour it
constantly changes and the complex biological, psychological and social factors are in constant interaction. The cooperative
organisation for its survival must be "effective" in the sense of achieving organisation purpose and "efficient" in satisfying
individual motives. Thus the individual and organisation become important. It is these concerns of "effectiveness" and
"efficiency" that form the running thread of his theory of cooperative behaviour.
To start with Barnard seeks to understand the properties that an individual possesses: these are (a) activities or behaviour arising
from (b) psychological factors to which one added (c) the limited power of choice, which results in (d) purpose. It is these four
premises that determine Barnard's analysis.
Barnard traces the causes for cooperation in physical and physiological factors. Individuals enter cooperative action because as
individuals they are not capable of realising their goals. It is their physiological limitations that drive them into cooperative
action. The other way to look at cooperative phenomenon is that the nature puts such a constraint on a single individual that he
cannot overcome it except through cooperative action. For instance, there is a stone and man wants to lift it. But he cannot do
so. His inability can be looked from two points, one he is too small to lift it, two the stone is too big to be lifted. From one angle

the limitation is physiological and from the other angle it is physical. Either way cooperation becomes necessary once a man sets
a purpose of lifting the stone. Limitations always are related to the purpose or goal that one aims at.
Formal organisation consists of various elements Discuss. 12 marks unit 11
Briefly describe the characteristics and functions of Formal organizations. 12 marks
List the characteristics of formal organization. 6 marks
The elements of an organisation are (1) communication; (2) willingness; (3) common purpose. Barnard points out that vitality of
organisation depends on the willingness of the individuals to contribute forces to the cooperative system. This willingness
requires the belief that the purpose can be carried out. However willingness to contribute disappears when effectiveness ceases.
The continuance of willingness also depends upon the satisfactions that are secured by individual contributors in the process of
carrying out the purpose. If the satisfactions do not exceed the sacrifices required, willingness disappears and the condition is
one of organisation inefficiency. If the satisfactions exceed the sacrifices, willingness persists, and the condition is one of
efficiency of organisation.
Based on the above assumption Barnard observes that initial existence of an organisation depends upon a combination of
communication, willingness and purpose which are suitable to the external environment. Its survival depends upon the
maintenance of equilibrium of the system. The equilibrium has both internal and external dimensions. The internal equilibrium
depends upon the proportion between these three elements. The external equilibrium has two terms in it first, the effectiveness
of the organisation which comprises the relevance of its purpose to the environmental situation second, its efficiency which
comprises the interchange between the organisation and individuals. It is in maintaining the equilibrium at two levels that a
formal organisation persists and thrives.
It is a part of human nature and a social process that men develop a network of relationships on systematised interactions this
interactions are called informal organisation. The informal organisation becomes necessary to the operation of formal
organisations as a means of communication and of protecting the integrity of the individuals
Discuss Chester Barnard's concept of Authority. 12 marks unit 11
Another important element for cooperative effort in a general organisation, which is believed to be most crucial, is the element
of "authority". Barnard defines authority as "the character of a communication (order) in a formal organisation by virtue of
which it is accepted by a contributor or 'member' of the organisation as governing the action he contributes". This indicates that
for Barnard authority consists of two aspects; first, the subjective aspect, the personal aspect, the accepting of communication
as authoritative and second, the objective aspect the character in the communication by virtue of which it is accepted.
Barnard further argues that if a directive communication is accepted by one to whom it is addressed, its authority for him is
established. It is admitted as the basis of action. Disobedience of such a communication is a denial of its authority for him.
Therefore under the definition the decision as to whether an order has authority or not lies with the persons to whom it is
addressed and does not reside in "persons of authority", or those who issue these orders. A person can and will accept
communication authoritative only when four conditions simultaneously obtain (a) he can and does understand the
communication; (b) at the time of his decision he believes that it is not inconsistent with the purpose of the organisation; (c) at
the time of his decision, he believes it to be compatible with his personal interest as a whole; and (d) he is mentally and
physically able to comply with it.
Discuss the Hawthorne Experiments conducted by Elton Mayo and his team. 20 marks
'Experiments conducted at the Hawthorne plant by Elton Mayo have been path breaking' Comment. 12 marks
The Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric company which employed 25,000 workers at the time became a centre of intense
research activity. Beginning from 1924 it was conducted in different places. At that time it was felt that there was a clear-cut
cause and effect relationship between the physical work, environment, and the well being on the one hand and the productivity
of worker on the other. Therefore, the management assumed that given proper ventilation, room temperature, lighting and
other physical working conditions, and wage incentives the worker could produce more. The National Research Council of the
National Academy of Sciences decided to examine the exact relationship between illumination and the efficiency of the worker.
The research began in 1924.
The Great Illumination 1924-27: Two groups of female workers each consisting of six, were selected and located in two separate
rooms, performing the same tasks. The rooms were equally illuminated to examine the level of production on the basis of
varying levels of illumination. In the beginning the working conditions were stabilised. Then slowly the conditions of work were
changed to mark the effect of this change on the output. This research established that regardless of level of illumination,
production in both the control and experimental group increased. This made them to give up the illumination theory. Mayo,
established that the test room girls became a social unit and because of the increased attention of research team in them they
developed a sense of participation in the project.
Mayo felt that work satisfaction depends to a large extent on the informal social pattern of the working group. He thought that
the supervisor could be trained to play a different role which would help him to take personal interest in the subordinates and
discharge his, duties better than earlier. Link between supervision, morale and productivity became the foundation stone of the
human relations movement. This network of experiments had been hailed as the "Great Illumination" because it had thrown
light on the new areas of industrial relations.
