![A third term associated with our definition of communication is symbols. A symbol is an arbitrary label or
representation of phenomena. Words are symbols for concepts and things—for example, the word love repre-
sents the idea of love; the word chair represents a thing we sit on. Labels may be ambiguous, may be both ver-
bal and nonverbal, and may occur in face-to-face and mediated communication. Symbols are usually agreed
on within a group but may not be understood outside of the group. In this way, their use is often arbitrary.
For instance, most college students understand the phrase “preregistration is closed”; those outside of college
may not understand its meaning. Further, there are both concrete symbols (the symbol represents an object)
and abstract symbols (the symbol stands for a thought or idea).
Even the innocuous Twitter symbol—the hashtag—resonates in a number of fields, particularly in politics.
Think, for instance, of the thousands of tweets that President Trump sent before and during his presidency,
even though most of his posts represented the “politics of debasement” (Ott, 2017, p. 58). Further, in-depth
political reporting and discussion are fast becoming rare in politics, and “the more candidates used Twitter
to broadcast their thoughts, the more people retweeted them, spreading their messages and journalists men-
tioned tweets in their election coverage (Buccoliero, Bellio, Crestini, & Arkoudas, 2018, p. 88). The search
for a condensed, 140-character tweet has supplanted efforts to investigate and interrogate, sometimes called
“viral politics” (Penney, 2014, p. 80). So, the hashtag symbol effectively has become a representation of a
story that used to be several hundred words found in newspapers and magazines.
In addition to process and symbols, meaning is central to our definition of communication. Meaning is what
people extract from a message. In communication episodes, messages can have more than one meaning and
even multiple layers of meaning. Without sharing some meanings, we would all have a difficult time speaking
the same language or interpreting the same event. Judith Martin and Tom Nakayama (2017) point out that
meaning has cultural consequences:
[W]hen President George W. Bush was about to go to war in Iraq, he referred to this war as a “crusade.”
The use of this term evoked strong negative reactions in the Islamic world, due to the history of the Cru-
sades nearly 1,000 years ago …. While President Bush may not have knowingly wanted to frame the Iraq
invasion as a religious war against Muslims, the history of the Crusades may make others feel that it is.
(p. 70)
Clearly, not all meaning is shared, and people do not always know what others mean. In these situations,
we must be able to explain, repeat, and clarify. For example, if the Hernandezes want to tell Eddy to move
out, they will probably need to go beyond telling him that they just need their “space.” Eddy may perceive
“needing space” as simply staying out of the house two nights a week. Furthermore, his parents will have
∞
Figure 1.2 Communication Process as a Helix
Reprinted by permission of Frank E. X. Dance.
CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 5](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/54951-250405093529-9c1e2e54/85/Introducing-Communication-Theory-Analysis-and-Application-7th-International-Student-edition-Edition-Richard-West-40-320.jpg)
Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application 7th International Student edition Edition Richard West
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- 5. This International Student Edition is for use outside of the U.S. Richard L. West Lynn H. Turner West Turner Seventh Edition Seventh Edition Analysis and Application Introducing COMMUNICATION THEORY Analysis and Application Introducing COMMUNICATION THEORY ® Your grades. Your time. Make the most of it. You want to achieve the best grades possible with the limited time you have to study. McGraw-Hill Connect helps you do just that. Connect is your personalized digital learning assistant that makes earning better grades and managing time easier, quicker, and more convenient than ever. *Source: The Impact of Connect on Student Success. McGraw-Hill Connect® Effectiveness Study 2016 Students who access Connect sooner, do better.* 85% of students pass their courses using Connect compared to 72% of students not using Connect. 11% Average increase in student scores when using Connect on day 1 vs. day 14 of class. Activate your Connect subscription today! If you need a hand getting started with Connect, or at any step along the way, we’re standing by—ready to help. mhhe.com/collegesmarter mhhe.com/support
