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Local Area Networks – The Basics
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
• State the definition of a local area network.
• List the primary function, activities, and application areas of a local area network.
• Cite the advantages and disadvantages of local area networks.
• Identify the physical and logical local area networks.
• Specify the different medium access control techniques.
• Recognize the different IEEE 802 frame formats.
• Describe the common wired local area network systems.
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction
2. Primary Function of Local Area Networks
3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Local Area Networks
4. The First Local Area Network – The Bus/Tree
5. A More Modern LAN
a. Contention-based protocols
6. Switches
a. Isolating traffic patterns and providing multiple access
b. Full-duplex switches
c. Virtual LANs
d. Link aggregation
e. Spanning tree algorithm
f. Quality of service
7. Wired Ethernet
8. Wired Ethernet Frame Format
Chapter 7

9. LANs In Action: A Small Office Solution
10. Summary
Lecture Notes
Introduction
A local area network (LAN) is a communication network that interconnects a variety of data
communicating devices within a small geographic area and broadcasts data at high data transfer
rates with very low error rates. Since the local area network first appeared in the 1970s, its use
has become widespread in commercial and academic environments. It would be very difficult to
imagine a collection of personal computers within a computing environment that does not
employ some form of local area network. This chapter begins by discussing the basic layouts or
topologies of the most commonly found local area networks, followed by the medium access
control protocols that allow a workstation to transmit data on the network. We will then examine
most of the common Ethernet products.
Functions of a Local Area Network
The majority of users expect a local area network to perform the following functions and provide
the following applications: file serving, database and application serving, print serving,
electronic mail, remote links, video transfers, process control and monitoring, and distributed
processing.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Local Area Networks
Local area networks have several advantages, including hardware and software sharing,
workstation survival during network failure, component and system evolution, heterogeneous
mix of hardware and software, and access to other LANs, WANs, and mainframe computers.
Disadvantages include complexity, maintenance costs, and the network is only as strong as the
weakest link.
The First Local Area Network – The Bus/Tree
The bus local area network was the first physical design when LANs became commercially
available in the late 1970s, and it essentially consists of a single cable, or bus, to which all
devices attach. Since then the bus has diminished significantly to the point of near extinction. It

is interesting to note that cable television signals are still delivered by a network bus. Thus,
understanding the bus/tee network is still important.
A More Modern LAN
The most popular configuration for a local area network is the star-wired bus. This form of LAN
should not be confused with an older technology called the star topology. Today’s modern star-
wired bus network acts like a bus but looks like a star. The logical design of operates as a bus
where one workstation can transmit to all other workstations. The physical design, however,
more resembles a star, with the hub or switch acting as the central point.
Contention-based Protocols
A medium access control protocol is part of the software that allows a workstation to place data
onto a local area network. Depending on the network’s topology, several types of protocols may
be applicable. The bottom line with all medium access control protocols is this: Since a local
area network is a broadcast network, it is imperative that only one workstation at a time be
allowed to transmit its data onto the network. In the case of a broadband local area network,
which can support multiple channels at the same time, it is imperative that only one workstation
at a time be allowed to transmit its data onto a channel on the network. There remains only one
basic category of medium access control protocol for local area networks: contention-based.
Switches
A switch is a combination of a hub and a bridge and can interconnect multiple workstations like
a hub but can also filter out frames providing a segmentation of the network. Switches can
provide a significant decrease in interconnection traffic and increase the throughput of the
interconnected networks while requiring no additional cabling or rearranging of the network
devices. Modern switches can provide full-duplex connections, virtual LANs, aggregated links,
support spanning tree algorithms, and provide quality of service levels.
Wired Ethernet
The various versions of wired Ethernet include the older 10 Mbps systems, 100 Mbps, Gigabit,
and 10 Gbps.
Wired Ethernet Frame Format
The IEEE 802 set of standards has split the data link layer into two sublayers: the medium access
control sublayer and the logical link control sublayer. The medium access control (MAC)
sublayer works more closely with the physical layer and contains a header, computer (physical)
addresses, error detection codes, and control information. The logical link control (LLC)
sublayer is primarily responsible for logical addressing and providing error control and flow
control information.