Human Attitudes and Sentiments: In 1928 the Harward study team conducted an in-depth study in the same plant on human
attitudes and sentiments. The workers were asked to express freely and frankly their likes and dislikes on the programs and
policies of the management, working conditions, treatment by the management etc. After some initial difficulties, it was realised

that there was a change in the mental attitude of the workers although no reforms were introduced. It, appeared as if the
workers were involved in the management and also felt that there was an opportunity to "let off steam" which made them feel
better even though there was no material change in the environment.
The study identified the following three aspects: First, the workers appreciated the method of collecting information on the
problems of the company from them. They thought they had valuable comments to offer and felt happy because they were
allowed to express freely. Second, there was a change in the supervisors because their work was closely observed by the
research team and subordinates were allowed to talk freely. Third, the research team also realised that they had acquired new
skills in understanding and dealing with their fellow beings.
Social Organisation: In 1931 -32 Mayo and his team conducted the final phase of the research program at Western Electric
Company. It was conducted mainly to observe a group of workers performing a task in a natural setting. Formal methods were
discarded. Observation method was followed by analysis of group behaviour. A number of employee’s consisting of three groups
of workmen whose work was inter-related were selected for the study. Their job was to solder, fix the terminals and finish the
wiring. Wages were paid on the basis of a group incentive plan and each member got his share on the basis of the total output of
the group. It was found that the workers had a clear cut standard of output which was lower than the target fixed by the
management. The workers according to their standard plan did not allow its members to increase or decrease the output.
Although they were capable of producing more, the output was held down to maintain uniform rate of output. They were highly
integrated with their social structure and informal pressure was usual to set right the erring members. A code of conduct was
also maintained by the group.
Mayo and his team found out that the behaviour of the group had nothing to do with the management or general economic
condition of the plant. The workers resented the interference of the supervisors and technologists who were supposed to
increase efficiency, as disturbance. The workers thought that the experts follow logic of efficiency with a constraint on their
group activity.
Further, the supervisor as a separate category represented authority to discipline the workers. The logic of efficiency did not go
well with the logic of sentiments which had become the cornerstone of the social system.
Thus, the study concluded that one should not ignore the human aspect of organisaition. Instead of over emphasising technical
and economic aspects of the organisation the management should also concentrate on human situations, motivation, and
communication with the workers. 'The concept of authority, Mayo felt, should be based on social skills in securing cooperation
rather than expertise.
Mayo is regarded as one of the founding fathers of human relations concept in the administrative thought. He was a behavioral
scientist long before the term became popular. Taken as a whole, the significance of Hawthorne investigation was in discovering
the informal organisation which it is now realised exists in all organisations. The importance of group affecting the behaviour of
workers at work was brilliantly anaysed through these experiments.
'Douglas' McGregor examined the motivation process in management in terms of, Theory 'X' and Theory 'Y'. Elucidate. 20 arks
Bring out the features of McGregor's Theory 'X', 6 marks
Evaluate Theory X and Theory Y 6marks
According to McGregor, the failure to bring the best out of human beings in organisitions can be attributed to our conventional
view of organisation and man. He calls this view as 'Theory X'. According to 'Theory X' oriented thinking, management is viewed
as the master of an enterprise in directing economic activity and allocation of resources. It lays stress on efficiency and economy.
Management, to them, is getting work done through other people. They feel that the organisation can suitably intervene in the
process of direction, controlling and motivating people to accomplish the purpose of the organisation.
There are a few assumptions about human nature and human behaviour.
"The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can";
"Because of this most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, threatened with punishment to get them put forth
adequate effort towards the achievement of organisational objectives", and
"The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security
above all." Theory X' assumptions do not explain human behaviour in its totality.
Theory Y: According to this theory the management is responsible for coordinating the activities in an organisation and for
accomplishing its purposes. The assumptions about human nature under 'Theory Y are :
1. The average human being does not inherently dislike work. Depending upon controllable conditions, work may be a
source of satisfaction or a source of punishment.
2. External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about effort towards organisational
objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self control in the service of objectives to which he is committed.
3. Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant of such
rewards, e.g. the satisfaction of ego and self-actualisation needs, can be direct products of efforts directed towards
organisational objectives.
4. The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility. Avoidance of
responsibility, lack of ambition, and emphasis on security a generally consequences of experience, not inherent human
characteristics.
5. The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of
organisational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.
6. Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only
partially utilised.

Write a note on Abraham Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory. 20 marks
Discuss Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory (PSSES)
Maslow arranged a person's motivational needs in a hierarchical manner. The needs are: physiological needs, security needs,
social needs, esteem needs and self actualisation needs.
Physiological needs: Basic things necessary for human survival are hunger, thirst, shelter, etc. After they are fulfilled he no
longer strives hard to obtain them. They no longer motivate him.
Security needs: Job security or safety in the work place gives psychological security to human beings Maslow stresses both
physical and emotional safety. Human being is a safety seeking mechanism. Once safety and security are ensured, they no longer
motivate the human being.
Social needs: This represents the relationships between and among groups of people working in the organisation. 'This need
provides emotional security to people. This gives a sense of belongingness and association. Every human being needs friendship
with others. If these social needs are not met the employee becomes resistant and hostile.
Esteem needs: This represents higher level needs of human beings. At this level human beings strive for power, achievement
and status.