- 6. SEVENTH EDITION Introducing Communication Theory Analysis and Application Richard L. West Emerson College Lynn H. Turner Marquette University
- 7. INTRODUCING COMMUNICATION THEORY Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10121. Copyright 2021 by McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 24 23 22 21 20 ISBN 978-1-260-57553-8 MHID 1-260-57553-5 All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorse- ment by the authors or McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill LLC does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites. mheducation.com/highered
- 8. Brief Contents Part One Foundations Part Two Empirical/Post-Positivist Theory Part Three Interpretive Theories COMMUNICATION, THEORY, AND RESEARCH 1. Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 1 2. Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts 23 3. Thinking About Theory and Research 42 Organization of “Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application” 65 INTRAPERSONAL: THE SELF AND MESSAGES 4. Expectancy Violations Theory 67 INTERPERSONAL: RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT 5. Uncertainty Reduction Theory 82 6. Social Exchange Theory 100 7. Social Penetration Theory 115 8. Social Information Processing Theory 131 GROUPS, TEAMS, AND ORGANIZATIONS 9. Structuration Theory 147 10. Organizational Information Theory 162 THE MEDIA 11. Agenda Setting Theory 179 12. Spiral of Silence Theory 193 13. Uses and Gratifications Theory 211 CULTURE AND DIVERSITY 14. Face-Negotiation Theory 226 INTRAPERSONAL: THE SELF AND MESSAGES 15. Symbolic Interaction Theory 242 16. Coordinated Management of Meaning 257 INTERPERSONAL: RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT 17. Communication Privacy Management Theory 276 BRIEF CONTENTS iii
- 9. Part Four Critical Theories GROUPS, TEAMS, AND ORGANIZATIONS 18. Groupthink 291 19. Organizational Culture Theory 307 THE PUBLIC 20. The Rhetoric 322 21. Dramatism 339 22. The Narrative Paradigm 353 THE MEDIA 23. Media Ecology Theory 367 CULTURE AND DIVERSITY 24. Communication Accommodation Theory 386 INTERPERSONAL: RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT 25. Relational Dialectics Theory 402 THE MEDIA 26. Cultivation Theory 419 27. Cultural Studies 436 CULTURE AND DIVERSITY 28. Muted Group Theory 451 29. Feminist Standpoint Theory 466 30. Co-Cultural Theory 482 Afterword ← ConnectingQuests 504 APPENDIX A: Theory Summaries 508 References R-1 Name Index I-1 Subject Index I-11 iv BRIEF CONTENTS
- 10. Contents PART ONE Foundations Communication, Theory, and Research Preface xvii About the Authors xxix Chapter 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 1 Defining Communication 3 Models of Understanding: Communication as Action, Interaction, and Transaction 6 Communication as Action: The Linear Model 6 Communication as Interaction: The Interactional Model 8 Communication as Transaction: The Transactional Model 9 Communication Models of the Future 10 Ethics and Communication 12 Business and Industry 14 Religion and Faith 14 Entertainment 15 Higher Education 15 Medicine 16 Politics 17 Technology 17 Some Final Thoughts 17 The Value of Understanding Communication Theory 18 Understanding Communication Theory Cultivates Critical Thinking Skills 18 Understanding Communication Theory Helps You to Recognize the Breadth and Depth of Research 19 Understanding Communication Theory Helps to Make Sense of Personal Life Experiences 19 Communication Theory Fosters Self-Awareness 19 Conclusion 20 Discussion Starters 20 Key Terms 21 Chapter 2 Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts 23 A Historical Briefing 24 Seven Traditions in the Communication Field 26 The Rhetorical Tradition: Communication and the Art of Public Speaking 27 The Semiotic Tradition: Communication and the Co-Creation of Signs 28 The Phenomenological Tradition: Communication and the Analysis of the Everyday 28 The Cybernetic Tradition: Communication and the Processing of Information via Feedback 28 The Socio-Psychological Tradition: Communication and the Science of Human Behavior 29 The Socio-Cultural Tradition: Communication and Socially Constructed Reality 29 CONTENTS v