LANs In Action: A Small Office Solution
The first In Action example examines how a small business decides to incorporate a LAN into
their business solution. The business included 35 - 40 workstations with word processing,
spreadsheets, and database applications. In order to add internal e-mail, a central database
system, and print sharing, the company will consider the addition of a local area network.
Quick Quiz
1. What are the major functions of a LAN?
File and print serving, access to other LANs, WANs and mainframes, distributed processing, and
process control.
2. What are the various medium access control techniques?
Contention-based. Round robin systems have essentially disappeared.
3. What is the difference between a hub, a switch, and a router?
Hub broadcasts any input onto all outgoing lines; switch replaces a hub and provides filtering;
router interconnects a LAN with a WAN.
4. What are the basic functions of a network server?
Holds network operating system as well as application programs and data set; may also function
as a hub, switch, bridge or router.
Discussion Topics
1. Couldn’t IEEE have made a single frame format for all the forms of local area networks?
2. Are LANs a stable technology or are they changing just as quickly as other forms of
communication technologies?
3. Is Ethernet that good that it’s the predominant form of LAN? Will everything eventually be
Ethernet / CSMA/CD?
4. Will hubs be obsolete someday?
5. What are the advantages of creating virtual LANs?

Teaching Tips
1. Be sure to emphasize the difference between logical view and physical view. For example, a
star-wired bus logically acts like a bus but physically looks like a star. A star-wire ring logically
acts like a ring but physically looks like a star. A bus logically and physically is a bus.
2. The frame is the name of the package at the data link layer. It is the frame that is placed onto
the medium of the physical layer. The IEEE 802 frame formats describe the layout of the frame
and what the data looks like as it moves over a LAN. The frame addresses are the ones used to
address a NIC in a machine. This is not the address that is used to send a packet over the Internet
(that is the IP address).
3. Discuss the non-determinism of the CSMA/CD LAN and how collisions in hub-based LANs
create this characteristic. Discuss how switches and no collisions have changed things.
4. What kind of mix does your school or company have of hubs, routers, and switches? Use this
information as an example in class.
5. Take your students to one or more locations on campus and show them an actual, working hub
/ switch / router.
6. Make sure you emphasize how a switch filters out unnecessary packets.
Solutions to Review Questions
1. What is the definition of a local area network?
A communication network that interconnects a variety of data communicating devices within a
small geographic area and broadcasts data at high data transfer rates with very low error rates.
2. List the primary activities and application areas of a local area network.
File serving, print serving, connection to other networks and mainframes.
3. List the advantages and disadvantages of local area networks.
Adv: Share files and devices, intercommunication.
Disadv: Maintenance, complexity, costs.
4. What are the basic layouts of local area networks? List two advantages that each layout
has over the others.
Bus: Uses low noise coaxial cable, inexpensive taps.
Star-wired bus: Simple to interconnect, easy to add components, most popular.

Star-wired ring: Simple to interconnect and easy to add components (but no more so than star-
wired bus).
5. What is meant by a passive device?
A signal that enters is neither amplified nor regenerated. The signal is simply passed on.
6. What is meant by a bidirectional signal?
A signal that propagates in either direction on a medium.
7. What are the primary differences between baseband technology and broadband
technology?
Baseband is a signal digital signal while broadband is analog and may carry many signals.
8. What purpose does a hub serve?
The hub is a collection point for workstations.
9. What is the difference between a physical design and a logical design?
Physical is the wiring and components, logical is how the software passes the data.
10. What is a medium access control protocol?
The software that allows a workstation to insert its data onto the LAN.
11. What are the basic operating principles behind CSMA/CD?
CSMA/CD: Listen to medium, if no one transmitting, transmit. Continue to listen for collisions.
If someone is transmitting, wait.
12. What is meant by a “nondeterministic” protocol?
You cannot determine precisely when a workstation will get a chance to transmit (because of
potential collisions).
13. What does the term 100BaseT stand for?
One hundred mega-bits per second transmission over baseband (digital) signals, using twisted
pair wiring.
14. What is the difference between Fast Ethernet and regular Ethernet?
Fast Ethernet transmits at 100 Mbps while regular Ethernet transmits at 10 Mbps.

15. What are the latest 10-Gbps Ethernet standards?
10GBase-fiber, 10GBase-T, 10GBase-CS
16. What is the primary advantage of power over Ethernet? The primary disadvantage?
Primary advantage is not having to run a separate power line to power device; primary
disadvantage is making sure the switch has enough power to run PoE devices.
17. How does a transparent switch work?
Observes traffic on a LAN and creates a set of forwarding tables; filters traffic
18. What is the purpose of a virtual LAN?
To create a logical subgroup of multiple workstations and servers.
19. How does a switch encapsulate a message for transmission?
It really doesn’t encapsulate anything. Switch looks at NIC/MAC addresses and forwards
accordingly.
20. When referring to a hub or a switch, what is a port?
The port is the connection that is used to connect a workstation or another hub or switch to this
hub or switch.
21. What are the basic functions of a switch?
A switch examines a packet’s destination address and routes the packet to the appropriate
workstation.
22. How does a switch differ from a hub?
Switch examines addresses, hub does not. A switch has multiple ports and takes the place of a
hub.
23. What is cut-through architecture?
The device is passing the data packet on before it has even finished entering the device.
24. How is a full-duplex switch different from a switch?
Full duplex switch has one set of lines for receiving and one set of lines for transmitting, thus it
can do both operations at the same time.