Self-actualisation: The fulfillment of this need gives a high degree of satisfaction to the individual in work and life. This
represents a person's motivation to transform perception of self into reality
Describe the features of Riggs' Sala model of administration. 20 marks
Write a note on the Sala Model of administration as coined by Fred. Riggs, 12 marks
Prismatic society is characterised by various economic, social, political and administrative sub-systems. Riggs called the
administrative sub-system 'Sala Model'. The Spanish word, 'Sala', has a variety of meanings like a government office, religious
conference, a room, a pavilion, etc.
In a prismatic society, family welfare, nepotism and favouritism play a significant role in the making of appointments to various
administration positions and in the performing of certain administrative functions. In a prismatic society apart from the super-
imposition of new formal structures on family and kinship it disregards the universalisation of laws. The 'Sala' officer gives
priority to personal increase in power and wealth rather than social welfare. A few people get more benefits from the
governmental programmes than the others, resulting in the ignoring of the interests of a large number of people.
Theoretically speaking, the government officers have to implement the laws impartially. But a government official may be found
to be more loyal to the members of his own community than to the government.
Sala officials may enter service by virtue of higher educational qualifications or through success in competitive examinations but
in respect of their promotion and career development they depend largely on ascriptive ties, and also on the basis of seniority or
on the influence of senior officers.
Riggs has termed the prismatic society an 'unbalanced polity' in which bureaucrats dominate the politico-administrative system,
despite the political leaders' Constitutional powers.
The strength and weakness of any political leader in power varies with his ability to reward and punish the administrators.
What are the major points of criticism of Riggs' Ecological Approach? 12 marks
Difficulties in using the language:
Lack of change orientation;
Absence of quantitative indicators;
Negative orientation of the concepts; and
Ethnocentricism
Briefly explain the characteristics of Prismatic Society. 12 marks
Bring out the features of Rigg's Prismatic Society' 6 marks
The intermediate society between two extremes, i.e., fused and diffracted, is called prismatic society. According to Riggs the
prismatic society has three important characteristic features, viz., heterogeneity, formalism, and overlapping.
Heterogeneity: The existence of a high degree of heterogeneity is the main characteristic feature of a prismatic society.
Heterogeneity refers to 'the simultaneous presence, side by side, of quite different kinds of systems, practices and view-points'.
Owing to the parallel co-existence of diametrically opposite view-points and practices, the social change in a prismatic society
would be inconsistent, incomplete and unresponsive. The heterogeneity also influences the administrative system. There are in a
prismatic society urban Teas with a 'sophisticated', intellectual class, western style offices and modem gadgets of administration.
On the other hand, in the rural areas, people lead a highly traditional life with no facilities for modem living.
Formalism: it means the degree of difference between the formally prescribed and effectively practised norms and realities and
the existence of gap between the 'stated objectives' and 'real performance'. The greater the differences between the formal and
the actual, the more will the formalism be in a system. The fused and diffracted societies have relatively a high degree of realism
in comparison with a prismatic society where there is a high degree of formalism.
Overlapping: It refers to the extent to which formally differentiated structures of a diffracted society co-exist with
undifferentiated structures of a fused type. In administrative systems administrative behaviour tends to be influenced by non-
administrative criteria.

Riggs called the economic hub-system of prismatic economy-'Bazaar Canteen Model'. In a diffracted society the economic
system operates depending on market factors of supply and demand and economic considerations alone govern the market. In a
fused society, religious, social or familiar factors guide the economy a kind of barter exchange system exists in such economies
and question of price very rarely arises The prismatic society has the characteristics of both market economy and traditional
economy. Under such circumstances, it is not possible to determine common price for a commodity or service.
Discuss major types of bureaucracy 12 marks. Unit 15
'Broadly the bureaucracy is categorized into four types by Morstein Marx'. Elucidate. 12 marks
Guardian Bureaucracy: They were considered the custodians of justice and welfare of the community. These guardians were
selected on the basis of their education. Such bureaucracy existed in China before 960 A.D. and in Russia between 640-1740 A.D.
The guardian bureaucracy is art to idealise absolute practices and thus become traditionalistic and conservative. They are also
likely to become distant from the affairs of the community and political problems of the day, They become authoritarian
unresponsive to public opinion.
Caste Bureaucracy: This bureaucracy is the result of class connections of those-in power. In this recruitment is made only from
one class. This means persons belonging to higher classes or castes are only drawn to the civil services. For example, in ancient
India only Brahmins and Kshatriyas could become higher officials.
Patronage Bureaucracy: This type of bureaucracy is also called spoils system. Patronage in this is seen as a means of political
control. Under this system, the patronages of the ministers or the elected functionaries are nominated to the civil service.
Merit Bureaucracy: In this bureaucracy recruitment is based on qualification and is governed by objective standards. This
bureaucracy has a distinguished advantage over others due to its sense of rationality in administrative behaviour
Critically evaluate Weber's theory of Bureaucracy, by highlighting the characteristics underlined by him. 12 makrs-unit 16
Examine the characteristics of Bureaucracy, as identified by Max Weber. 12 marks
The term bureaucracy refers to the employees of a modem large-scale organisation, such as a government, a joint stock
company or an armed force. While the objectives of organisations may be different, their bureaucracies have certain common
features.
Division of Labour: The work of the organisation is divided among the employees in such a way that earch employee has only a
certain part of the work to perform. Division of work makes for efficiency.
Hierarchy: In every bureaucracy there is a chain of command. or hierarchy, so that officials at lower levels are supervised by
those at higher levels.
Written Documents: The management of the modem office is based upon written documents, or Files. The executive office is
separated from the private affairs of the ruler, the entrepreneur and the employees. Since nothing concerning the office is
private, every transaction, decision and order is recorded. Files, punch cards or computer tapes, then, constitute the 'memory'
,of the organisation, and help in efficient decision-making in the future.
