Interview Preparation

Michael Page
CITY

Interview Preparation:
Quantitative Analysis
#include <math.h>

extern double covariance(long i, double H) {
if (i == 0) return 1;
else return (pow(i-1,2*H)-2*pow(i,2*H)+pow(i+1,2*H))/2;
}

Doug Ward,
Michael Page City – 2004 (London) © Tony Ofori, PhD,
Florence Perdriel
- Page 1 of 9 -

Michael Page
CITY

INTERVIEW PREPARATION FOR JUNIOR QUANTS

This document is intended to provide a preparation framework ahead of interviews for junior quantitative analyst
(financial engineering) positions. It is not meant to be exhaustive and more in depth reading should be undertaken
as part of the preparation process.

1) Introduction
For an overview guide of the responsibilities that a Financial Engineer can have, please ask us for a copy of
“Quantitative Research” (another Michael Page publication, 2003). In summary, Quants are typically expected to get
involved with the mathematics and implementation of models for pricing of derivative instruments. The focus of what a
Quant does really depends on the nature of his/her role, but invariably the need for a deep fundamental understanding of
both maths and programming is key.

2) Basic Maths:
It has been mentioned by a number of our clients that the failing of many junior candidates they interview is their lack
of ability to solve problems using the fundamentals. For example, whilst over 90% can apply Ito’s lemma in the context
of Black Scholes to calculate the price of an option where a stochastic process is involved, over half of these people are
not able to solve it as an ODE once the stochastic component has been removed. This suggests two things;
(i) they have merely learnt the solution by memory; and/or
(ii) they are only aware of standard methodologies;
without understanding the fundamental mechanics of the model. What clients are looking for at the entry to 2 year level
is strong competency on the basics and strong (almost intuitive) mathematical and logical problem solving skills that
would suggest that in the future you will be capable of learning the difficult and complex processes applied to harder
problems. If you slip up on the basics it’s difficult to judge your potential of coping with the more challenging products
or indeed your longer term potential to bring innovative ideas to the forum. We would therefore suggest that prior to
interview you spend at least 40-50% of your time consolidating your understanding of basic math applicable to
quantitative finance - see Table 1. (30-40% of your time should be spent programming (C++), and the rest learning
about the products and their structures. Refer to Figure 1 for a revision summary).

Table 1: Areas of maths that are fundamental for a Quant interview
Calculus: Functions of a single variable: Functions of two or more variables: Matrices:
o Ordinary calculus o Partial differential calculus o Matrix manipulation
o Ordinary differential equations o Partial differential equations o Eigenvalues and
o Solution methods o Classification eigenvectors
o Basic numerical integration o The diffusion equation o Exponentiation
o Simple integral equations o Solution methods
o Basic numerical methods

Series/ o Taylor series o Convergence Tests
sequences: o Maclaurin Series
Probability/ Elementary probability theory: Elementary statistics: Random walks:
Statitics: o Distributions, discrete and o Data representation o Trinomial
continuous o Regression o Transition probability
o First and second moments o Confidence intervals density functions
(mean and variance) o Hypothesis testing o Deterministic
o Higher moments (skew and equations from random
kurtosis) behaviour
o Important distributions
o Several variables
o Correlation
o Central Limit Theorem

- Page 2 of 9 -

Michael Page
CITY

3) Basic Financial Maths:

You should then make sure you have mastered the basic math behind derivative pricing theory, e.g. you understand
Black Scholes and are able to not only solve the equation using at least two different methods but are able to discuss the
application in a real world context. A complaint from clients is that some candidates are not “pragmatic”
mathematicians – i.e. if they do have a good understanding of how an equation works they can often be too zealous
about the equation itself rather than its application and practicality.

Example: When asking someone to price an option the “purists” dive straight into finding the solution with the most
precision, however before attempting any question like this it is important to know the precision limits required as this
may fundamentally change the approach one may take (speed vs precision optimization).