25. What is meant by link aggregation?
The process of combining two or more links into one logical fat link.
Suggested Solutions to Exercises
1. What properties set a local area network apart from other forms of networks?
Small geographic distances using broadband transmissions.
2. Describe an example of a broadband bus system.
Cable modems, video surveillance systems, cable television.
3. Is a hub a passive device? Explain.
Not completely. A hub does regenerate a digital signal. And there may be some simple network
management functions performed in a hub.
4. Which of the Ethernet standards (10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1000 Mbps, 10 Gbps) allow for
twisted pair media? What are the corresponding IEEE standard names?
Currently all but 10 Gbps Ethernet can run over twisted pair.
5. If a network were described as 1000BaseT, list everything you know about that network.
CSMA/CD LAN, 1000 Mbps transmission, baseband or digital signaling, twisted pair wiring.
6. In the IEEE 802.3 frame forma, what is the PAD field used for? What is the minimum
packet size?
PAD field makes sure the frame is not mis-interpreted as a runt. Minimum packet size is 64
bytes.
7. Suppose workstation A wants to send the message HELLO to workstation B. Both
workstations are on an IEEE 802.3 local area network. Workstation A has the binary
address “1" and workstation B has the binary address “10." Show the resulting MAC
sublayer frame (in binary) that is transmitted. Don’t calculate a CRC; just make one up.
HEADER 10 1 5(data length) HELLO PAD(33 bytes) CHECKSUM
8. What is the difference between the physical representation of a star-wired ring LAN and
the logical representation?

A star-wired ring LAN physically looks like a star but acts logically like a ring. A star-wired bus
physically looks like a star but acts logically like a bus.
9. How is a hub similar to a switch? How are they different?
Not too much similar. They both physically connect into the network the same. Both forward
frames. But a switch looks at the MAC address and either forwards or drops the frame.
10. Are hubs and switches interchangeable? Explain.
Yes. But results can be quite different.
11. a. The local area network shown in Figure 7-21 has two hubs (X and Y) interconnecting
the workstations and servers. What workstations and servers will receive a copy of a
packet if the following workstations/servers transmit a message:
• Workstation 1 sends a message to workstation 3:
• Workstation 2 sends a message to Server 1:
• Server 1 sends a message to workstation 3:
All devices will receive all messages.
b. Replace hub Y with a switch. Now what workstations and servers will receive a copy of a
packet if the following workstations/servers transmit a message:
• Workstation 1 sends a message to workstation 3:
• Workstation 2 sends a message to Server 1:
• Server 1 sends a message to workstation 3:
Workstations 1, 2 and 3.
Workstations 1, 2 and the server.
Only workstation 3.
12. A transparent switch is inserted between two local area networks ABC and XYZ.
Network ABC has workstations 1, 2 and 3, and network XYZ has workstations 4, 5, and 6.
Show the contents of the two forwarding tables in the switch as the following packets are
transmitted. Both forwarding tables start off empty.
• Workstation 2 sends a packet to workstation 3.

At the end:
Routing table on ABC’s port: 1, 2
Routing table on XYZ’s port: 4,5,6
13. Give an example of a situation in which a virtual LAN might be a useful tool in a
business environment. What about in an educational environment?
If you want a certain group of users to work together on a project, you might want to place them
on a virtual LAN. Likewise for school.
14. What does it mean when a switch or device is cut-through? What is the main
disadvantage of a cut-through switch? Is there a way to solve this disadvantage of a cut-
through switch without losing the advantages?
Cut-through means the beginning of the data packet is leaving the switch before the end of the
packet has entered the switch. Disadvantage is errors are propagated. Not if you want to keep it
truly cut-through.
15. Give a common business example that mimics the differences between a shared network
segment and a dedicated network segment.
Wide range of possible answers here.
16. Your company’s switch between its two networks has just died. You have a router
lying on your desk that is not currently being used. Will the router work in place of the
broken bridge? Explain.
No. Routers operate on IP addresses, while switches operate on NIC addresses.
17. A CSMA/CD network is connected to the Internet via a router. A user on the
CSMA/CD network sends an e-mail to a user on the Internet. Show how the e-mail
message is encapsulated as it leaves the CSMA/CD network, enters the router, and then
leaves the router.
Leaving the LAN:
Data
App + Data
TCP + App + Data
IP + TCP + App + Data
MAC + IP + TCP + App + Data + MAC

