Information Technology for Managers - V Module Module 5_ppt.pdf

Information Technology for Managers
(22MBA302)
Module 5
Information Technology Infrastructure
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Introduction
Information Technology Infrastructure (IT infrastructure) is the
foundational framework of hardware, software, networks,
facilities, and personnel that collectively supports the effective
functioning of information technology within an organization.
It serves as the backbone for various IT activities and
operations, providing the necessary resources and services for
the development, deployment, and management of technology
solutions.
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IT infrastructure components
1. Hardware:
Servers: Powerful computers that store and manage data, host
applications, and provide services to other computers (clients)
on the network.
Networking Equipment: Routers, switches, firewalls, and
access points that facilitate communication and connectivity
within the organization's network.
Storage Devices: Devices such as hard drives, solid-state
drives (SSDs), and network-attached storage (NAS) systems
for storing data.
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Cont…
2. Software:
Operating Systems: Software that manages hardware
resources and provides services for computer programs.
Eg: Windows Server, Linux, and Unix.
Middleware: Software that connects different software
applications and allows them to communicate and share data.
Eg: databases and application servers.
Application Software: Specific programs designed to perform
tasks or provide services, such as office productivity suites,
ERP systems, CRM software.
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Cont…
3. Networking:
Local Area Network (LAN): Connects computers and devices
within a limited geographical area, such as an office or building.
Wide Area Network (WAN): Connects LANs over a broader
geographical area, often using public or private networks.
Wireless Networks: Enable connectivity without physical cables,
such as Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity).
Data Centers: Facilities housing servers, storage, networking
equipment, and other infrastructure components. Data centers
ensure the availability and reliability of IT services.
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Cont…
4. Cloud Services:
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): Provides virtualized
computing resources over the internet, including servers,
storage, and networking.
Platform as a Service (PaaS): Offers a platform and tools for
developers to build, deploy, and manage applications
without dealing with the underlying infrastructure.
Eg: Google App Enginen develop applications and let them execute on Google's platform.
Software as a Service (SaaS): Delivers software applications
over the internet, eliminating the need for users to install,
manage, and maintain the software locally. Eg: Google Workspace,
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Cont…
5. Security Infrastructure:
Firewalls: Protects networks by monitoring and controlling
incoming and outgoing network traffic.
Antivirus and Antimalware Software: Detects and removes
malicious software.
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Secures communication
over the internet by creating a private network.
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Cont…
6. Human Resources:
IT professionals, including system administrators, network
engineers, security experts, and support staff responsible for
managing and maintaining the IT infrastructure.
7. Backup and Recovery Systems:
Processes and tools for regularly backing up data and
applications, as well as strategies for recovering information in
case of data loss or system failures.
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Types of IT infrastructure
1. Traditional IT Infrastructure:
This is the conventional on-premises infrastructure where
organizations own and maintain their own hardware, servers,
and networking equipment within their facilities.
It requires significant capital investment and ongoing
maintenance but provides direct control over all components.
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Cont…
2. Cloud Infrastructure:
Cloud infrastructure involves borrowed computing resources,
storage, and services provided by third-party cloud service
providers.
It includes Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service
(PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS).
Cloud infrastructure offers scalability, flexibility, and cost
efficiency, as organizations can pay for resources on a pay-as-
you-go basis.
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Cont…
3. Converged Infrastructure:
Converged infrastructure integrates compute, storage,
networking, and virtualization resources into a pre-
configured and pre-validated solution.
It aims to simplify data center management, reduce complexity,
and streamline deployment.
Converged infrastructure is often used for specific workloads or
applications.
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Cont…
4. Hyper-Converged Infrastructure (HCI):
Hyper-converged infrastructure combines compute, storage, and
networking in a tightly integrated system.
It typically includes software-defined components and is managed
through a unified interface.
HCI is known for its simplicity, scalability, and ease of
management.
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Cont…
5. Software-Defined Infrastructure (SDI):
SDI abstracts and virtualizes hardware resources, enabling
software to control and manage the infrastructure.
It includes Software-Defined Networking (SDN), Software-Defined
Storage (SDS), and Software-Defined Compute (SDC).
SDI provides flexibility, automation, and programmability.
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Cont…
6. Edge Computing Infrastructure:
Edge computing infrastructure brings processing capabilities
closer to the source of data generation, reducing latency and
improving real-time processing.
It is particularly relevant for applications that require low latency,
such as Internet of Things (IoT) devices and applications.
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Data Processing
• Data processing is the fundamental step in information
processing.
• It involves the collection, organization, and transformation of
raw data into a more structured and usable format.
• This includes tasks such as data entry, validation, cleaning,
and storage.
• The objective is to convert raw data into a standardized form
that can be easily analyzed and manipulated for further
processing.
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Stages of data processing
Data Collection: Data processing begins with the collection of raw
data from various sources.
This data can come in different forms, such as text, numbers,
images, or audio.
Data Entry: Once collected, data needs to be entered into a
system for further processing.
This can be done manually, through automated sensors, or by
other means depending on the source and type of data.
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Cont…
Data Cleaning: Raw data often contains errors,
inconsistencies, or missing values.
Data cleaning involves identifying and correcting these issues
to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data.
Data Transformation: Data is transformed into a format suitable
for analysis or storage.
This may involve converting data types, aggregating information,
or restructuring data for better organization.
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Cont…
Data Storage: Processed data is then stored in databases, data
warehouses, or other storage systems.
The choice of storage depends on the volume, speed, and type
of data.
Data Retrieval: Retrieving specific pieces of processed data is
essential for analysis and reporting.
Database management systems and query languages facilitate
efficient data retrieval.
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Cont…
Data Analysis: Analyzing processed data allows for the extraction
of meaningful insights.
This can involve statistical analysis, machine learning algorithms,
or other techniques depending on the goals of the analysis.
Data Visualization: Visualizing data through charts, graphs, or
other graphical representations helps in presenting complex
information in a more understandable and accessible way.
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Cont…
Data Interpretation: Interpreting the results of data analysis is a
crucial step in deriving actionable insights.
It involves drawing conclusions, making predictions, or
informing decision-making based on the analyzed data.
Data Reporting: Communicating findings to stakeholders through
reports, dashboards, or presentations is the final step.