In terms of specific math look at: Markov Processes, Ito Processes, Ito’s Lemma, Wiener/Brownian Motion, Stochastic
Calculus, PDEs, Monte Carlo techniques. All of these areas have the specific applications in derivative pricing.

If you want to appear credible in front of the interviewer, it goes without saying that you should understand the
terminology and simple behavior of vanilla derivatives as well as talk about this from a mathematical perspective.

Finally, as a basic rule, ensure you are able to talk in depth about what you have put on your CV. Even if it is something
you have not done for a few years make sure you are able to give a thorough overview of the projects you have done
and that you can give a good summary of the considerations behind the technical decisions you made during these
projects. Be prepared to be questioned on these and make sure you have re-familiarized yourself with the subject areas
involved.

4) “Complex” Maths

“Complex” mathematical questions typically only contain complexity in the way that they are structured. Within an
interview for an entry/junior level position, if you are presented with a highly complex problem the interviewer will
often talk you through the approach to solving it giving you pointers where you get stuck. All you need to ensure is that
you have mastered the basics and that you are showing that you understand the approach being taught to you by the
interviewer.

With regard to the more complex problems interviewers are looking for creativity in finding solutions. It is difficult to
be creative with mathematical rules unless
(i) you know them well and therefore can apply them accurately; and
(ii) you have been actively applying them to a multitude of problems and therefore understand the different approaches
to finding solutions.

Sample Questions on the basics

• Evaluate the following integrals
∞ t dt
∫ ∫e ∫
2
(a) x 2e −x /2
.dx (b)
x
cos x.dx (c)
0 0 t + 5t + 6
2

• Solve the following ordinary differential equations for y(x)
(a) y '+6 xy = 0, y (0) = 1
(b) y ' '+ y '−6 y = 0, y (0) = 1, y ' (0) = 0

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Michael Page
CITY

• Solve the partial differential equation
∂u ∂ 2 u
=
∂t ∂x 2
• Find all eigenvalues and all (normalised) eigenvectors for the following matrix
 2 1

 1 2

 
• Calculate E[eX], where X follows a Normal distribution N(u, s) of mean u and standard deviation s.
• If
dX t = a( X ∞ − X t ).dt + s.dWt
and
f is a function of X and t;

calculate df, where a, X∞ and s are constant.

What if the Brownian motion term in the above is 0 (i.e. s.dWt = 0)?

• Write a probability density function for normal and log-normal distributions.
• You are dealt 13 cards randomly from a pack of 52. What is the probability your hand contains exactly 2 aces?

- Page 4 of 9 -

Michael Page
CITY

4) Object Orientation and C++

Software development in C++ is one of the key technologies employed by global financial institutions, particularly due
to its support of object-oriented (OO) programming. This has resulted in a minimum requirement for all quantitative
professionals to have a solid core background in C++ modelling. Often entry level or junior candidates will have used
C++ sporadically in relation to one or two isolated problems (e.g. implement a PDE solver), but do not have a deeper
understanding of the core programming principles (particularly OO) and language whereby they are able to apply it
easily to a wider range of problems. You should aim to learn C++ as a skill/subject in isolation so you are able to apply
it with a high degree of fluency to a general range of problems/circumstances.

Areas of theory to cover:

Table 2: Areas of programming that are fundamental for a Quant interview
Variables, types and Expressions: Branch and loop statements:
o Identifiers o Boolean Values
o Data Types o Expressions and Functions
o Declarations o ‘For', 'While' and 'Do....While' Loops
o Constants and Enumerations o Multiple selection and Switch statements
o Assignment and Expressions o Blocks and Scoping

Functions and Procedural abstraction: Files and streams:
o User-defined functions o Input and Output using files and streams
o Value and Reference parameters o Streams as arguments to functions
o Polymorphism and Overloading o Input and Output using '<' and '>'
o Procedural abstraction and good programming
style
o Splitting programs into different files
Arrays and Strings: Pointers:
o Declaring arrays and strings o Declaring pointers
o Arrays as parameters o The '*','&','new' and 'delete' operators
o Sorting arrays o Pointer arithmetic
o Two-dimensional arrays o Automatic and dynamic variables
o String manipulation
Recursion: Classes:
o Recursion and iteration o The object-oriented paradigm
o Mechanics of a recursive call o Encapsulation and inheritance in C++
o Recursive data structures o Constructors, friends and overloaded operators
o Quick sort o Static members