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Entering router:
MAC + IP + TCP + App + Data + MAC
Leaving router
WAN + IP + TCP + App + Data + WAN
18. Given the following network (Figure 7-22), show how the Spanning Tree Protocol will
eliminate the cyclic path.
The protocol will probably “remove” the bottom link on the far-right switch and the bottom link
on the switch immediately to the left of the far-right switch.
Thinking Outside the Box
1. You can interconnect all cash registers into one or two centrally located switches or hubs. Cat
5e/6 twisted pair should be sufficient. If hubs/switches can’t be centrally located and cable
distance exceeds 100 meters, be careful. Might need better medium. Can also connect using
multiplexing solution from earlier chapter.
Problems 2-6: Many possible solutions here.

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content

The grains of the sand are almost all quartz and generally are
angular. Some of the sands are of almost powder-like fineness,
others are fine or medium grained. Many of the sands contain flakes
of white mica, a glistening, silvery-looking mineral often mistaken for
silver or platinum. Unlike these metals, however, mica is
comparatively light in weight and is not metallic. Also present in
some sands are small flakes of the mineral graphite.
The southern Illinois sands have not been widely used, but some of
them have been employed in making concrete. They also may have
possibilities for molding and core sand.
As a result of work by Survey geologists, the location and properties
of many of the southern Illinois sand deposits are known.

37
CLAY AND SHALE
Man has used clay in various ways for many hundreds of years.
From it he made, and still makes, bricks to build his dwellings,
pottery utensils of many kinds, and other useful products.
Everyone knows what clay is, yet it is a substance difficult to define.
All clays are earth materials, most of them plastic or sticky when wet
but firm when dry. If heated sufficiently (fired) they become hard.
Clays are composed of various minerals. Of these, the so-called clay
minerals—complex substances composed mostly of alumina, silica,
and water—generally are the most important. They impart the
property of plasticity and also cause clays to become hard when
fired.
Most clays are what geologists call unindurated (unhardened)
rocks. Clay that has been indurated and occurs in layered
deposits is commonly called shale. The layers may be from a fraction
of an inch to several inches thick. Most Illinois shales are not plastic
when dug from freshly exposed deposits, but they become plastic
when crushed and kneaded with water. The clays and shales of
Illinois are the basis of a huge and important industry.
Early Uses in Illinois
Clays and shales are useful because they can be made plastic by
adding water, formed into desired shapes, and fired to a rock like
hardness. As a result, various kinds of bricks, drain tile, pottery, and
other useful products are made from them. In its early years, Illinois
had many widely distributed potteries that used clay from nearby

38
deposits to make a variety of jugs, crocks, and bowls that served in
place of many present-day glass or metal articles.
Drain tile has been of major importance in the development of the
state. Early settlers found many low lying, swampy areas and tracts
of land that drained poorly after heavy rains. Ditches were dug to
carry away the water from some areas, but others were drained by
means of drain tile—pieces of fired clay pipe several inches in
diameter and about a foot long that were laid end to end in trenches
below plough depth and then covered with earth. Water seeped into
the tile, which discharged it into ditches. Tile factories, built
throughout Illinois near clay or shale deposits, did an active
business. Gradually, however, as more and more farm land was
drained the demand slackened and many tile factories went out of
business. Although there are fewer factories, much drain tile is still
manufactured in Illinois.
Many of the early tile plants also made bricks to be used for making
foundations, buildings, sidewalks, and other structures. The bricks
were made by hand-operated equipment. Some of the old hand-
molded bricks may still be seen in older buildings. Now the brick-
making process is highly mechanized and even though there are
fewer plants they produce more bricks.
Clay and Shale Deposits
Illinois shales are a part of the bedrock—that is, they are associated
with indurated rocks such as sandstone and limestone. Most clays
are surficial rocks occurring in deposits near the surface, where they
lie above the bedrock. Exceptions are certain clays found in
extreme southern Illinois and the underclays, also called
fireclays, that occur beneath coal seams and are part of the bedrock.