Clear and effective reporting ensures that the processed data is
used to inform decisions and actions.
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Transaction Processing
Transaction processing is a specialized form of data processing
that focuses on handling individual transactions within an
organization.
A transaction, in this context, refers to a discrete event that triggers
the need for data processing, such as a sale, financial
transaction, or inventory update.
Transaction processing systems ensure the accuracy and
consistency of data during these transactions, often in real-time,
to maintain the integrity of an organization's records.
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Characteristics of Transaction Processing
Atomicity: Transactions are treated as indivisible units of work.
Either the entire transaction is completed, or none of it is.
This ensures that the database remains in a consistent state, even in
the event of system failures.
Consistency: Transaction processing maintains the integrity of the
data by ensuring that the database transitions from one consistent
state to another.
This prevents any in-between, inconsistent states from being visible
to users.
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Cont…
Isolation: Transactions are processed independently of each
other to prevent interference.
Each transaction appears to execute in isolation, even though
multiple transactions may be processed concurrently.
Durability: Once a transaction is completed and committed, its
effects are permanent and will survive subsequent system
failures.
This ensures that the database can be recovered to a consistent
state.
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Components of Transaction Processing Systems (TPS):
Transaction Identification: Each transaction is uniquely identified
to track and manage its progress through the system.
Data Entry and Validation: Transaction processing involves the
input of data, which is then validated for accuracy and
completeness.
Processing Logic: The system executes specific processing logic
or business rules associated with the transaction.
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Cont…
Database Operations: Transactions typically involve reading from
and writing to a database.
These operations must follow the principles of Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, and Durability (ACID properties).
Error Handling: TPS includes mechanisms to handle errors
that may occur during transaction processing, ensuring that the
system remains resilient.
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Examples of Transaction Processing
Point of Sale (POS) Systems: Recording sales transactions and
updating inventory in real-time.
Online Banking: Executing financial transactions such as fund
transfers, bill payments, and balance inquiries.
Airline Reservation Systems: Booking and updating flight
reservations.
Order Processing Systems: Handling customer orders, including
order entry, validation, and inventory updates.
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Benefits of Transaction Processing
Real-time Processing: Immediate and up-to-date information on
the status of transactions.
Consistency: Ensures that the database remains in a consistent
state, even in the face of system failures.
Accuracy: Reduces errors by validating data before it is
committed to the system.
Efficiency: Enables efficient and rapid processing of a large
number of transactions.
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Application Processing
Application processing involves the execution of specific
software applications designed to perform tasks or functions
related to an organization's operations.
These application process and manipulate data according to
predefined rules and business logic.
Application processing ensures that various business functions are
carried out efficiently and in accordance with organizational
requirements.
Eg: Payroll systems, inventory management applications, and
CRM software.
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Components of Application Processing:
Software Applications:
Specific programs developed to address particular business needs
or tasks.
These applications can range from general-purpose software to
custom-designed solutions tailored to specific organizational
requirements.
Business Logic:
The set of rules and algorithms embedded within applications to
guide and govern the processing of data.
Business logic ensures that the software aligns with organizational
policies and procedures.
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Cont…
User Interface (UI):
The visual or interactive elements that allow users to interact with
and control the application.
A well-designed user interface enhances user experience and
efficiency.
Data Processing:
Application processing involves the manipulation and processing
of data to produce meaningful results.
This may include data validation, calculations, and data
transformation.
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Cont…
Integration:
Many applications need to integrate with other systems or
databases to access and exchange information.
Integration capabilities enable seamless communication between
different components of an organization's technology
ecosystem.
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Examples of Application Processing
• Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems:
• Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Software:
• Payroll Processing Systems:
• Inventory Management Systems:
• Document Management Systems:
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Benefits of Application Processing:
• Efficiency: Automation of tasks and processes leads to
increased operational efficiency and reduced manual effort.
• Accuracy: Applications follow predefined rules, minimizing
errors in data processing and calculations.
• Consistency: Enforces consistent application of business logic
across various operations and transactions.
• Scalability: Applications can often be scaled to accommodate
growing business needs without significant disruption.
• Improved Decision-Making: Access to timely and accurate
information through application processing supports informed
decision-making within an organization.
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Challenges of Application Processing:
• Integration Complexity: Integrating applications with existing
systems can be complex and require careful planning.
• Maintenance: Ongoing maintenance is necessary to address
bugs, security issues, and evolving business requirements.
• User Training: Users may need training to effectively use and
navigate complex applications.
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Information System Processing:
Information system processing represents the conclusion of the
data processing journey.
At this stage, organized and processed data is transformed into
meaningful information that can be used for decision-making.
Information systems, comprising databases, reporting tools,
and analytics platforms, play a crucial role in converting
processed data into actionable insights.
These systems enable stakeholders at different levels of an
organization to access relevant information, make informed
decisions, and contribute to overall business success.
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Key Components of Information System Processing
• Data Collection:
• Data Processing:
• Data Storage:
• Data Analysis:
• Information Presentation:
• Decision Support Systems (DSS):
• Collaboration Tools:
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Examples of Information System Processing
Management Information Systems (MIS):
Business Intelligence (BI) Systems: Platforms that gather,
process, and analyze business data to support better decision-
making.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Systems that process and
analyze spatial data for mapping and decision support.
Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Systems:
Applications that manage and analyze customer interactions,
improving customer relationships.
Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems: Integrated
systems that manage various business processes, including
finance, human resources, and supply chain.
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Benefits of Information System Processing:
• Improved Decision-Making:
• Efficiency:
• Data Accuracy and Consistency:
• Enhanced Communication:
• Strategic Planning:
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Challenges of Information System Processing:
• Security Concerns: Ensuring the security and privacy of
sensitive information is a constant challenge.
• Integration Issues: Integrating disparate systems and ensuring
data consistency across platforms can be complex.
• Costs and Resource Allocation: Developing and maintaining
sophisticated information systems can be resource-intensive.
• User Training and Adoption: Users may require training to
effectively use new information systems, and resistance to
change can be a challenge.
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TQM of Information Systems
The objective of the Total Quality Management (TQM) in the
information system design is to assure the quality of
information.
This is done by ensuring, verifying, and maintaining software
integrity through an appropriate methodology choice amongst
the technology, design and architecture.