Numerical Methods:
o Approximating a PDF/CDF
o Solutions of linear systems
o Direct methods of solution and iterative
techniques
o Numerical integration
o Power method
o Explicit and implicit finite difference methods
for parabolic PDEs
o Monte Carlo method

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Michael Page
CITY

Sample questions:
Basic:
• What is the difference between a pointer and a reference?
• When would you use a pointer/reference?
• What does it mean to declare a function or variable as static?
• What is a class?
• What is the difference between a struct and a class in C++?
• What is the purpose of a constructor/destructor?
• What is a constructor, destructor, default constructor, copy constructor?
• What does it mean to declare a member function as virtual/static?
• What is virtual inheritance?
• What is polymorphism?
• What is the most difficult program you have had to write?

Intermediate:
• What happens when you have a non-virtual method in a base class and a method of the same name in a derived
class?
• What about “overriding” a virtual method in a base class with one in a derived class? Why doesn’t this work the
same?
• Can you call a virtual function in a base class when you have overridden it?

Other:
• How could you determine if a linked list contains a cycle in it?
• How would you reverse a doubly linked list?
• Write a function to sum 1 to n numbers?
• How would you traverse a binary tree?
• Write a program to produce the Fibonacci series?

Useful online resource: http://www.parashift.com/c++-faq-lite

These are merely a list of general questions and should be easily answerable in detail if a comprehensive general study
of C++ has been undertaken. It is likely that you will also have questions where you are given a sample of code and are
asked what is wrong with it, you may also be given a function and be asked to determine what the function will output.
Also in addition to learning the theory it is advisable that you put theory into practice by doing as much implementation
as possible. You may find it a useful exercise to implement a framework in which to price a variety of options using the
Black-Scholes formula and any appropriate extensions.

5) Problem Solving Questions/Brainteasers.

It is likely that during the course of interviews you will be asked some “brainteaser” type questions designed to test
your intuition for problem solving. The solutions are often mathematical but can also require simple logic or lateral
thinking. Often there can be several solutions, some more optimized than others. Interviewers are looking to see your
thought process in solving the problem and will usually require you to prove your answers.

Sample questions:

• What is the sum of all the numbers between 1 and 1000?
• How would you sum a series of 1 to n numbers? Demonstrate proof for this.