- 11. PART TWO Empirical/Post-Positivist Theories Organization of “Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application” 65 Intrapersonal: The Self and Messages The Critical Tradition: Communication and Questioning the Status Quo 30 Putting It All Together 30 Seven Contexts in the Communication Field 31 Intrapersonal Communication 32 Interpersonal Communication 32 Small Group and Team Communication 33 Organizational Communication 34 Public/Rhetorical Communication 36 Mass/Media Communication 37 Cultural Communication 38 Collating the Contexts 38 Conclusion 39 Discussion Starters 40 Key Terms 40 Chapter 3 Thinking About Theory and Research 42 Defining Theory: What’s in a Name? 43 Components 44 Goals 45 Approaches to Knowing: How Do You See (and Talk About) the World? 46 The Positivistic, or Empirical, Approach 46 The Interpretive Approach 46 The Critical Approach 46 Approaches to Knowing: What Questions Do You Ask About the World? 47 Approaches to Knowing: How Do We Go About Theory Building? 49 Covering Law Approach 50 Rules Approach 51 Systems Approach 52 Evaluating Theory: Determining Theory Effectiveness 54 Theory and Metaphor 56 The Research Process 57 Communication Research and the Scientific Method 57 Communication Research and the Qualitative Approach 59 Conclusion 61 Discussion Starters 62 Key Terms 62 Chapter 4 Expectancy Violations Theory 67 Space Relations 69 Proxemic Zones 69 Territoriality 71 Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory 72 vi CONTENTS
- 12. Interpersonal: Relationship Development Arousal 75 Threat Threshold 76 Violation Valence 76 Communicator Reward Valence 77 Integration and Critique 78 Integration 78 Critique 78 Scope 79 Utility 79 Testability 79 Heurism 79 Closing 80 Discussion Starters 80 Key Terms 80 Chapter 5 Uncertainty Reduction Theory 82 Assumptions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 84 Key Concepts of URT: The Axiom and Theorem 86 Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 86 Theorems of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 88 Expansions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 88 Antecedent Conditions 88 Strategies 89 Developed Relationships 90 Social Media and Computer-Mediated Communication 92 Context 94 Integration and Critique 96 Integration 96 Critique 96 Utility 97 Heurism 98 Closing 98 Discussion Starters 98 Key Terms 99 Chapter 6 Social Exchange Theory 100 Assumptions of Social Exchange Theory 103 Dimensions of Interdependence 106 Evaluation of a Relationship 107 Power and Exchange Patterns 109 Integration and Critique 110 Integration 111 Critique 111 Scope 111 Utility 111 CONTENTS vii
- 13. Groups, Teams, and Organizations Testability 112 Heurism 112 Closing 113 Discussion Starters 113 Key Terms 114 Chapter 7 Social Penetration Theory 115 Assumptions of Social Penetration Theory 117 “Tearing Up” the Relationship: The Onion Analogy 120 A Social Exchange: Relational Costs and Rewards 122 Stages of the Social Penetration Process 123 Orientation: Revealing Bit by Bit 124 Exploratory Affective Exchange: The Self Emerges 125 Affective Exchange: Commitment and Comfortability 126 Stable Exchange: Raw Honesty and Intimacy 127 Integration and Critique 128 Integration 128 Critique 128 Scope 128 Heurism 129 Closing 129 Discussion Starters 129 Key Terms 130 Chapter 8 Social Information Processing Theory 131 Theoretical Turbulence: The Cues Filtered Out 134 Assumptions of Social Information Processing Theory 135 Hyperpersonal Perspective: “I Like What I Read and I Want More” 139 Sender: Selective Self-Presentation 139 Receiver: Idealization of the Sender 140 Channel Management 140 Feedback 141 Warranting: Gaining Confidence Online 142 Integration and Critique 143 Integration 143 Critique 143 Scope 144 Utility 144 Testability 144 Closing 145 Discussion Starters 145 Key Terms 146 Chapter 9 Structuration Theory 147 Assumptions of Structuration Theory 151 Central Concepts of Structuration Theory 153 viii CONTENTS
- 14. The Media Agency and Reflexivity 153 Duality of Structure 154 Social Integration 157 Application of Time and Space 158 Integration and Critique 158 Integration 159 Critique 159 Scope 159 Parsimony 159 Closing 160 Discussion Starters 160 Key Terms 161 Chapter 10 Organizational Information Theory 162 The Only Constant Is Change (in Organizations) 165 General Systems Theory 165 Darwin’s Theory of Sociocultural Evolution 166 Assumptions of Organizational Information Theory 167 Key Concepts and Conceptualizing Information 168 Information Environment: The Sum Total 168 Rules: Guidelines to Analyze 169 Self-Governance in an Age of Rules 170 Cycles: Act, Respond, Adjust 171 The Principles Related to Equivocality 172 Reducing Equivocality: Trying to Use the Information 173 Enactment: Assigning Message Importance 173 Selection: Interpreting the Inputs 174 Retention: Remembering the Small Stuff 174 Integration and Critique 175 Integration 176 Critique 176 Logical Consistency 176 Utility 176 Heurism 177 Closing 177 Discussion Starters 177 Key Terms 178 Chapter 11 Agenda Setting Theory 179 History of Agenda Setting Research 181 Pretheoretical Conceptualizing 181 Establishing the Theory of Agenda Setting 182 Elaborating the Theory 183 Assumptions of Agenda Setting Theory 184 Three-Part Process of Agenda Setting 185 CONTENTS ix