Expertise: Employees are selected on the basis of technical qualifications. Recruitment is made through a competitive
examination, or (as in the case of doctors or engineers) is based upon examinations already passed. Officials are appointed, not
elected, since election does not test technical qualifications.
Career System: Employment of a member of a bureaucracy constitutes a career. The employee expects to be promoted from
lower position to higher position within the hierarchy of the organisation. Promotion is based upon both merit and seniority.
Promotion by seniority ensures that the employee comes to consider the organisation as his own this makes for both security for
the employee and efficiency of the organisation. Promotion by merit also ensures efficiency as employees with talents are
promoted to higher levels.
Money Salaries: Employees are remunerated by fixed salaries in money. This is different from the payment made in kind in
olden days. In addition to the salary, there is generally a provision for a pension or a provident fund to take care of the employee
when he grows old and retires from service.
Rules: Management follows a set of rules, which are made known to all employees, and partly also to clients.
Impersonality: Officials are expected to carry out their duties without allowing themselves to be influenced by their personal
likes and dislikes.
Efficiency: The bureaucratic organisation is the most efficient form of organisation, Just as a machine is more productive than
any other mode of production, so a bureaucracy is more efficient. Both, the machine and the bureaucracy, have the advantage
of technical superiority. Their efficiency derives from rationality. All the characteristics of bureaucracy mentioned above lead to
rationality and hence efficiency.
Define Generalists and Specialists Throw light on Max Weber's traditional, charismatic and legal types of domination 6 marks
Weber's theory of bureaucracy is a part of his theory of domination. Domination means the authoritarian power of command.
He laid down three types of domination: traditional domination, charismatic domination and legal domination. Bureaucracy falls
in the third category.
Traditional domination is based on the belief that what is customary is right. It is exemplified by the rule of kings in olden days.
If it was customary that only persons of a certain high caste should be appointed to high positions, this principle was accepted as
just. In other words, the merit of an individual was given les's importance than the caste to
which he belonged.

Charismatic domination is found where people accept somebody as a leader due to a belief that he has superhuman or
extraordinary qualities. Thus a person who is considered to be a mahatma, or guru may come to have a number of disciples or
followers.
Law is another name for a rational principle. Hence legal domination is based upon belief in the desirability of rational principles.
The application of reason leads to efficiency. Hence a system of legal domination is the most efficient. Legal domination is best
exemplified by bureaucracy.
Define hierarchy and highlight its basic features 12 marks unit 21
Literally, the term hierarchy means the rule or control of the higher over the lower. In administration, hierarchy means a graded
organisation of several successive steps or levels which are interlinked with each other. It is also known as the Scalar Principle.
This is derived from the word 'Scale' which means ladder. Just as there are steps in a ladder there are successive levels in
hierarchy. The principle of hierarchy demands that no intermediate level be skipped over or jumped while dealing with higher or
lower levels. This is known as functioning 'through the proper channel'.
Important features of hierarchy
The entire administrative function is divided into units and sub-units.
These units are organised in the form of a pyramid owe below the other
Authority is distributed to various levels.
Hierarchical organisation observes the principle of 'through proper channel'.
All commands and communications should come through proper channel. No intermediate level can be ignored.
A person receives orders only from one superior officer and not from anybody else. This means the principle of unify of
command is observed.
Authority and responsibility are adequately combined. Authority without responsibility is dangerous, while responsibility without
authority is meaningless.
Highlight the advantages and application of hierarchical principle in organization. 12 marks unit 22
Every large scale organisation should have a unity of purpose, which can be achieved only through hierarchical system. Hierarchy
integrates various units of an organisation into a unified whole. It serves as a channel of communication, both upwards and
downwards in an organisation. It makes clear to every official as to with whom he is to deal with. It enables us to fix
responsibility at each level and at each post
in the organisation. Every employee knows what his position and responsibility are in the organisation and to whom he is
accountable. The scale of 'through proper channel' created by the, principle of hierarchy ensures strict adherence to procedure
and avoids short-circuiting or ignoring of the intermediate links. Hierarchy lessens the burden of work at the highest level and
decentralises decision-making. It simplifies the procedure of movement of files because of strict adherence to the rule of
'through proper channel' and makes it easy to know where a particular file is.
Explain the meaning and importance of Span of Control and elaborate on Graicuno's formula of Span of Control.
20marks/unit/23
Principle of Span of Control is an extension of the Principle of hierarchy." Discuss. 12 marks
Discuss the meaning of span of control and highlight the factors affecting the same. 12 marks
Explain the factors affecting span of Control. 6 marks
Literally, the word 'span' means distance between the tip of a person's thumb and the little finger when stretched out, while the
world 'control' means power or authority to direct, order or restrain. In Public Administration, span of control refers to the
number of subordinates whom an officer can effectively control. It also means the number of subordinates an officer can direct.
Span of control varies with some factors which are Function, Time, Space, Personality of supervisor and of the subordinates;
delegation of authority, and techniques of supervision.
Function refers to the nature of the work to be supervised. Where the nature of work is of a routine, repetitive, measurable and
identical character, the span of control is more than when the work is of different character.
Time refers to the age of the organisation. In old and established organisations, practices become perfect and things get
stabilized. Such organisations run themselves, well through rapid supervision and greater span of control. But in newer
organisations, precedents will be few and new problems constantly demand reference to the superiors. Hence, subordinates
depend heavily upon their superiors and the span of control will be less.
Space refers to the place of work. If the subordinates are under the same roof along with the supervisor, supervision becomes
easier and quicker. If they work in different places, supervision becomes difficult as they escape his personal attention.