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Cont…
The quality of information is governed by the quality of the
information processing system design.
The perception of good quality is that of a customer or a user
of the information system and not that of the conceiver, the
planner or the designer of the information system.
A single most important measure of quality assurance is the level
of user satisfaction it attains.
The user satisfaction is highest if it meets his information needs on
a continuing basis in a dynamic business environment.
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Cont…
James W Cortada measures the quality of information by 7
parameters.
They are flexibility, maintainability, reusability, integration,
consistency, suability and reliability.
TQM is a management philosophy that emphasizes continuous
improvement, customer satisfaction, and employee involvement
across all aspects of an organization.
When applied to information systems, TQM principles can
enhance the quality, reliability, and efficiency of the systems and
processes.
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Key aspects of TQM applied to information systems:
• Customer Focus:
Identify and understand the needs and expectations of end-users
and stakeholders.
Prioritize customer satisfaction in the design, development,
and maintenance of information systems.
• Employee Involvement:
Involve employees at all levels in the information systems
processes.
Encourage their participation in decision-making, problem-
solving, and continuous improvement initiatives. Employees who are
engaged and empowered contribute to the success of TQM.
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Cont…
• Continuous Improvement:
Adopt a culture of continuous improvement in information
systems.
Regularly assess and enhance processes, software, and
workflows to optimize efficiency and effectiveness.
Encourage feedback and implement lessons learned.
• Process Optimization:
Streamline information systems processes to eliminate
unnecessary steps and reduce waste.
Optimize workflows to enhance efficiency, reduce errors, and
improve overall system performance.
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Cont…
• Data Quality Management:
Prioritize data accuracy, completeness, and consistency.
Establish data quality standards and implement mechanisms
to validate and maintain the quality of data within information
systems.
• Supplier Relationships:
Foster strong relationships with suppliers, including software
vendors and service providers.
Collaborate with suppliers to ensure the quality and reliability
of the tools, technologies, and services integrated into the
information systems.
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Cont…
• Benchmarking:
Compare the performance and outcomes of information
systems against industry benchmarks and best practices.
Use benchmarking data to identify areas for improvement
and set performance targets.
• Training and Development:
Provide ongoing training and development opportunities for
IT staff to keep their skills up-to-date.
Ensure that employees have the knowledge and expertise
necessary to maintain and improve information systems.
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Cont…
• Leadership Commitment:
Leadership commitment is crucial for the successful
implementation of TQM in information systems.
Leaders should demonstrate a commitment to quality,
provide resources, and actively support TQM initiatives.
• Risk Management:
Implement risk management strategies to identify and
mitigate potential risks to information systems.
Proactively address security concerns, data privacy issues,
and other risks that may impact system performance.
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Cont…
• Measurement and Analysis:
Establish KPIs and metrics to measure the performance and
effectiveness of information systems.
Analyze data to identify trends, make informed decisions, and
drive continuous improvement efforts.
• Customer Feedback:
Solicit and consider feedback from end-users and
stakeholders.
Use customer input to identify areas for improvement, address
concerns, and enhance the user experience of information systems.
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Cont…
• Documentation and Standardization:
Maintain comprehensive documentation for information
systems processes, procedures, and configurations.
Standardize processes to ensure consistency and facilitate
future maintenance and upgrades.
• Quality Circles:
Establish quality circles or cross-functional teams that focus
on specific aspects of information systems.
These teams can brainstorm ideas, identify issues, and work
collaboratively to implement improvements.
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Network
Networking is a fundamental concept in the field of information
technology that involves the interconnection of devices and
systems to enable communication and the sharing of resources.
Networks play a crucial role in facilitating the exchange of data,
information, and services across various platforms, both locally
and globally.
The purpose of networking is to create a seamless and efficient
environment for communication, collaboration, and resource
sharing.
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Key Components of a Network:
Devices:
Devices in a network can include computers, servers, routers,
switches, printers, and other hardware components.
These devices are interconnected to enable communication and
resource sharing.
Infrastructure:
The infrastructure of a network consists of the physical and logical
components that facilitate data transfer.
This includes cables, routers, switches, access points, and other
networking equipment.
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Cont…
Protocols:
Protocols are rules and conventions that govern communication
between devices in a network.
Common networking protocols include TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer
Protocol), and DNS (Domain Name System).
Topology:
Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of
devices in a network.
Common topologies include star, bus, ring, and mesh, each with
its advantages and disadvantages.
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Cont…
Software:
Networking software includes operating systems with built-in
networking capabilities, network management tools, and
applications that utilize network resources for communication
and data exchange.
Security Measures:
Network security is critical to protect data and resources from
unauthorized access, data breaches, and cyber threats.
Security measures include firewalls, encryption, access
controls, and intrusion detection systems.
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Types of Networks:
Local Area Network (LAN):
LANs connect devices within a limited geographical area, such as
an office, building, or campus. Ethernet and Wi-Fi are common
technologies used in LANs.
Wide Area Network (WAN):
WANs connect devices across a broader geographical area, often
cities, countries, or continents.
The internet is a global WAN, while private WANs may use
technologies like MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching).
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Cont…
Wireless Networks:
Wireless networks enable connectivity without physical cables,
using technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks.
Cloud Networks:
Cloud networks involve the use of cloud computing services,
where resources and applications are hosted and accessed
over the internet.
Cloud networks provide scalability and flexibility.
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Cont…
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs):
VPNs create secure, encrypted connections over the internet,
allowing remote users to access private networks as if they
were directly connected.
Intranets and Extranets:
Intranets are private networks within an organization, while
extranets extend network access to authorized external users,
such as partners or clients.
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Cont…
Internet of Things (IoT) Networks:
IoT networks connect and enable communication between various
devices and sensors, allowing them to share data and
information for automation and control.
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Network topology
Network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of devices
and connections in a computer network.
It defines how devices are connected to each other and how data
is transmitted within the network.
Different types of network topologies offer various advantages and
disadvantages in terms of efficiency, scalability, and fault
tolerance.
Here are some common network topologies:
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1. Bus Topology:
In a bus topology, all devices share a single communication line or
bus.
The data travels along the bus, and each device reads the data
but only processes information intended for it.
It is a simple and cost-effective topology but can be affected by
congestion and is not as scalable.