- 15. Culture and Diversity Three Levels of Agenda Setting 186 Integration and Critique 188 Integration 189 Critique 189 Scope 189 Utility 189 Heurism 191 Closing 191 Discussion Starters 191 Key Terms 192 Chapter 12 Spiral of Silence Theory 193 The Court of Public Opinion 195 Assumptions of Spiral of Silence Theory 197 The Media’s Influence 200 The Train Test 202 The Hard Core 203 Speaking Out About Various Issues 205 The Spiral of Silence and Social Media 205 Integration and Critique 207 Integration 208 Critique 208 Logical Consistency 208 Heurism 209 Closing 209 Discussion Starters 209 Key Terms 210 Chapter 13 Uses and Gratifications Theory 211 Assumptions of Uses and Gratifications Theory 213 History of Uses and Gratifications Research 215 Changing Positions on Media Effects 217 Key Concepts 218 Contemporary Applications of Uses and Gratifications Theory 220 Integration and Critique 221 Integration 222 Critique 222 Logical Consistency 222 Heurism 223 Closing 223 Discussion Starters 224 Key Terms 224 Chapter 14 Face-Negotiation Theory 226 About Face 228 Face and Politeness Theory 229 x CONTENTS
- 16. PART THREE Interpretive Theories Intrapersonal: The Self and Messages Facework 230 Assumptions of Face-Negotiation Theory 230 Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures 233 Face Management and Culture 236 Managing Conflict Across Cultures 237 Integration and Critique 238 Integration 239 Critique 239 Logical Consistency 239 Heurism 240 Closing 240 Discussion Starters 240 Key Terms 241 Chapter 15 Symbolic Interaction Theory 242 History of Symbolic Interaction Theory 244 Assumptions of Symbolic Interaction Theory 245 Individuals Construct Meaning via the Communication Process 245 Humans Act Toward Others on the Basis of the Meanings Those Others Have for Them 246 Meaning Is Created in Interaction Between People 246 Meaning Is Modified Through an Interpretive Process 247 Self-Concept Is a Motivation for Behavior 247 Individuals Develop Self-Concepts Through Interactions with Others 248 Self-Concepts Provide an Important Motive for Behavior 248 A Unique Relationship Exists Between the Individual and Society 249 People and Groups Are Influenced by Cultural and Social Processes 250 Social Structure Is Worked Out Through Social Interaction 250 Key Concepts 251 Mind 251 Self 252 Society 253 Integration and Critique 254 Integration 254 Critique 254 Scope 254 Utility 254 Testability 255 Closing 255 Discussion Starters 256 Key Terms 256 CONTENTS xi
- 17. Interpersonal: Relationship Development Groups, Teams, and Organizations Chapter 16 Coordinated Management of Meaning 257 All the World’s a Stage 258 Assumptions of Coordinated Management of Meaning 259 The Hierarchy of Organized Meaning 261 Content 262 Speech Act 263 Episodes 263 Relationship 264 Life Scripts 265 Cultural Patterns 265 Charmed and Strange Loops 266 The Coordination of Meaning: Making Sense of the Sequence 268 Influences on the Coordination Process 269 Rules and Unwanted Repetitive Patterns 270 Integration and Critique 272 Integration 272 Critique 272 Scope 273 Parsimony 273 Utility 273 Heurism 273 Closing 274 Discussion Starters 274 Key Terms 275 Chapter 17 Communication Privacy Management Theory 276 Evolution of Communication Privacy Management Theory 278 Assumptions of CPM 280 Key Components and Axioms of CPM 281 Component 1: Privacy Ownership 283 Component 2: Privacy Control 284 Component 3: Privacy Turbulence 286 Integration and Critique 287 Integration 287 Critique 287 Logical Consistency 287 Utility 288 Heurism 288 Closing 289 Discussion Starters 289 Key Terms 289 Chapter 18 Groupthink 291 Assumptions of Groupthink 294 What Comes Before: Antecedent Conditions of Groupthink 296 xii CONTENTS
- 18. The Public Group Cohesiveness 296 Structural Factors 297 Group Stress 298 Symptoms of Groupthink 298 Overestimation of the Group 299 Closed-Mindedness 299 Pressures Toward Uniformity 300 Think Before You Act: Ways to Prevent Groupthink 301 Polythink: Moving Beyond the Groupthink Phenomenon 303 Integration and Critique 303 Integration 304 Critique 304 Scope 304 Testability 304 Heurism 304 Test of Time 305 Closing 305 Discussion Starters 305 Key Terms 306 Chapter 19 Organizational Culture Theory 307 The Cultural Metaphor: Of Spider Webs and Organizations 311 Assumptions of Organizational Cultural Theory 312 Ethnographic Understanding: Laying It On Thick 314 The Communicative Performance 316 Ritual Performances 317 Passion Performances 317 Social Performances 317 Political Performances 317 Enculturation Performances 318 Integration and Critique 318 Integration 319 Critique 319 Logical Consistency 319 Utility 319 Heurism 319 Closing 320 Discussion Starters 320 Key Terms 320 Chapter 20 The Rhetoric 322 The Rhetorical Tradition 324 Assumptions of the Rhetoric 325 The Syllogism: A Three-Tiered Argument 327 Canons of Rhetoric 328 CONTENTS xiii