- Page 6 of 9 -

Michael Page
CITY

• You are given a set of balance scales which you are to use to measure eight balls. Seven of these balls have the
same weight: the eighth ball is heavier than the rest. What is the minimum number of weighs you could perform to
find the heaviest of the eight balls?
• Same as above but with 12 balls?
• To qualify for a race, you need to average 60 mph driving two laps around a 1 mile long track. You have some sort
of engine difficulty the first lap so that you only average 30 mph during that lap; how fast do you have to drive the
second lap to average 60 for both of them?
• A river is flowing downstream at 15 mph relative to the shore. A rowing team is practicing rowing and at first they
row upstream (against the current). They can only go 1.5 mph relative to the shore at this rate. The guy at the back
end of the boat is wearing a hat when they begin, but after a while his hat falls into the water (and floats) and it is
15 minutes before they notice it. They then instantaneously reverse direction and row back to catch up with the hat,
rowing with the same strength or power they were rowing with before. How long will it take them to catch up with
the hat as it is pushed downstream by the current?
• There are 10 open boxes containing 100 coins each. In 9 of these boxes the coins are made of gold, and in the other
the coins are made of copper. You are given a large digital balance which can be used once only. Can you identify
the box containing copper coins knowing the weight of both gold and copper coins?
• A bag contains a total of N balls with either blue or red colour. If five balls are randomly chosen from the bag, the
probability is precisely 1/2 that all five balls are blue. What's the smallest value of N for which this is possible?
(Hint: Use different number of blue/red balls to get to the answer?)
• You are given 5 bags containing 100 coins each. The bags can contain coins of 3 different types that look identical.
The first type weighs 9 grams, the second type 10 and the third type 11 grams. Each bag contains coins of equal
weight but you do not know how many of the 5 bags are of the different types. (i.e. all 5 bags might well contain 9
gram coins as far as you are concerned). You are given a huge digital balance. How many times do you need to use
the balance to clearly determine the type of coin contained in each bag?
• You are playing Russian roulette with a six chamber revolver, you load 2 bullets into the revolver in adjacent
chambers. You spin the barrel place the gun to your head and pull the trigger, you don’t shoot yourself. You now
have the option of either spinning the barrel or pulling the trigger again, which do you take?
• You are in a boat on a lake, in the boat there is a suitcase, you throw this suitcase over the side of the boat. What
happens to the level of the water in the lake? Does it rise, fall or stay the same?
• How many manhole covers are there in London?
• How many petrol stations are there in the UK?
• You are gambling on the roll of a fair six sided dice, in this game if you role a 1 you get $1, if you role a 2 you get
$2 if you role a 3 you get $3 and so on. What is the expected return after 100 roles of the dice.
(Note – there are a large number of variations on this game, you should spend some time looking at various dice
games and probabilities).

- Page 7 of 9 -

Michael Page
CITY

6) Reading List

Below are some of the more useful books that candidates have found helpful in their preparation.

• Stochastic Differential Equations: An Introduction with Applications, B. Oksendal (ISBN: 3540047581)

• Financial Calculus: An Introduction to Derivative Pricing, Martin W. Baxter, Andrew J. O. Rennie

(ISBN 0521552893)

• Efficient Methods for Valuing Interest Rate Derivatives (Springer Finance S.), Anton Pelsser (ISBN 1852333049 )

• Pricing and Hedging of Derivative Securities, Lars Tyge Nielsen (ISBN 0198776195)

• A First Course in Probability (International Edition), Sheldon Ross (ISBN 0131218026) - Don’t be offended by the

title !!! – packed with good ‘applied’ problems to solve of the type asked in interviews

• Beginning C++: The Complete Language, Ivor Horton (ISBN: 1590592271 )

• Effective C++: 50 Specific Ways to Improve Your Programs and Design (2nd Edition), Scott Meyers

(ISBN 0201924889)

If you wish to discuss any of this material further, please contact

Doug Ward Dr Tony Ofori Florence Perdriel
Consultant Consultant Consultant
Quantitative Analysis Quantitative Analysis Quantitative Analysis
Michael Page City Michael Page City Michael Page City
50 Cannon Street 50 Cannon Street 50 Cannon Street
London London London
ENGLAND ENGLAND ENGLAND
EC4N 6JJ EC4N 6JJ EC4N 6JJ

Tel: +44 (0) 20 7269 1981 Tel: +44 (0) 20 7269 1979 Tel: +44 (0) 20 7269 1848
Mob: +44 (0) 7876 565 803 Mob: +44 (0) 781 517 4459 Fax: +44 (0) 20 7329 2986
Fax: +44 (0) 20 7329 2986 Fax: +44 (0) 20 7329 2986 Email:
Email: dougward@michaelpage.com Email: anthonyofori@michaelpage.com florenceperdriel@michaelpage.com

- Page 8 of 9 -

Michael Page
CITY

Financial
Maths
+10

revision time

Typical entry
level Quant

+10
VB/VBA
(optional: 0
+10
C/Java) Fundamental
Maths

Idealised case
(Quant)

+10
C++
(Object oriented)

Visualising this in 3D, the closer one
gets to the base of the pyramid the
fundamentally stronger one’s skills
become. The ability to truly tackle
complex problems is rooted in having a
fundamentals

firm base.

Figure 1: Skills mapping against revision space

- Page 9 of 9 - Michael Page City – 2004 (London) ©

Interview Preparation

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