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Source: https://www.javatpoint.com/computer-network-topologies

2. Star Topology:
In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or
switch.
The central hub facilitates communication between devices.
It is easy to install and manage, and if one connection fails, it
doesn't affect the other devices.
However, it relies heavily on the central hub, and its failure can
disrupt the entire network.
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3. Ring Topology:
In a ring topology, devices are connected in a closed loop.
Each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a
ring.
Data circulates in one direction, and each device receives and
sends data.
While it provides equal access to the network, a failure in one
device or connection can disrupt the entire network.
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4. Mesh Topology:
Mesh topology involves connecting each device to every other
device in the network.
It provides high redundancy and fault tolerance, as there are
multiple paths for data to travel.
Mesh topologies are robust but can be expensive to implement
and maintain.
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5. Hybrid Topology:
Hybrid topology is a combination of two or more different types of
topologies.
Eg: a network might use a combination of star and ring topologies.
This approach allows organizations to tailor the network to their
specific needs and balance advantages and disadvantages.
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Source: https://data-flair.training/blogs/network-topologies/

6. Tree Topology:
Tree topology is a hierarchical structure where devices are
organized in a tree-like fashion.
It combines characteristics of star and bus topologies.
It is scalable and allows for easy expansion, making it suitable for
larger networks.
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Source: https://data-flair.training/blogs/network-topologies/

Data communication
Data communication is the process of exchanging information or
data between two or more devices through a medium, such as
wires, cables, or airwaves.
It involves the transmission and reception of data between sender
and receiver devices, enabling communication and information
sharing.
Data communication plays a crucial role in various aspects of
modern technology, including computer networks, the internet,
telecommunications, and more.
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Components of Data Communication:
Sender: The sender, also known as the source or transmitter,
initiates the process by generating and encoding the data for
transmission.
Receiver: The receiver, at the destination, decodes and interprets
the transmitted data. It is the device that receives and
processes the information sent by the sender.
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Source: https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-communication-definition-components-types-channels/

Cont…
Message: The message is the actual information or data being
transmitted.
It can include text, images, audio, video, or any other form of
digital content.
Medium: The medium is the physical or logical pathway
through which the data travels from the sender to the receiver.
Common mediums include cables, optical fibers, radio waves,
or a combination of these.
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Cont…
Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that
govern the format and control of data exchange between
sender and receiver.
Protocols ensure that devices can understand and interpret the
transmitted data correctly.
Encoder and Decoder: The encoder converts the data into a
suitable format for transmission, and the decoder converts
the received data back into its original form for interpretation.
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Cont…
Noise: Noise refers to unwanted interference or disturbances
that can affect the quality of the transmitted data.
Various measures, such as error-checking codes and modulation
techniques, are employed to mitigate the impact of noise.
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Modes of Data Communication:
Simplex: In simplex communication, data flows in one direction
only, from the sender to the receiver. Examples include
television broadcasting and keyboard input.
Half-Duplex: In half-duplex communication, data can flow in
both directions, but not simultaneously. Push-to-talk radios
and walkie-talkies are examples of half-duplex communication.
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Source: https://thestudygenius.com/data-transmission-modes/

Cont…
Full-Duplex: Full-duplex communication allows simultaneous
two-way data flow, where both sender and receiver can
transmit and receive data concurrently.
Telephone conversations and most internet communication are
full-duplex.
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Types of Data Communication:
Analog Communication: Analog communication involves
continuous signals, such as analog audio signals.
It is susceptible to noise and signal degradation over long
distances.
Digital Communication: Digital communication uses discrete
signals, typically represented as binary code (0s and 1s).
Digital communication is more resistant to noise and allows for
error detection and correction.
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Cont…
Wireless Communication: Wireless communication enables data
exchange without physical cables.
Technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks are
examples of wireless data communication.
Wired Communication: Wired communication uses physical
cables to transmit data.
Eg: Ethernet cables, fiber optics, and coaxial cables.
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Data Server Architecture:
Data service architecture refers to the design and structure of
systems that handle data-related tasks, such as storage,
retrieval, processing, and management.
In modern IT environments, data server architectures often involve
databases, data warehouses, and data processing systems.
Database Management Systems (DBMS): DBMS is software
that manages the storage, retrieval, and organization of data in
databases.
Eg: MySQL, Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, and MongoDB.
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Cont…
Data Warehousing: Data warehouses are specialized databases
optimized for analytics and reporting.
They consolidate data from various sources to support decision-
making processes.
Data Processing Systems: Systems designed for data
processing, which can include batch processing, stream
processing, and real-time processing, depending on the
business requirements.
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Data APIs (Application Programming Interfaces): APIs allow
applications to interact with and retrieve data from
databases or other data sources.
They play a crucial role in enabling communication between
different components of a system.
Data Security Measures: Security measures such as encryption,
access controls, and authentication to ensure the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability of data.
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Client Server Architecture:
Client server architecture focuses on the design and structure of
systems that provide services to end-users or clients.
This often involves front-end applications, user interfaces, and
services that interact directly with users.
Key components may include:
Front-End Applications: Client-facing applications, whether web-
based, mobile apps, or desktop applications, that provide a user
interface for interacting with services.
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User Interface (UI) Design: UI design involves creating visually
appealing and user-friendly interfaces that enhance the user
experience.
It includes elements such as layout, navigation, and interactive
components.
Client-Side Scripting: Scripting languages such as JavaScript
are used for client-side processing within web browsers.
They enhance the interactivity of web pages and improve the user
experience.
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Communication Protocols: Protocols like HTTP/HTTPS govern
the communication between clients and servers over the
internet.
RESTful APIs are commonly used for building client-server
interactions.
Client-Side Frameworks: Frameworks provide a structured way
to build and manage client-side applications, enabling efficient
development and maintenance.
* RESTful : Representational State Transfer
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Client-Side Caching: Caching mechanisms on the client side can
improve performance by storing frequently used data locally,
reducing the need for repeated requests to the server.
User Authentication and Authorization: Systems for user
authentication (verifying identity) and authorization (determining
access rights) to ensure secure access to services.
Error Handling and Logging: Mechanisms to handle errors
gracefully and log relevant information for troubleshooting and
improvement.
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RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.