The surficial clays are of two principal kinds—till and loess. Till is a
deposit left by glaciers. It is a gray, blue-gray, or brown clay
containing varying amounts of sand, pebbles, cobbles, and even
boulders. Till is found at many places in the state and is used for
brick making, especially in the Chicago area.
Loess is a wind-deposited silty clay or clayey silt and is found in
many parts of Illinois. It is thickest on or near the bluffs of the
Mississippi, Illinois, and Ohio Rivers. It generally is brown and stands
in steep faces in roadcuts and other excavations. It once was widely
used for making brick and tile.
Of major importance in making clay products in Illinois are the
bedrock shales and the clays associated with the coal-bearing rocks
that underlie much of the state. The shales, and the clays to a lesser
extent, are dug at many places for making structural clay products
such as bricks, structural tile, and drain tile. They also are used to
make lightweight aggregate for concrete. The underclays of some of
the older coal seams are used to make buff-colored brick,
stoneware, and a highly heat-resistant brick (firebrick) that is used in
industrial furnaces or in other operations involving high
temperatures. Some fireclay, ground as fine as flour, is added to
molding sand to make it coherent enough to form into molds for
metal casting. Sewer pipe and flue lining also are made from
underclays.
Clays unlike those found elsewhere in the state occur in extreme
southern Illinois. One of these has the property of removing color
from oils and was so used at one time by petroleum refineries.
Another, kaolin, was extensively used during World War I for making
crucibles.
Clay Minerals

39
The uses of clay and shale are determined to a large degree by the
properties of their clay minerals and to a lesser degree by the
impurities present. A clay or shale containing the clay mineral illite,
and other similar but less important clay minerals, commonly
becomes red when fired and gets hard at a relatively low
temperature. It therefore is used to make red bricks, drain tile,
building tile, and other structural clay products.
Another clay mineral, kaolinite, generally burns to a light color and is
difficult to fuse. Therefore, clays composed wholly or mainly of
kaolinite can be used for making buff or light-colored bricks and for
the manufacture of highly heat-resistant (refractory) bricks.
The clay mineral in the southern Illinois clay that was used to
decolorize oil is montmorillonite. This clay is now used in
sweeping compounds, as an oil absorbent, as animal litter, and for
other purposes.
Studies of Clay and Shale
In view of the significant relationship between the clay minerals and
the utilization of the clays and shales in which they occur, the Illinois
Geological Survey has investigated extensively the clay minerals in
the clay and shale deposits of Illinois. Many samples were studied by
means of powerful microscopes, X-ray, and chemical analysis. Most
of the surface clays and shales proved to be composed principally of
illite or related minerals. The kaolin clay of extreme southern Illinois
contains the mineral kaolinite. The older underclays also contain
kaolinite, but many of them also contain smaller amounts of illite.
The Survey also has tested many clays to determine their burning
properties and color when fired, and hence their potential uses. The
bonding capabilities of other clays have been measured to find out
whether they can be used as a bonding material for molding sand.

40
The bloating properties of Illinois clays and shales from many
deposits have been studied to determine which are suitable for
making lightweight aggregate for the manufacture of concrete.
The object of these studies has been to discover the location,
character, and possible uses of the state’s clay and shale resources.
Special studies are continuing in several parts of the state. Illinois is
well endowed with clays and shales that can be used for a variety of
purposes and has resources to fill future as well as present needs.
How Bricks Are Made
Conversion of Illinois clays and shales into useful products is an
interesting process and is exemplified by the making of building
bricks. Mechanical shovels dig the clay or shale and load it into
trucks or small railroad cars that take it to the brick plant. There,
machines grind the raw material and mix water with it until it has
the consistency of stiff mud.
Next, a machine, which operates somewhat like a meat grinder,
extrudes a brick-sized column of clay. As the column moves forward,
it is automatically cut into bricks by wires. The bricks are then dried
in large heated rooms.

Figure 21—Beehive brick kiln.
From the driers, the bricks go to huge ovens (kilns) and are heated
until they are hard and have attained the desired color. This is
known as firing or burning the bricks. Temperatures employed are
rarely lower than 1800° F.
Three kinds of kilns are used in Illinois for burning bricks—beehive,
tunnel, and scove. A beehive kiln (fig. 21) has a round base and a
dome-shaped top and somewhat resembles an oversized beehive.
Unfired bricks are stacked in the kiln and the doors are sealed with
burned bricks and clay. Fires are started in hearths or fire boxes in
the wall of the kiln and the heat is circulated into and through the
kiln. It usually takes several days to fire the bricks adequately and
let the kiln cool so that the bricks can be removed.