- 19. Invention 329 Arrangement 329 Style 330 Memory 331 Delivery 331 Types of Rhetoric 331 Integration and Critique 334 Integration 335 Critique 335 Logical Consistency 335 Heurism 336 Test of Time 336 Closing 336 Discussion Starters 336 Key Terms 337 Chapter 21 Dramatism 339 Assumptions of Dramatism 341 Dramatism as New Rhetoric 342 Identification/Division and Substance 343 The Process of Guilt and Redemption 344 The Pentad 345 Integration and Critique 347 Integration 347 Critique 347 Scope 348 Parsimony 348 Utility 348 Heurism 349 Closing 350 Discussion Starters 350 Key Terms 351 Chapter 22 The Narrative Paradigm 353 Assumptions of the Narrative Paradigm 356 Key Concepts in the Narrative Approach 359 Narration (or Narratives) 359 Narrative Rationality 360 Integration and Critique 362 Integration 363 Critique 363 Scope 363 Logical Consistency 363 Utility 363 Heurism 364 xiv CONTENTS
- 20. The Media Culture and Diversity Closing 365 Discussion Starters 365 Key Terms 366 Chapter 23 Media Ecology Theory 367 Assumptions of Media Ecology Theory 370 Making Media History and Making “Sense” 372 The Tribal Era 373 The Literate Era 373 The Print Era 373 The Electronic Era 374 The Medium Is the Message 375 Gauging the Temperature: Hot and Cool Media 375 The Circle Is Complete: The Tetrad 377 Enhancement 378 Obsolescence 378 Retrieval 378 Reversal 379 Carrying the McLuhan Banner: Postman and Meyrowitz 380 Integration and Critique 381 Integration 382 Critique 382 Testability 382 Heurism 383 Closing 383 Discussion Starters 384 Key Terms 384 Chapter 24 Communication Accommodation Theory 386 Social Psychology and Social Identity 388 Assumptions of Communication Accommodation Theory 390 Ways to Adapt 392 Convergence: Merging Thoughts Ahead 393 Divergence: Vive la Différence 395 Overaccommodation: Miscommunicating with a Purpose 396 Integration and Critique 398 Integration 398 Critique 398 Scope 398 Logical Consistency 399 Heurism 399 Closing 399 Discussion Starters 400 Key Terms 400 CONTENTS xv
- 21. PART FOUR Critical Theories Interpersonal: Relationship Development The Media Chapter 25 Relational Dialectics Theory 402 Assumptions of Relational Dialectics Theory 405 Central Propositions of Relational Dialectics Theory 406 Interpretive Research in Relational Dialectics Theory 407 Basic Dialectic 1: Autonomy and Connection 407 Basic Dialectic 2: Openness and Protection 408 Basic Dialectic 3: Novelty and Predictability 408 Beyond Basic Dialectics 408 Contextual Dialectics 409 Responses to Dialectics 411 Relational Dialectics Theory 2.0: A Critical Turn 412 Integration and Critique 414 Integration 415 Critique 415 Parsimony 415 Utility 415 Heurism 416 Closing 416 Discussion Starters 416 Key Terms 417 Chapter 26 Cultivation Theory 419 Developing Cultivation Theory 422 Assumptions of Cultivation Theory 423 Processes and Products of Cultivation Theory 426 The Four-Step Process 426 Mainstreaming and Resonance 426 The Mean World Index 428 Cultivation Theory as Critical Theory 429 Integration and Critique 431 Integration 431 Critique 431 Logical Consistency 431 Utility 432 Heurism 433 Test of Time 433 Closing 434 Discussion Starters 434 Key Terms 434 Chapter 27 Cultural Studies 436 The Marxist Legacy: Power to the People 439 Assumptions of Cultural Studies 440 xvi CONTENTS
- 22. Culture and Diversity Hegemony: The Influence on the Masses 443 Counter-Hegemony: The Masses Start to Influence the Dominant Forces 445 Audience Decoding 446 Integration and Critique 447 Integration 448 Critique 448 Logical Consistency 448 Utility 448 Heurism 448 Closing 449 Discussion Starters 449 Key Terms 450 Chapter 28 Muted Group Theory 451 History of Muted Group Theory 453 Dominant and Non-dominant Groups 455 Assumptions of Muted Group Theory 456 The Process of Silencing 459 Ridicule 460 Ritual 460 Control 461 Harassment 461 Strategies of Resistance 461 Integration and Critique 463 Integration 463 Critique 463 Utility 463 Test of Time 464 Closing 464 Discussion Starters 464 Key Terms 465 Chapter 29 Feminist Standpoint Theory 466 Evolution of Feminist Standpoint Theory 468 Standpoint Theory 468 Feminist Standpoint Theory 468 Black Feminist Standpoint Theory 470 Feminist Standpoint Theory and Black Feminist Standpoint Theory in Communication Studies 471 Assumptions of Feminist Standpoint Theory 472 Key Concepts of Feminist Standpoint Theory 503 Voice 476 Standpoint 476 Situated Knowledges 477 Sexual Division of Labor 477 CONTENTS xvii