It is a type of database management system that organizes data
into tables, which are structured according to a relational model.
In the relational model, data is organized into rows and columns,
with each row representing a record and each column
representing an attribute or field.
RDBMSs are widely used in various applications and industries
due to their flexibility, scalability, and ability to enforce data
integrity.
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Source: https://www.learncomputerscienceonline.com/relational-database/
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Key features and components of RDBMS:
Tables: Data is organized into tables, with each table consisting of
rows and columns.
Tables represent entities, and each row represents a specific
record of that entity.
Relationships: Relationships between tables are established
through keys.
A primary key uniquely identifies each record in a table, and
foreign keys establish relationships between tables.
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Data Integrity: RDBMS enforces data integrity through constraints
such as primary keys, foreign keys, unique constraints, and
check constraints.
This ensures accuracy and consistency of data.
Normalization: Normalization is the process of organizing data to
reduce redundancy and dependency.
This helps maintain data consistency and improves database
efficiency.
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Structured Query Language (SQL): SQL is a standard language
for interacting with RDBMS.
It is used to perform operations like querying, updating, inserting,
and deleting data from tables.
ACID Properties: RDBMS adheres to ACID properties (Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, Durability) to ensure the reliability and
consistency of transactions.
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Transaction Management: RDBMS supports transactions, which
are sequences of one or more SQL statements that are
executed as a single unit.
Transactions ensure that a series of operations are completed
successfully or rolled back if an error occurs.
Concurrency Control: Concurrency control mechanisms prevent
conflicts when multiple users or applications access and modify
the same data concurrently.
This ensures data consistency and integrity.
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Examples of popular RDBMS include:
• MySQL
• Oracle Database
• Microsoft SQL Server
• PostgreSQL
• SQLite
RDBMSs are widely used in various applications, from simple web
databases to large-scale enterprise systems, due to their ability
to efficiently manage and organize structured data.
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Data Warehouse
A Data Warehouse is a specialized type of database designed
for the purpose of reporting and analysis.
It is a centralized repository that consolidates, organizes, and
stores large volumes of data from various sources within an
organization.
The primary goal of a data warehouse is to support business
intelligence and decision-making processes by providing
a unified view of historical and current data.
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Key Characteristics of a Data Warehouse:
Subject-Oriented: Data warehouses are organized around
specific subjects or business areas, such as sales, finance, or
customer relations.
They focus on providing a comprehensive view of data related to
these subjects.
Integrated: Data integration involves combining data from different
sources into a unified format within the data warehouse.
This ensures consistency and coherence of data across the
organization.
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Time-Variant: Data warehouses store historical data and allow
users to analyze changes and trends over time.
This time-variant aspect enables the examination of historical
performance and supports trend analysis.
Non-Volatile: Data in a data warehouse is typically read-only or
non-volatile.
Once data is loaded into the data warehouse, it is not frequently
updated.
This stability ensures consistency and reliability for analytical
purposes.
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Large-Scale Data Storage: Data warehouses are designed to
handle large volumes of data efficiently.
They use architectures that support high-performance querying
and reporting on extensive datasets.
Data Quality and Cleansing: Data quality is a critical aspect of
data warehousing.
Before being loaded into the warehouse, data often undergoes
cleaning, transformation, and validation processes to ensure
accuracy and reliability.
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Internet
The Internet, short form of "interconnected networks" is a global
network of interconnected computers and computer networks.
It is a vast and decentralized communication infrastructure that
allows the exchange of information and data among billions of
devices worldwide.
The internet plays a pivotal role in connecting people, facilitating
communication, and enabling the transfer of data, making it a
fundamental component of modern society.
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Components and Features of the Internet:
Network of Networks: The internet is composed of a vast
network of interconnected smaller networks.
These networks can include local area networks (LANs), wide area
networks (WANs), and other types of networks.
Protocols: Internet protocols, such as TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), provide the rules and
conventions for data transmission and communication across
the internet.
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World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web, commonly
referred to as the web, is a system of interlinked documents and
resources accessible via the internet.
It is a major component of internet usage and allows users to
navigate and interact with information through web browsers.
Web Browsers: Web browsers, like Chrome, Firefox, Safari, and
Edge, enable users to access and interact with web-based
content, including websites, applications, and multimedia.
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Hyperlinks and URLs: Hyperlinks are clickable elements that
allow users to navigate between different web pages or
resources.
Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) are addresses used to locate
and access specific resources on the web.
Email: Email (electronic mail) is a widely used communication tool
on the internet.
It enables the exchange of messages and files between users.
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Search Engines: Search engines, such as Google, Bing, and
Yahoo, help users discover and retrieve information from the
vast content available on the internet.
Social Media: Social media platforms, including Facebook,
Twitter, Instagram, and LinkedIn, facilitate online social
interactions, content sharing, and community building.
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Online Services: Various online services, such as cloud
computing, streaming platforms, online banking, and e-
commerce, leverage the internet to provide a wide range of
functionalities.
Internet of Things (IoT): The Internet of Things refers to the
network of interconnected physical devices, vehicles,
appliances, and other objects embedded with sensors,
software, and network connectivity, allowing them to collect and
exchange data.
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World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the web) is a system of
interlinked hypertext documents and multimedia content
accessible via the internet.
Developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the web has become
a fundamental component of the internet, providing a user-
friendly interface for accessing and interacting with information.
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Components and Features of the World Wide Web:
Hypertext and Hyperlinks: The web is based on the concept of
hypertext, allowing documents to contain hyperlinks that
connect them to other documents.
Hyperlinks enable users to navigate between web pages, creating
a web of interconnected content.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL): A URL is a web address that
specifies the location of a resource on the internet.
It includes the protocol (e.g., http, https), domain name, and path
to the resource.
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Web Browsers: Web browsers are software applications that
allow users to access and interact with web content.
Popular web browsers include Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge, and
others.
Web Pages: A web page is a single document or resource on the
web. It can include text, images, videos, and interactive
elements.
Web pages are written in languages such as HTML (Hypertext
Markup Language) and may include CSS (Cascading Style
Sheets) for styling and JavaScript for interactivity.
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Web Servers: Web servers store and deliver web content to
users.
When a user requests a web page, the server processes the
request and sends the relevant information to the user's
browser.