41
Tunnel kilns, made from heat-resistant bricks, are actually tunnels
big enough for a man to stand in. The unburned bricks are loaded
on flat steel cars on top of a layer of refractory blocks that protect
the steel from the heat. The cars enter the kiln and heating begins.
As they move through the kiln, they carry the bricks through a firing
area, then through a cooling zone, and finally out into the air.
In some brickyards in the Chicago area, dried unburned bricks are
carefully stacked by machines into piles about 17 feet high, 35
feet wide, and 115 feet long, which are known as scoves or
scove kilns. A layer of burned bricks that is plastered with clay
covers the sides of the scove. A jet of flame is directed through small
tunnels at the base of the scove, and the heat fires the bricks.
During 1963, more than 325,000,000 bricks were produced by
Illinois brick plants. In the same year, the value of all the clay and
clay products produced in Illinois was nearly $54,000,000. Besides
brick and drain tile, the products of the clay and shale industry of
Illinois include refractory brick, building block and tile, fire-proofing,
sewer pipe, flue liners, stoneware, lightweight bloated burned clay
aggregate for concrete, and a variety of unburned clays for special
purposes, including bonding clay, refractory fireclays, absorbent for
use on garage floors, and litter for animal cages.

PEAT
After the retreat of the last of the great ice sheets from Illinois,
numerous ponds and lakes were left in northern Illinois, especially in
the eastern section. Some of them were soon drained by natural
processes, but others remained. In the shallow water along their
shores grew various plants, chiefly reeds and sedges and, locally, a
variety of moss. As the plants died, their partially decomposed
remains were preserved beneath the water. Ultimately, the ponds
and lakes were overgrown and more or less completely filled by the
plants and their remains, giving rise to peat (fig. 22) bogs.
Some peat bogs have been drained and are now used as farm land.
Others remain and a few of them are the source of peat or humus
for horticultural purposes. Producing operations are located in
northeastern Illinois and in Whiteside County in northwestern
Illinois.

42
OTHER MINERAL RESOURCES
In the future, new uses will be made of the Illinois industrial
minerals already discussed. In addition, other mineral resources of
the state that are not now being used may be the bases of new
mineral industries. Some of these minerals are at present too costly
to mine because the deposits are deeply buried or are not
sufficiently rich to be worked at a profit. Others are not
convenient to markets, and still others have no present commercial
use. In years to come, however, changes may occur that will make it
practical to mine, process, and use some of these resources.
Furthermore, some other mineral deposits that are now being
utilized in a limited way may have greater future use. The Illinois
Geological Survey continues to study the location, character, and
composition of many such mineral materials and is alert for the
development of new uses. Some of the materials are discussed
briefly below.

43
Figure 22—Peat from Kane County showing its fibrous nature and remains of
plants.
Gypsum and Anhydrite
Gypsum is a mineral that consists of calcium sulfate plus two
molecules of water (CaSO₄·2H₂O). By suitably heating it, the
amount of water can be reduced, and a product called calcined
gypsum (plaster of paris) results. This material changes back to
gypsum if mixed with an appropriate quantity of water. The ability of
calcined gypsum to “set” when water is added makes it
important in the manufacture of a variety of plasters and
related products, especially building materials. Gypsum also is used
in cement making and in agriculture.

Anhydrite (CaSO₄) is like gypsum except that it contains no water
and hence cannot be made into plaster of paris. Its uses are limited
in the United States.
Wells that were drilled for oil, water, or coal have encountered
gypsum and/or anhydrite in some parts of south-central Illinois, but
the gypsum and anhydrite are not known to crop out at the surface.
A study of diamond drill cores and well cuttings on file at the Survey
showed that the shallowest gypsum and anhydrite reported occurred
at a depth of 470 feet in Madison County. The greatest continuous
thickness of gypsum found was 2 feet; but in one well, over 6 feet of
strata was penetrated that averaged almost 75 percent gypsum. It is
possible that thicker deposits of gypsum might be found if drilling
were done especially in search of it.
Feldspar-Bearing Sands
Feldspar is the name applied to a group of minerals that are mainly
silicates of potassium, sodium, and calcium. Various kinds of feldspar
are used industrially in making glass, enamels, pottery, and other
products. All the feldspar now used in Illinois is shipped into the
state. The discovery by the Illinois Survey that some Illinois sands
contain considerable feldspar led Survey geologists and chemists to
find where deposits highest in feldspar occur, what kinds of feldspar
they contain, and whether it could be separated from the sand in
which it occurs. Beach sands, river sands, dune sands, and sands
from other kinds of deposits were studied.
It was found that many sands contain more than 15 percent feldspar
and some as much as 25 percent. Means of separating the feldspar
from the sand are believed to exist, but problems relating to the
purity of the separated spar remain to be solved.