- 23. Integration and Critique 478 Integration 478 Critique 478 Utility 478 Closing 480 Discussion Starters 480 Key Terms 480 Chapter 30 Co-Cultural Theory 482 Foundations of Co-Cultural Theory 483 Muted Group Theory 484 Standpoint Theory 484 Phenomenology 485 Assumptions of Co-Cultural Theory 486 Communication Orientations and Strategies 488 Goals/Preferred Outcomes 488 Approaches 489 Communication Orientations 490 Testing the Communication Orientations 491 Strategies 492 Other Factors Influencing NDGMs’ Communication Choices 497 Field-of-experience 497 Perceived Costs and Rewards 497 Capability 498 Situation 498 Integration and Critique 498 Integration 499 Critique 499 Scope 499 Parsimony 500 Heurism 500 Closing 501 Discussion Starters 501 Key Terms 502 Afterword ← ConnectingQuests 504 APPENDIX A: Theory Summaries 508 References R-1 Name Index I-1 Subject Index I-11 xviii CONTENTS
- 24. Preface As we present the seventh edition of Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application, we remain excited by its enormous success. The previous six editions demonstrate that communication theory courses are vibrant, that teachers of communication understand the importance of theoretical thinking, and that both instructors and students appreciate the consistent and organized template we employ throughout. This text explores the practical, engaging, and relevant ways in which theory operates in our lives. It is written primarily for students who have little or no background in communication theory. We originally wrote the book because we thought that students need to know how theorizing helps us under- stand ourselves, as well as our experiences, relationships, media, environment, and culture. We also wrote this book because we believe that students should have a text that relates theory directly to their lives. We felt that some books insulted the student and trivialized theory while other books were written at a level that was far too advanced for an undergraduate. In this book, we take great care to achieve the following additional objectives: The seventh edition of this book maintains its original focus of introducing communication theory to students in an accessible, appealing, and consistent way. We believe that students understand material best when it is explained in a clear, direct way through a number of realistic and applicable examples. Our hope is that students will take away a basic knowledge of, and appreciation for, communication theory from reading our text. The theories in communication studies have roots in both communication and in other fields of study. This interdisciplinary orientation is reflected in the selection of the various theories presented in the text. We not only include the unique contributions of communication theorists, but also theories with origins in other fields of study, including psychology, sociology, biology, education, business, and philosophy. Communica- tion theorists have embraced the integration of ideas and principles forged by their colleagues across many disciplines. Yet, the application, influence, and inherent value of communication are all sustained by the the- orists in this text. In other words, although theories cut across various academic disciplines, their relevance to communication remains paramount and we articulate this relevancy in each theory chapter. We do not presume to speak for the theorists; we have distilled their scholarship in a way that we hope represents and honors their hard work. Our overall goal is to frame their words and illustrate their theories with practical examples and instances so that their explication of communication behaviors becomes accessible for stu- dents. Together, we have over 60 years of experience in teaching communication theory. During this time, we have learned a great deal. Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application utilizes and applies all that we as teachers have learned from our students. We continue to be indebted to both students and colleagues whose suggestions and comments have greatly influenced this newest edition. In fact, many of these observa- tions are found throughout the book! • Familiarize students with the principles and central ideas of important theories they are likely to encounter in the communication discipline. • Demystify the notion of theory by discussing it in concrete and unequivocal ways. • Provide students with an understanding of the interplay among theory, communication, and application. • Introduce students to the research process and the role of theory within this process. • Assist students in becoming more systematic and thoughtful critical thinkers.