Personality is 'The sum total of all the kraits of human behaviour'. It includes physical and intellectual qualities of a person. If the
supervisor is energetic and intelligent, he can supervise the work of a large number of subordinates.
Delegation of authority also influences span of control. Some supervisors keep only a few functions for themselves and delegate
the rest to their subordinates, by doing so they can supervise a large number of subordinates. There are some supervisors who
keep all the functions for themselves and do not delegate them at all: Such supervisors cannot control a large number of
subordinates.
Techniques of supervision adopted by the superior also influence the span of control, if the techniques of supervision are
standardised, the span of control will be more because subordinates do not need close supervision. Where the direct supervision
of the supervisor is required, the span of control will be less.

Discuss the nature of administration in Marx's Socialist Society. 6 marks unit 17
Explain the features of administration in Marx's socialist society.
Possible nature of the administration in the socialist society of the future, as follows
There would be "self-government of the producers"; in other words the new society would be wholly democratic.
The standing army would be disbanded; the people themselves would take to arms when need arose.
There would be communes at rural, district and national levels.
The central government would have only a few important functions: there would be decentralisation.
The system of election would be indirect and based upon universal suffrage; all the elected members would be subject to recall
at any time.
The commune would be both, an executive and legislative body.
The police would be stripped of its political tributes and turned into responsible and revocable agents of the commune.
The public service would be done at workmen's wages.
Education would be free and accessible to all.
Judges would be elected, responsible and revocable, so as to be free from control by the government.
Define Representative Bureaucracy 6 marks unit 18
The meaning of representative bureaucracy is not very clear. It is understood as a civil service representing proportionately
every caste, class and religious groups of the population. It is also interpreted to mean that it is a bureaucracy consisting of all
social, religious and racial groups of the society. Concept of representative bureaucracy is that broad social groups should have
spokesmen and representatives in administrative as well as political positions. The concept of representative bureaucracy was
evolved to argue for a less elite oriented and less class biased bureaucracy. The term representative is not new; it was evolved
through history.
Explain the concept and need for representative bureaucracy. What ate the limits to representativeness? 20 marks unit 18
The plea for representative bureaucracy is advanced on several grounds: Firstly bureaucracy is an instrument or organ of
government. A genuine democracy ought to have a representative legislature or parliament, a representative executive, that is
ministry, and also a representative bureaucracy i.e. civil service. Without the bureaucracy being representative, the country's
political system would not be entirely democratic, because all the laws and rules and policies of the government are finally put
into action by the bureaucracy or civil service.
The second ground for bureaucracy to be representative is that the welfare and development functions meant for the poorer or
disadvantaged sections of the society would not be fulfilled & to the satisfaction of these sections of the society unless the
elements belonging to the poorer section handle those functions. This is the same ground, on which a modern legislature or a
modern executive is constituted to be essentially representative of the entire adult population in the country.
Limitations
The generalist service personnel are selected on the basis of educational qualification. For specialist services, requisite specialist,
i.e., technical, professional or scientific, qualifications are necessary. The members of the lowers classes in society are not in a
position to receive university education.
The government service requires skills and training different from those needed by the society.
In a plural society, the representative bureaucracy will have adverse consequences.
Representative bureaucracy is a concept associated with the realisation of the political ideal of representative democracy.
Bring out the relationship between Generalists and Specialists 20 marks unit 19
Analyze briefly the relationship between Generalists and Specialists. 12 marks
The administrators particularly at higher levels are classified as generalists and specialists. Specialists are those who have
specialised in terms of their education and experience in administration in specific subjects or disciplines of study. Engineers,
medical doctors, statisticians, scientists, chemical technologists, computer programmers are some of the examples of specialists.
Generalists are not specialised in the course of their education and/or further training. A candidate to the civil service might
have graduated in history or chemistry. However if he is offered a administrative career involving supervision, control or
direction per se and not connected in content with administration of a science subject of his specialisation, he would be a
generalist. A district collector by his education might be a scientist, engineer or historian, linguist or social scientist. His duties
are generalist in nature covering functions such as collection of land revenue, maintenance of law and order, etc.
In any administrative institution as we go higher and higher in, the level of responsibility functions become more and more
generalist in nature. Even in technical departments the heads of the department are engaged in the generalist functions of
policy-making, control of the administrative machinery, direction, supervision and control of the employees, coordination within
and outside the organisation in his charge, and public relations. Generalists move from one department to another and from one
position to another, their ability to adjust to and assimilate different experiences. The generalists perform the role of a mediator,
a referee between the expert and the political, the people and the government, the pressure groups and the public interest
represented by the parliament and the executive, with conflicting points of view. It is actively canvassed on behalf of the
specialists that, on the one hand the generalists become better qualified to hold higher positions in administration in different
departments at all levels because they themselves have fashioned the system in their own favour, and on the other the
specialists in spite of they being better equipped are deprived from occupying high, nay highest, positions like secretary ship in
their own departments. Career planning is necessary both for the generalists and the specialists in the interest of the
development of both and the greater efficiency and effectiveness of the public administrative system.

Discuss the various techniques followed to achieve coordination in organizations. 20 marks unit 20
Planning is considered to be an important technique to ensure coordination. Planning can be defined as "advance preparation
for future action wherein different aspects of work are identified ‘Scheduled for orderly implementation".
Consultation is yet another device to ensure coordination. If a decision taken by the department would breach upon the working
of any other department it is always better to consult in advance and ensure proper decision.
Conferences, committees and inter-departmental committees are constitution devices to facilitate coordination.