44
Brines
No salt is now produced in Illinois, but at one time the state was a
major salt producer. Salt works were in operation near Equality,
Central City, Murphysboro, St. John, Danville, and possibly other
places. The salt was obtained by evaporating salt water (brine) that
came from natural springs or from wells. The Equality area was a
particularly important producer of salt in the 1800’s. Discovery
elsewhere in the Middle West of deposits of rock salt and
brines that contained more salt than those of Illinois is said to have
been responsible for the discontinuance of salt making in the state.
No salt beds crop out in Illinois, nor are any known to have been
encountered in the many wells that have been drilled for coal, oil, or
water. However, most oil well drilling encounters brines containing
various amounts and kinds of salts, including the common table salt,
sodium chloride.
For reasons relating to the production of oil, Survey geologists and
chemists have collected and analyzed many samples of Illinois oil
field brines, and data are therefore available on their salt content.
No commercial use is being made of the brines as sources of salt.
Oil Shale
Illinois has a large oil-producing industry that obtains oil from wells.
The state also contains beds of shale that yield oil when the shale is
heated.
In order to estimate the present and future importance of the oil
shale resources, the Survey collected and tested more than 100
shale samples from 41 Illinois counties. A few samples contained
more than 25 gallons of oil per ton of shale, but most contained less
than 15 gallons per ton. A study of the crude oil distilled from

45
selected shale samples showed it to be somewhat different from the
oil that comes from wells. It could, nevertheless, be made to yield
gasoline, fuel oil, and other products if suitably processed.
The shale strata generally the richest in oil are found above coal
seams, are black, and are sometimes called slate by coal miners.
They are rarely more than 3 feet thick, but they extend over large
areas.
Sandstone
Sandstone has a long history of use in Illinois. Pioneers built
foundations for their houses and barns and curbs around their wells
from it. Slabs of sandstone were once a popular material for
sidewalks, some of which are still in use. Churches and other sizable
buildings have been constructed from it, and at one time an Illinois
sandstone was used to make grindstones. Except for the St. Peter
Sandstone, which was discussed under “Silica Sand,” the use of
sandstone has decreased, although comparatively small quantities
are still used as building stone.
Most Illinois sandstones may be thought of as a mass of sand
whose grains are more or less firmly cemented together by
clay, iron oxide, and quartz, either singly or in combination, or, less
commonly, by calcite. The grains are particles of various minerals,
but most of them are quartz.
Sandstones are especially common in the hill country of extreme
southern Illinois. The Survey’s investigations in this area revealed
that if they are suitably processed some of the sandstones may have
possibilities for commercial use. Sandstones in other parts of the
state also have been studied, with similar conclusions.

Barite
Barite (barium sulfate, BaSO₄) is a deceptive mineral—it is much
heavier than it looks. Barite found in Illinois is generally white or
light colored, and, although some of it looks rather like white
limestone, it is more than half again as heavy as limestone. Barite’s
unusual weight is responsible for one of its major uses—as a
constituent of drilling muds for the oil industry. These muds are a
mixture of clay, water, and a weighting material such as barite. They
are used in various ways in the drilling of oil wells by rotary drills.
Barite also is an important raw material for the manufacture of
chemicals.
Barite is found in Hardin and Pope Counties, the site of the fluorspar
industry. According to studies made by Survey geologists, the barite
occurs both as veins and beds associated with fluorspar, but its
distribution is irregular and the deposits are of limited size. A barite
mine is said to have been worked years ago, and more recently
comparatively small tonnages have been taken from open pits.
Future exploration in southern Illinois may reveal deposits of barite
that will be profitable to mine.
Greensand
In some parts of Illinois occur sands or sandstone that contain
numerous grains of the green mineral glauconite. If the sands are
not discolored by iron compounds or other substances, they too
have a greenish color and, therefore, are called greensands.
Glauconite varies in composition but contains potassium,
magnesium, iron, aluminum, silicon, and water. Greensand is said to
be used in relatively small amounts as a soil conditioner and as a
water-softening agent.