Search Engines: Search engines, such as Google, Bing, and
Yahoo, index and organize web content, making it easier for
users to find information by entering search queries.
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Web Standards: Web standards, such as those defined by the
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), ensure consistency and
compatibility across different web browsers.
They define specifications for HTML, CSS, and other technologies.
Web Development Technologies: Technologies like HTML, CSS,
JavaScript, and server-side scripting languages are used in web
development to create and enhance web pages and
applications.
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Content Management Systems (CMS): CMS platforms, such as
Word Press, Joomla, and Drupal, provide tools for creating,
managing, and publishing web content without extensive coding
knowledge.
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Intranet
An intranet is a private network within an organization that uses
internet technologies to securely share information, resources,
and collaboration tools among its members.
It functions as a closed and internal communication platform
accessible only to authorized users, typically employees of the
organization.
Key characteristics of intranets include:
Private Network: Intranets are designed for internal use and are
not accessible to the public.
They operate within the organization's firewall, ensuring a secure
and private environment.
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Cont…
Information Sharing: Intranets facilitate the sharing of
documents, announcements, policies, and other internal
information.
They serve as a centralized hub for communication and
collaboration.
Collaboration Tools: Intranets often integrate collaboration tools
such as file sharing, wikis, forums, and project management
systems to enhance teamwork and communication among
employees.
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Access Control: Access to intranet resources is restricted to
authorized users.
Security measures, such as user authentication and role-based
access control, are implemented to safeguard sensitive
information.
Corporate Communication: Intranets are used for disseminating
corporate news, announcements, and updates.
They provide a centralized platform for internal communication
from leadership to employees.
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Employee Portals: Many intranets include personalized employee
portals where individuals can access relevant information,
documents, and tools specific to their roles within the
organization.
Document Management: Intranets often include document
management systems that allow users to create, share, and
collaborate on documents within a secure environment.
Internal Applications: Intranets may host internal applications
and databases, providing employees with access to tools for
various business processes.
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Extranet:
An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows limited
access to external users, such as customers, partners,
suppliers, or other authorized third parties.
It provides a controlled and secure way to share specific
information with external entities. Key features of extranets
include:
Limited External Access: Extranets extend intranet capabilities to
external users, granting them restricted access to specific
sections or resources. Access is controlled through
authentication mechanisms.
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Cont…
Collaboration with External Partners: Extranets are often used
to collaborate with external partners, suppliers, or clients.
They provide a secure platform for sharing documents, project
updates, and other relevant information.
Secure Communication: Security measures, such as encryption
and secure login credentials, are implemented to ensure that
external users can access the extranet securely.
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Joint Project Spaces: Extranets support joint project spaces
where internal and external users can collaborate on shared
initiatives.
This is particularly valuable in scenarios involving distributed
teams.
Customer Portals: Many businesses use extranets to create
customer portals where clients can access account information,
order status, support resources, and other services.
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Cont…
Supplier Management: Extranets facilitate communication and
collaboration with suppliers by providing a platform for sharing
procurement-related information, inventory updates, and order
processing.
Access Control and Permissions: Similar to intranets, extranets
employ access control mechanisms to manage permissions and
restrict access based on user roles and responsibilities.
Integration with Internal Systems: Extranets may integrate with
internal systems, databases, or applications to provide external
users with specific functionalities without compromising security.
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Electronic payment system
An electronic payment system, often referred to as an online
payment system or digital payment system, enables electronic
transactions for goods and services over the internet.
It provides a convenient and secure way for individuals and
businesses to make and receive payments without the need for
physical currency or traditional paper-based methods.
Key components and features of electronic payment systems:
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Online Payment Gateway: An online payment gateway is a
technology that facilitates the secure processing of payment
transactions over the internet.
It acts as an intermediary between the merchant's website and the
financial institution, ensuring the secure transfer of payment
information.
Digital Wallets: Digital wallets, also known as e-wallets, store
users' payment information and allow them to make online
transactions quickly.
Popular digital wallets include PayPal, Apple Pay, Google Pay, and
others.
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Credit and Debit Cards: Electronic payment systems often
involve the use of credit and debit cards.
Users input card details during online transactions, and the
payment system securely processes the information for
authorization.
Bank Transfers: Bank transfers involve the direct transfer of funds
from one bank account to another.
Electronic payment systems facilitate online banking transactions,
including direct transfers between accounts.
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Mobile Payments: Mobile payment systems allow users to make
payments using their mobile devices.
This includes mobile banking apps, QR code payments, and near-
field communication (NFC) technology for contactless
payments.
Cryptocurrencies: Cryptocurrencies, such as Bitcoin and
Ethereum, enable peer-to-peer electronic transactions through
blockchain technology.
Cryptocurrency wallets are used to store and transfer digital
assets.
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Prepaid Cards: Prepaid cards, often used for online purchases,
allow users to load a specific amount of money onto a card.
These cards can be physical or virtual, and users can spend the
preloaded amount until it is depleted.
Payment APIs (Application Programming Interfaces): Payment
APIs facilitate the integration of payment processing
functionalities into websites, applications, and e-commerce
platforms.
Developers use these APIs to securely handle payment
transactions.
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Cont…
Biometric Authentication: Some electronic payment systems
incorporate biometric authentication methods, such as
fingerprint recognition or facial recognition, to enhance security
and verify the identity of users.
Tokenization: - Tokenization involves replacing sensitive payment
information with a unique token.
This token is used for transactions, reducing the risk of exposing
actual card details in case of a data breach.
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Cont…
Fraud Detection and Security Measures: - Electronic payment
systems incorporate robust security measures, including
encryption, secure sockets layer (SSL) technology, and fraud
detection algorithms to safeguard against unauthorized access
and fraudulent activities.
Recurring Payments: - Many electronic payment systems
support recurring payments, allowing users to set up automatic
and scheduled payments for subscription services,
memberships, and utility bills.
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Instant Payments: - Some systems offer real-time or instant
payment capabilities, ensuring that transactions are processed
quickly.
This is particularly useful for time-sensitive transactions and
business operations.
Regulatory Compliance: - Electronic payment systems must
comply with relevant financial regulations and data protection
laws to ensure the security and privacy of user information.