Standardisation of procedures and methods facilitates coordination. Standardisation of procedures stipulates the common
course of action to be followed by different agencies.
Written Instructions: In an organisation, it clear instructions re issued from the headquarters, the work goes on smoothly.
Examine the merits and demerits of decentralization. 12 marks Unit 25
Merits:
A decentralised organisation is more responsive to the needs and demands of the local area and the people. It can understand
and assess the real problems and can take decisions for their effective solutions.
Delegation of authority is an essential aspect of a decentralited orginisation. In the process the top levels deal with very
important matters; whereas, the lower levels are left free to tackle less important issues. Hence unnecessary burden on top
management is avoided.
A decentralised organisation encourages innovations as it welcomes creative ideas and new techniques recommended by the
lower levels of the organisation. Decentralised system encourages the expansion of the organisation and permits desirable
diversification for effective achievement of goals.
Ease the burden on top executives or on those who operate from the central points.
Facilitate 'diversification
Make decisions at the scene of action for effective and fruitful delivery of goods and services
Encourage development of meaningful talents
Improve motivation of people within the organisation
Demerits:
In a decentralised organisation communication among various levels becomes difficult. At times the message communicated
from top becomes blurred and changes its contents and meaning when it reaches the concerned individual in the organisation.
Moreover, geographical distance also creates problems in the way of effective communication and control systems.
It is very difficult to introduce effective system of coordination both at policy making and policy implementation levels.
It leads to overlapping and duplication of efforts in most of the organisations as they fail to clearly identify and define the
activities and responsibilities in precise terms.
It may become difficult to maintain desired uniformity in the standards in decision making due to comparatively less control of
the higher levels of the organisation.
The decentralised system necessarily results in higher costs of its operational activities. For such a situation there can be many
factors but one easily identifiable factor is the under utilisation of the available talent in the organisation.
Explain the meaning and significance of delegation in an organization. 20 marks unit 26
Delegation means grant or conferment of authority by a superior to a subordinate for the accomplishment of a particular
assignment. It is devolution of authority by a person to his agent or subordinate, subject to his right of supervision and control
It implies that legally delegated authority still belongs to the Delegator ar the person who delegates, but in practice its exercise is
allowed to the subordinate or the agent
Discuss the need and principles of delegation 20 marks unit 26
Delegation is always governed by certain principles. Unless these principles are observed, delegation cannot be made effective.
Delegation should he done in a clear manner
The delegated must know exactly how much authority has been delegated
The authority is delegated to get certain results by performing particular activity
Authority and responsibility should go as co-equal
Total responsibility of the superior
Delegation is based on the principle of unity of command
Keeping the communication open
Delegation should be succeeded by appraisal
Delegation should be properly planned and be systematic
Bring out the need and hindrance to delegation in an organization 20 marks unit 26
Delegation can be justified on the following grounds:
Volume of Work: Increasing volume of work requires that there should be some sort of delegation. It becomes difficult for the
head of an organisation to keep all the workload to himself. If he daes like this, the work is sure to suffer. There will be neither
efficiency nor economy.
Complexity: Complexities of rules and techniques has further added to the problem. Consequently the need of specialists is
greatly felt. The line agencies, being compelled by the complexities delegate the work of deliberation, thinking and formulation
of plans to staff specialists, though the ultimate power to approve the plans lies with the line agencies.

Saves Time for Policy Formulation and Planning: The superior who delegates effectively, is free to do more supervisory work
and overall planning. This, in turn, usually results in a smoother running, and more productive organisation.
Educative Value: It provides an opportunity to the subordinates to get training in the field of sharing responsibility. The
subordinates feel encouraged and develop greater loyalty and a sense of belonging to the organisation. It raises their morale and
they feel pride in identifying themselves with the organisation.
Management developrnent: It provides managerial development training and helps in the creation of a managerial class of
subordinates. The executives at different levels can take decisions and action on many vital issues on their own. Delegation i the
cardinal srep in managenlent development.
To bring Flexibility in Organisation: Rigidness in an organisation is always harmful. To bring flexibility in the organisation
delegation is an esseiitiality. Delegation removes rigidity and helps in acting in accordance with the changes in the situation.
Geographical Dispersions: Large organisations have geographical dispersions. They have a net work of branches multiple
branches are spread over a wide area. Delegation and decentralisation of authority helps to manage effeciently in diversified and
dispersed business.
Economy and Efficiency: Delegation of authority helps in the division of labour, essential for the discharge of duties efficiently
and expeditiously. Delegation minimises delays and makes the organisatitn to act more efficiently and economically.
Helps in Successiorr: There is a great relation between delegation and succession. It means when an administralor quits,
another should be able to succeed him. Every enterprise is based on cerlain ideals and those ideals continue to exist even after
the exit of the administrator.
In fact, there are several Hindrances to delegation which can be grouped as, (a) Organisational and (b) Personal.
Organisational: Lack of established methods and procedures, Lack of co-ordination and communication, Unstable and non-
repetitive nature of work, Size and location of an organisation, Lack of properly spelled out positions and unspecific terms of
delegation.
Personal Hindrances: These factors can be egoism tendency to have credit for everything, fear of disloyalty on the part of the
subordinates, lack of confidence in the capacity and competence of the subordinates; lack of emotional maturity on the part of
the delegating authority or person; lack of knowledge of what to delegate and how; fear of accountability to the higher ups or
the legislature or the people.
Explain the various types of delegation and examine the major hurdles facing it. 20 marks unit 26
Delegation can be of several types’ viz., permanent or temporary, full or partially, conditional or unconditional, formal or
informal, direct or indirect.