- 25. The Challenges of Teaching and Learning Communication Theory The instructor in a communication theory course may face several challenges that are not shared by other courses. First, because many students think of theory as distant, abstract, and obscure, teachers must over- come these potentially negative connotations. Negative feelings toward the subject can be magnified in class- rooms where students represent a variety of ages and socioeconomic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds. Introducing Communication Theory addresses this challenge by offering a readable and pragmatic guide that integrates content with examples, capturing the essence and elegance of theory in a straightforward manner. In addition, the book takes an incremental approach to learning about theory, resulting in a thoughtful and appropriate learning pace. In our decades of teaching this course, we have found that students cannot be overwhelmed with too much information at once. Therefore, we unpack theory in reasonable and digestible ways. A second challenge associated with teaching and learning communication theory relates to preconceived notions of research: Students may view scholarship as difficult or remote. This book demonstrates to students that they already possess many of the characteristics of researchers, such as curiosity and ambition. Students will be pleasantly surprised to know that they operate according to many personal theories every day. Once students begin to revise their misconceptions about research and theory, they are in a position to understand the principles, concepts, and theories contained in this book. A third challenge of teaching and learning communication theory is capturing the complexity of a theory in an approachable way without oversimplifying the theoretical process. To address this problem, instructors often present a skeletal version of a theory and then fill in the missing pieces with personal materials. By pro- viding a variety of engaging examples and applications reflecting a wide range of classroom demographics, Introducing Communication Theory facilitates such an approach. A final challenge relates to a theory’s genesis and today’s students. Clearly, in this technological age, students look for and usually crave a desire to find a “tech angle” to communication theory. Although many theories were conceptualized decades ago, in each chapter, we have provided the most recent research that represents a theory–technology framework. Further we have added student comments in each chapter that speak to how the theory can be applied to technology, such as social media, texting, and so forth. Major Changes in Content in the New Edition As we do in every new edition, we have edited and modified each and every chapter to reflect our continued emphasis on making theory more approachable. Most importantly, the entire book has been reorganized to reflect the template most useful to students. In the past, we relied on an approach that was context-specific. Yet, after reflecting on how students learn, looking at the foundational information, and reviewing comments by colleagues across the country, we were struck by the narrowness of this approach. We found ourselves “forcing” a complex theory into a particular context, sometimes neglecting the fact that many of the theories fall across several contexts. Therefore, the reorganization of the book adheres to a commonly-accepted division found in the field: Approaches to Knowing, or better known as Empirical, Interpretive, and Critical-Cultural approaches. Each “Approach to Knowing” is elaborated in Chapter 3, allowing students to see the relationship of a foundational chapter with the theory chapters. In this seventh edition, we strengthened and streamlined each chapter and in many cases, reorganized the chapter to make the material more accessible. Further, we’ve updated many of our opening vignettes to make xx PREFACE
- 26. them aligned with the communication challenges that students face in their lives. And, of course, we’ve rigor- ously updated each theory in keeping with the current research and changes in the theorists’ thinking. Representative Chapter Changes Responding to the need to articulate further theories related to cultural diversity, we have added a new chap- ter (Chapter 30, Co-Cultural Theory). To keep the book a manageable length, Cognitive Dissonance Theory has been archived for the seventh edition. In addition, each foundational and subsequent theory chapter has undergone revision to make the content more recent, examples more compelling, material more organized, and critiques more balanced. Here’s a sample of specific changes made in various chapters: Features of the Book To accomplish our goals and address the challenges of teaching communication theory, we have incorporated a structure that includes number of special features and learning aids into the seventh edition: Chapter 1 (Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics) adds the new holistic model of communication as students consider the value of context and technology