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Cont…
User Authentication: - Secure user authentication methods, such
as two-factor authentication (2FA), help verify the identity of
users and prevent unauthorized access to payment accounts
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Impact of web on strategic management
The advent and widespread adoption of the World Wide Web
(Web) have had a profound impact on strategic management
across various industries.
The Web has fundamentally altered the way organizations
operate, compete, and formulate their strategies.
Information Access and Analysis: The Web provides
unprecedented access to information.
Strategic managers can leverage the vast amount of data
available online to gather market intelligence, monitor
competitors, and analyze industry trends.
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Cont…
Market Research and Customer Insights: Organizations can
use the Web for market research, obtaining valuable insights
into customer behavior, preferences, and feedback.
This data helps in the formulation of customer-centric strategies
and the development of products and services that align with
market demands.
E-commerce and Digital Business Models: The rise of e-
commerce facilitated by the Web has led to the development of
new digital business models.
This has necessitated strategic shifts to embrace digital
transformation.
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Cont…
Globalization and Market Expansion: The Web has facilitated
globalization by enabling organizations to reach a global
audience.
Strategic managers can explore international markets, engage
with diverse customer bases, and form strategic alliances with
partners across the globe.
Digital Marketing and Branding: Digital marketing on the Web
has become a key component of strategic management.
Organizations use social media, content marketing, search engine
optimization (SEO), and other online strategies to enhance
brand visibility, engage with audiences, and drive customer
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Cont…
Communication and Collaboration: The Web has transformed
communication and collaboration within organizations.
Strategic managers can use online collaboration tools, intranets,
and communication platforms to foster teamwork, share
information, and streamline internal processes.
Agile Decision-Making: The Web enables real-time information
sharing, allowing organizations to respond more quickly to
changes in the business environment.
Strategic managers can adopt agile decision-making processes,
adapting strategies dynamically to evolving market conditions.
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Cont…
Competitive Intelligence: The Web facilitates the monitoring of
competitors' activities, strategies, and market positioning.
Strategic managers can use competitive intelligence gathered from
online sources to identify opportunities, assess threats, and
refine their own strategies accordingly.
Data Analytics and Business Intelligence: The Web generates
vast amounts of data, and organizations can leverage analytics
and business intelligence tools to derive actionable insights.
Strategic managers can use data-driven decision-making to
optimize operations, improve efficiency, and enhance strategic
planning.
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Cont…
Disruption and Innovation: The Web has been a catalyst for
disruptive innovation.
Strategic management in the digital age requires organizations to
be adaptable and open to innovation.
Companies that embrace digital disruption and leverage the Web
for innovation can gain a competitive advantage.
Cyber security Considerations: With the increased reliance on
the Web, strategic managers must address cybersecurity as a
critical component of their strategies.
Protecting sensitive data, ensuring privacy, and safeguarding
against cyber threats are integral aspects of strategic risk
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Web enabled business management
Web-enabled business management refers to the integration of
web-based technologies and digital tools into various aspects of
business operations, decision-making, and collaboration.
This approach leverages the capabilities of the World Wide Web to
enhance efficiency, communication, and strategic management
within an organization.
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Cont…
Web-Based Communication and Collaboration: Utilize web-
based communication tools, such as email, instant messaging,
and video conferencing, to facilitate seamless collaboration
among teams and departments.
Collaboration platforms, document sharing, and project
management tools enhance teamwork and information
exchange.
Online Project Management: Implement web-based project
management tools to plan, monitor, and track projects in real-
time.
These tools often include features for task management, milestone
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Cont…
Cloud Computing: Embrace cloud computing for storing and
accessing data, applications, and resources over the internet.
Cloud-based services provide flexibility, scalability, and
accessibility, allowing businesses to reduce infrastructure costs
and enhance operational agility.
Customer Relationship Management (CRM): Implement web-
enabled CRM systems to manage customer interactions, track
leads, and analyze customer data.
These systems facilitate personalized customer engagement,
improve sales processes, and support marketing efforts.
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Cont…
E-Commerce and Online Sales: Leverage web-enabled e-
commerce platforms to conduct online sales, reach a broader
audience, and streamline the buying process.
E-commerce integration can include online storefronts, secure
payment gateways, and order fulfillment systems.
Data Analytics and Business Intelligence: Use web-based
analytics tools to gather insights from data generated across
various business processes.
Business intelligence dashboards and reporting systems enable
informed decision-making, performance monitoring, and
strategic planning.
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Cont…
Human Resources Management: Implement web-based HR
management systems for tasks such as recruitment, employee
onboarding, performance evaluation, and workforce planning.
These systems streamline HR processes and enhance employee
engagement.
Online Training and Development: Utilize web-based learning
management systems (LMS) for employee training and
development.
Online courses, webinars, and virtual training sessions can be
delivered to employees, promoting continuous learning and skill
development.
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Cont…
Supply Chain and Logistics: Integrate web-enabled systems for
supply chain management, inventory tracking, and logistics
coordination.
This ensures real-time visibility into the supply chain, reduces lead
times, and enhances overall efficiency.
Cybersecurity Measures: Implement robust cybersecurity
measures to protect web-enabled systems and data.
This includes secure authentication, encryption, regular security
audits, and employee training to mitigate cybersecurity risks.
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Cont…
Mobile Accessibility: Ensure that web-enabled business
management systems are accessible via mobile devices.
This enables employees to stay connected and perform tasks
remotely, supporting flexibility and remote work arrangements.
Social Media Integration: Integrate social media platforms into
business management strategies for marketing, customer
engagement, and brand promotion.
Social media analytics can provide valuable insights into consumer
behavior and preferences.
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Cont…
Regulatory Compliance: Stay informed about and comply with
relevant regulations and legal requirements related to web-
enabled business activities.
This includes data protection laws, privacy regulations, and
industry-specific compliance standards.
Feedback and Analytics from Web Presence: Leverage web
analytics to gather insights from the organization's online
presence, including website traffic, social media engagement,
and online customer feedback.
This information can inform marketing strategies and customer
satisfaction initiatives.
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MIS in web environment
Web-Based Data Collection: MIS in a web environment allows
for the collection of data through web forms, online surveys, and
other interactive web elements.
This facilitates efficient and real-time data input from various
sources.