Highlight the qualities of a good supervisor 12 marks Units 27
Command of job content i.e. expert knowledge of the work to be supervised;
Personal qualifications, like integrity, honesty, ability to cooperate, ability to attract, , motivate, enthuse and unite others to
work; Teaching ability i.e. ability to communicate with the workers and make them understand the view point of the
management; General outlook i.e., the supervisor should like his job and be absorbed in it and inspire those who work under
him; Courage and fortitude i.e., ability to take decisions and assume responsibilities; Ethical and moral considerations i.e.,
freedom from vices; Administrative technology i.e., ability to manage, organise and coordinate; and Curiosity and intellectual
ability i.e., intellectual alertness, and receptivity to new ideas and practices.
Thoroughness: A supervisor should collect all the information relevant to the issue and take care of every necessary detail;
Fairness: It includes a sense of justice, consideration and truthfulness towards workers.
Initiative: It is a combination of three qualities of courage, self confidence and decisiveness.
Tact: It is the ability to win the loyalty and support of others by saying and doing those 'things which give them a feeling that
they are playing an important part in whatever is being done. Enthusiasm: It is an intense and eager interest in and devotion to a
cause, a pursuit, or an ideal. Emotional Control: It implies not the elimination of emotions but rather to control and channel
them in right direction.
Effective communication is based on certain Essentials'. Discuss 12 marks unit 28
According to Terry the eight factors essential to make communication effective are, Inform yourself fully; Establish a mutual
trust in each other; find a common ground of experience; Use mutual known words; Have regard to context; Secure and hold
the receiver's attention; Employ examples and use visual aids; and Practice delaying reactions.
Discuss major types of communication
There are three types which are downward, upward and lateral, based on the direction of communication flow.
Downward communication refers to the instructions and other official messages originating with the top personnel of an
organisation. It use of devices, such as, directives, written or verbal orders or instructions, manuals, staff conferences In large
organisations, downward communication is difficult enough to begin with, because orders must descend through numerous
intermediate levels before the point of execution is reached. Misunderstandings can easily occur when instructions pass through
so many people.
In upward communication, messages are passed by the lower levels in the hierarchy up to those heading the organisation. This
includes whatever information is passed up through methods, such as written and verbal reports pertaining to performance and
progress, statistical and accounting reports related to work, written and verbal requests for seeking guidance suggestion and
discussions.

Lateral communication may take place among officials of the same level in the hierarchy or among the officials who are out of
superior-subordinate relationship.We may call it across communication.
Informal Communication: Tile rigidity of formal channels gives rise to informal channels of conmunication. They supplement
formal ones. Such channels of communication, often called 'grapevine' are branded as dangerous and mischievious to
organisational functioning. They damage the organisational interests by carrying gossip and False information
Explain the factors inhibiting effective communication. 12 marks
Rigidity: In a conversation, the meaning attached to various words and expressions vary from person to person.
Generalisations: If an aged person has had n bad experience with some youth, he considers all youth as unruly.
Extreme Oainions: Some people brand everything in this world as either good or bad.
Discuss the important types of planning. Unit 29
Planning is of many types. Based on time it is categorised as short term and long term planning. There is micro and macro level
planning policy and programme planning and activity and central planning.
Policy planning is concerned with preparation of broad policy guidelines of the government in power. It normally involves a new
enactment or amendments to an existing legislation. Progmmme planning involves operationalisaltion of policy into specific
objectives. This is done by; identifying specific purposes, allocation of resources, identification of specific departments and
agencies to handle different purposes; and fixing responsibility for results. Administrative agencies participate in both types of
planning. In policy planning they assist the policy makers in government; while in programme planning they clarify their role and
direction.
Planning at different departmental levels and below is concerned with specific activities. These activities are part of a
programme. While making activity plans, the administrators have to maintain the clarity of purpose
Central planning is concerned with monitoring and appraisal of various activity plans at a departmental level. Firstly, it goes into
the preparation of plans. Secondly, it goes through interrelationships among several activities with reference to linkages. Finally,
the review and appraisal concentrates on the scope of the work to be accomplished. Central planning keeps I watch on activity
planning.
Examine the pre-requisites and adequacy of authority. unit 30
Pre-requisites
The subordinates must be able to understand the communication of the person holding authority.
The subordinate should feel that this communication is consistent with the purpose of the administrative system. .
The matter of communication is in tune with the personal interests of the subordinate and
The subordinate is mentally and physically in a fit position to carry out the instruction given in the communication
Adequacy of authority
Programme authority: Administrators should have adequate powers in deciding the goals and objectives of administrative
activities within the limits set by law.
Organisational authority: Administrators should have sufficient powers to create and organise structure suitable to implement
the programmes and policies effectively.
Budgetary authority: Administrators should have powers to determine budgetary needs as per the programme objectives and
priorities.
Personnel authority: Administrators should have adequate powers to appoint personnel, assign them suitable tasks and
functions, and to appraise their performance periodically.
Discuss the major sources of Authority in Administrative Agencies
The three sources of authority in administrative agencies are: Law, Tradition, Delegation
Law: Many aspects of authority have their genesis in the constitution. Other aspects come from different laws and legislative
enactments. Judicial interpretations, precedents and case laws also give authority to the administrative personnel. The superior
subordinate relationship in organisations, hierarchy and division of labour speak about authority relationships in organisations.
They also describe the right to command and the duty to obey in an organisation.
Tradition: The authority conferred by law itself is not sufficient to command obedience. Traditions play an important part in
administration as a source of authority. Normally, organisations over a period of time develop norms, codes and work habits.