46
Greensand is known to occur in the general vicinity of Olmsted in
southern Illinois. Near Oregon in northern Illinois an old quarry
exposed 10 feet of greenish brown sandstone that contains
glauconite. Samples from southern Illinois and from the sandstone at
Oregon contained more than 6 percent potassium oxide.
Marl
In some of the lakes and ponds left by the glaciers lived numerous
small mollusks with calcium carbonate shells. As the animals died,
their shells formed a deposit on the bottom of the lakes and ponds.
Certain plants, especially algae, may have added a mudlike
precipitate of calcium carbonate to the deposits, and varying
amounts of clay washed from the shores mixed with both these
materials. The resultant deposit is called marl. Some marl deposits
have peat mixed with them, and peat also overlies some marl
deposits.
Only comparatively small amounts of marl are known to have been
dug in Illinois. One deposit containing many shells and shell
fragments, some of it associated with peat, was worked in
southeastern Livingston County as a source of agricultural liming
material. Other deposits have been reported at other places in
northeastern Illinois. The available information indicates that the
marl deposits are likely to be principally of local importance.
Tufa and Travertine
The tufa (fig. 23) and travertine occurring as surficial deposits in
Illinois were formed by springs. The deposits usually occur at or near
the outcrop of a layer of porous water-bearing earth material, such
as gravel, sandstone, or fissured limestone, that is underlain by a

47
nonporous clay or shale formation. Water moving down through the
porous layer cannot sink through the clay or shale and so is forced
to move laterally. Where valleys have cut into the layers of gravel or
rock, the water emerges as springs.
If the material through which the water has passed is limestone, or
gravel containing limestone as most Illinois gravels do, some of the
limestone is likely to have dissolved in the water. When the water
issues as a spring, conditions may be such as to cause precipitation
of the dissolved limestone as tufa or, more rarely, travertine.
Tufa is generally highly porous and more or less impure, whereas
travertine is harder and less porous.
The middle or lower slopes of bluffs are common sites for spring-
deposited tufa or travertine. Deposits have been seen in various
parts of Illinois, but are not known to have been worked, except in
Calhoun County where small quantities of tufa were produced for
use as agricultural limestone. It is thought that the tufa and
travertine deposits of Illinois are relatively small, but they may be of
local importance.

Figure 23—Calcareous tufa from Pike County. In addition to the large visible
pores there are numerous tiny ones.
Pyrite and Marcasite
The mineral pyrite consists of iron and sulfur as the compound iron
sulfide (FeS₂) and, because of its shiny, brassy yellow color, is
sometimes called fool’s gold. Marcasite has the same composition as
pyrite, but its crystals have a different shape and it is often lighter
colored. Both minerals occur in various parts of the state; they are
particularly prevalent in some coal seams, and when so occurring
are in some cases called coal brasses or “sulfur.”

48
49
Pyrite and marcasite are used commercially as raw materials for
making sulfuric acid, although sulfur itself is more extensively used
for that purpose. At one time coal brasses recovered during coal-
cleaning operations at a northwestern Illinois coal mine were sold for
acid making. A large quantity of coal brasses probably could be
recovered from such operations at Illinois coal mines.
Uranium
Uranium has been sought in Illinois by many people in recent years.
The Geological Survey also carried out a wide search for uranium
and particular attention was paid to certain clays and other rocks in
Hardin County and certain black shales in other parts of the state.
About 200 samples from Hardin County and 175 samples of the
shales were tested by the Survey. No deposits were found that are
known to be of the required richness and quantity.
Iron Ore
About the middle of the 19th century two furnaces in Hardin County
in extreme southern Illinois for a time produced iron from local
limonite ores. The ore is said to have occurred as pellets, chunks,
and masses scattered through soil and clay and apparently was of
irregular distribution. Little can be seen of the deposits today. Their
extent is not known, but they are believed to be of limited size.
The Illinois State Geological Survey carries on a continuous program
of research on the industrial minerals and metals of Illinois and their
uses.

In addition to the investigations mentioned in this booklet, many
others have been made or are in progress. Such studies are
necessarily a continuing activity if the full potentialities of Illinois
mineral resources are to be realized, for industry continually
demands new raw materials and changes its requirements for those
now used.
The Survey has issued numerous reports that deal with the
resources discussed here and mimeographed lists of these are
available upon request.
If reproduction is made of the material herein, acknowledgment of
the Illinois State Geological Survey is requested.

Transcriber’s Notes
Silently corrected a few typos.
Retained publication information from the printed edition: this
eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.
In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
_underscores_.

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