Centralized Data Storage: Data collected through web-based
systems is stored in centralized databases accessible via the
web.
This centralization enables secure data storage, easy retrieval,
and supports data integrity.
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Cont…
Web-Based Information Processing: Web-enabled MIS systems
use online processing capabilities to analyze and manipulate
data.
This includes data validation, transformation, and computation
performed through web applications.
Real-Time Reporting and Dashboards: Web-based MIS
solutions provide real-time reporting and interactive
dashboards.
Decision-makers can access up-to-date information and key
performance indicators (KPIs) from anywhere with internet
access.
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Cont…
Accessibility and Mobility: Web-based MIS systems offer
accessibility from various devices, promoting mobility and
flexibility.
Users can access information, reports, and dashboards from
desktops, laptops, tablets, or smartphones, supporting remote
work scenarios.
Collaboration and Communication: Web-enabled MIS promotes
collaboration through online communication tools.
Teams can share information, collaborate on projects, and engage
in discussions through integrated communication features.
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Cont…
Integration with Web Technologies: MIS systems can be
integrated with other web technologies, such as APIs
(Application Programming Interfaces) and web services.
This enables seamless data exchange between different web
applications and platforms.
User Authentication and Security: Web-based MIS systems
incorporate user authentication mechanisms to ensure secure
access.
Encryption, secure login procedures, and access controls are
implemented to protect sensitive information.
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Cont…
E-Commerce Integration: For businesses engaged in e-
commerce, MIS in a web environment integrates with online
transaction systems, enabling the monitoring and analysis of
sales, inventory, and customer data.
Cloud-Based MIS Solutions: Cloud-based MIS solutions
leverage web technologies to provide scalable and flexible
infrastructure.
Cloud hosting allows for cost-effective data storage, accessibility,
and seamless updates.
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Cont…
Data Visualization: Web-enabled MIS often includes data
visualization tools to present information in a visually compelling
manner.
Graphs, charts, and interactive visualizations enhance the
understanding of complex data sets.
Customization and Scalability: Web-based MIS systems are
often customizable to meet specific organizational needs.
They can also be scalable to accommodate the growth of data and
users over time.
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Cont…
Remote Monitoring and Management: Remote monitoring
capabilities enable administrators to oversee MIS operations,
troubleshoot issues, and perform system maintenance from any
location with internet access.
Compliance and Regulatory Considerations: Web-based MIS
solutions must adhere to data protection and regulatory
requirements.
Compliance with privacy laws and industry-specific regulations is
crucial for maintaining the integrity and security of information.
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Cont…
User Training and Support: Web-based MIS implementations
require user training and support.
Organizations need to provide resources for users to familiarize
themselves with the system, ensuring effective utilization.
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Expected Questions
• What is the role of IT infrastructure in organizations?
• Explain the components of IT infrastructure.
• How does IT infrastructure support business operations?
• Discuss the importance of IT infrastructure for data processing.
• Define data processing and its stages.
• What are the main methods of data processing?
• How does data processing contribute to decision-making in organizations?
• Define transaction processing.
• Explain the key characteristics of transaction processing systems.
• What are the challenges associated with transaction processing?
• Describe the role of application processing in IT.
• Provide examples of applications in business processing.
• How does application processing enhance organizational efficiency?
• Define information system processing.
• Explain the relationship between information systems and business processes.
• How does information system processing contribute to organizational goals?
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Cont…
• What is Total Quality Management (TQM) in the context of information systems?
• How can TQM principles be applied to improve information systems?
• Discuss the benefits of implementing TQM in information systems.
• What is a computer network?
• Explain the importance of networking in modern organizations.
• Differentiate between local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs).
• Define network topology.
• Discuss different types of network topologies.
• What factors influence the choice of network topology in an organization?
• Explain the concept of data communication.
• What are the key components of a data communication system?
• Discuss the challenges in ensuring effective data communication.
• Define data architecture.
• What role does client service architecture play in IT systems?
• How does data and client service architecture contribute to system scalability?
• What is an RDBMS?
TSN, DMS-JSSATEB
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Cont…
• Explain the principles of relational databases.
• How does an RDBMS differ from other database management systems?
• Define a data warehouse.
• What is the purpose of a data warehouse in an organization?
• Explain the key components of a data warehouse architecture.
• Define E-business.
• How does E-business differ from traditional business models?
• What are the key advantages of adopting E-business practices?
• Discuss different models of E-business.
• Explain the B2B (Business-to-Business) and B2C (Business-to-Consumer) models.
• How do E-business models impact customer relationships?
• Differentiate between the internet and the World Wide Web.
• Explain the key components of the WWW.
• How has the internet and WWW transformed communication and information access?
• Define intranet and extranet.
• What are the primary differences between intranets and extranets?
TSN, DMS-JSSATEB
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Cont…
• How do intranets and extranets enhance organizational communication and collaboration?
• Discuss the importance of security in E-business.
• What are the common security challenges in E-business?
• Explain strategies to ensure a secure E-business environment.
• Define electronic payment systems.
• How do electronic payment systems work?
• Discuss the security measures in electronic payment systems.
• How has the web impacted strategic management in organizations?
• Discuss the role of the web in shaping competitive strategies.
• Provide examples of strategic management changes influenced by the web.
• Explain the concept of web-enabled business management.
• How does web-enabled business management enhance organizational efficiency?
• Discuss the challenges and benefits of implementing web-enabled management systems.
• What is MIS in a web environment?
• How does web technology contribute to MIS processes?
• Discuss the advantages of implementing MIS in a web environment.
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147

References
• “Management Information Systems”, Kenneth J Laudon, Jane P. Laudon,
Pearson/PHI, 11/e, 2010.
• “Management Information Systems”, W. S. Jawadekar, Tata McGraw Hill
Edition, 5/e, 2017.
• Management Information Systems, S. Sadagopan, PHI, 1/e, 2005.
• Introduction to Information System, James A. O’ Brien, Tata McGraw Hill, 12
th Edition, 2007.
• Management Information Systems, Iffy Oz, Thomson Course Technology,
3/e, 2003.
• Management Information System, CSV Murthy, HPH, 3/e.
• Corporate Information Strategy and Management, Lynda M Apple Gate,
Robert D Austin et al, Tata McGraw Hill, 7th Edition.
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