These norms and codes speak about the obedience given to different authorities in different situations. Different persons
working in organisations recognize this authority as one of the main ingredients helping the organisation in achieving its
purposes through coordination.
Delegation: Top administrators or heads of departments and units confer authority on their subordinates through delegation.
Thus, delegation acts as a source of authority in organisations. This can be written or oral, but always concerns with a purpose. In
fact one of the functions of an administrator is to develop his subordinates to shoulder higher responsibilities. This is achieved by
delegating them some of the authority to achieve a purpose of the organisation
Describe the qualities required for effective leadership. Unit 31
It is generally agreed that possession of a generous and unusual endowment of physical and nervous energy is the secret of the
most successful leaders. The leader also must recognise that his job is more demanding than the average worker. Therefore, the
leader should be careful about his health and vitality.

The second quality which is clearly predominant in every good leader is a strong sense of a dominant purpose and direction. The
leader is one who knows much better what he wants to get it done and where he wants to go. It means he possesses clarity and
precision as to the objectives, purpose or aims he want to achieve.
The next quality pertains to enthusiasm. It must be felt to be sound by all. A good leader is always conscious of this fact. He
should be a known enthusiast.
Affection and friendliness are essential in a good leader. However, the leader has to guard against sycophancy-and other-evil
associated with it in the name of friendliness and affection.
The followers must be able to trust their leaders. The followers want to feel a sense of solidarity, of honesty and reliability
towards the leader. The people should gain the trust or confidence.
Good health; a sense of mission; 'interest in other people; intelligence; integrity; persuasiveness; judgment and; loyalty.
Discuss the major styles of leadership Unit 31
Broadly three leadership styles are identified viz., autocratic, participative and laissez-faire.
Autocratic Style: In this, policy and decisional authority is concentrated in the hands of the leader. It is the leader who decides
policies and modifies them according to his own wishes. This type of leaders expect unquestioned acceptance of the leadership
by their subordinates. This type of leadership has the advantage of quick decision-making. But it causes pain to the employees
and results in dissatisfaction.
Participative Style: This style is also called the democratic style of leadership. In this, leaders obtain the cooperation of the
employees in achieving organisational goals. They allow the employees to participate in decision-making process. All policies and
decisions are arrived at through group discussions. Leader encourages and assists his colleagues and only provides alternatives
instead of dictating the final decisions or policies. The members of the group enjoy greater freedom. Participative style leads to
improved employee-employer relations, higher morale and greater job satisfaction. It is also time consuming because of
consultative process.
Laissez-faire Style: In this type of leadership, the organisation does not depend on the leader to provide external motivation. The
employees motivate themselves. They enjoy greater freedom and the leader's participation in decision-making is minimal.
Leader only assumes the role of one of the members of the organisation. This style of leadership has advantage of giving
freedom and independence to the employees. But unfortunately in the absence of a strong leader the employees may not have
proper direction and control. This may lead the employees to become frustrated and may even result in organisational chaos.
Discuss the meaning and types of Chief executives - unit 32
Distinguish Parliamentary executive from Presidential executive.
In a political system, the person or persons in whom the constitution vests the executive power of the government is the chief
executive. In public or private organisations, the person who is at the top position with the major responsibility of carrying out
the work of organisations is the chief executive. The success or failure of an organisation, therefore, depends on the dynamic
nature and character of the chief executive.
The type of executive varies with the form of government. In a dictatorship, the chief executive comes to power through a
military coup and continues to be in power through army support. Modern democracies have either a Presidential or a
Parliamentary executive, which is chosen from, and responsible to, an elected legislature.
The parliamentary and Presidential Types of the Chief Executives: In countries like India and the UK, with parliamentary system,
the chief executive consists of the Prime Minister and other Ministers. The Prime Minister heads the cabinet in these countries.
Single and Plural Chief Executives: In countries where parliamentary system of government prevails, the real chief executive is
the cabinet which is a plural body. Unlike this, the chief executive in the Presidential system of government is a single individual,
the President.
The Collegial Executive of Switzerland: Just like the parliamentary type, the Swiss Executive is a plural body consisting od seven
members. It is truly collegial because in it there is nobody like the Prime Minister holding a position of primacy. All its members
are equal in rank and arc responsible to the legislature. Unlike the members of the cabinet and like the US President, the Swiss
Executive, [the Federal Council) is elected for a fixed term and is irremovable during the period.
'Chief Executives perform a variety of administrative functions. Discuss
(POSDCORB)
Formulation of Administrative Policy:
Deciding the Details of Organisation:
Issuing Directives, Proclamations, and Orders etc.
Appointment and Removal of Personnel
Coordination of Various Executive Activities
Management of Finance
Supervise, Control and Investigate the Administrative Operation
Public Relations
Maintains a Proper System of Communication
As a Leader
The Chief Executive needs effective aides for functioning'. Disuses
"Staff and Line Agencies act as aid to the Chief Executive" Comment.

Staff Agencies
According to Mooney, the staff is "an expansion of the personality of the executive. It means more eyes, more ears and more
hands to aid him, informing and carrying out his plans". Literally, 'staff' means a stick on which you can lean for support, but
which can neither initiate nor decide your movements. Staff always remains in the background. It makes preparations for
executive's decisions, but docs not decide itself.
Line Agencies
It is with the line agencies that the ordinary citizen comes into contact. These agencies are concerned with the execution or
fulfillment of the primary objectives and functions of the government and deal directly with the people. They provide services to
people, regulate their conduct, implement programmes sanctioned by the legislature, collect taxes etc.

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