in communication theory Chapter 2 (Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts) now includes an historical understanding of the communication field, from Classical origins to contemporary thinking Chapter 3 (Thinking about Theory and Research) includes new information on “Theory as Metaphor,” providing students further clarification of how theory functions in their lives Chapter 5 (Uncertainty Reduction Theory) extends discussion of the expansions to the theory including context and technology. Chapter 6 (Social Exchange Theory) expands section on power, exchange patterns, and matrices. Chapter 8 (Social Information Processing Theory) contains new information on social media and the hyperpersonal effect Chapter 9 (Structuration Theory) reconfigured in tone to make it more practical Chapter 10 (Organizational Information Theory) presents new clarification on the relationship between sensemaking and storytelling Chapter 11 (Agenda Setting Theory) has been significantly reorganized and also highlights the history of the theory and the 3-part process of agenda setting. Chapter 12 (Spiral of Silence Theory) provides more information on the effects of social isolation and the “outing” process of GLBT individuals Chapter 13 (Uses and Gratifications Theory) is now comprised of an expanded section on the history of the theory with additional attention paid to media effects Chapter 14 (Face Negotiation Theory) adds a reconceptualization of the theory as representing the empirical, interpretive, and critical approaches Chapter 16 (Coordinated Management of Meaning) includes refinement, through example, of conversational coordination Chapter 17 (Communication Privacy Management Theory) now consists of a new section on the key components and axioms of the theory, keeping up with how Petronio revised the theory in 2013 Chapter 18 (Groupthink) presents new information on “polythink” and its consequences in group and team communication Chapter 25 (Relational Dialectics Theory) now presents a section on RDT 2.0 and RDT as a critical theory Chapter 27 (Cultural Studies) contains new information on the continued dominance of television as a source of information for older citizens PREFACE xxi
- 27. • Part One, Foundations. The first three chapters of the book continue to provide students a solid foundation for studying the theories that follow. This groundwork is essential in order to understand how theorists conceptualize and test their theories. Chapters 1 and 2 define communication and provide a framework for examining the theories. We present several traditions and contexts in which theory is customarily categorized and considered. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the intersection of theory and research. This discussion is essential in a theory course and also serves as a springboard for students as they enroll in other courses. In addition, we present students with a template of various evaluative components that we apply in each of the subsequent theory chapters. • Theories and Theoretical Thinking. Updated coverage of all theories. Separate chapters on each of the theories provide accessible, thorough coverage for students and offer flexibility to instructors. Because of the feedback we received from the previous edition, we retained the original theories from the sixth edition and added one NEW theory, Co-Cultural Theory by Mark Orbe. This updating results in a more thoughtful, current, and applicable presentation of each theory. As noted earlier, in many cases, we have provided the most recent information of the influences of culture and/or technology upon a particular theory, resulting in some very compelling discussions and examples. • Chapter-opening vignettes. Each chapter begins with an extended vignette, which is then integrated throughout the chapter, providing examples to illustrate the theoretical concepts and claims. We have been pleased that instructors and students point to these vignettes as important applications of sometimes complex material. These stories/case studies help students understand how communication theory plays out in the everyday lives of ordinary people. These opening stories help drive home the important points of the theory. In addition, the real-life tone of each vignette entices students to understand the practicality of a particular theory. • A structured approach to each theory. Every theory chapter is self-contained and includes a consistent format that begins with a story, followed by an introduction, a summary of theoretical assumptions, a description of core concepts, and a critique (using the criteria established in Part One). This consistency provides continuity for students, ensures a balanced presentation of the theories, and helps ease the retrieval of information for future learning experiences. Instructors and students have found this template to be quite valuable because it focuses their attention on the key elements of each theory. • Student Voices boxes. These boxes, featured in every chapter, present both new and returning student comments on a particular concept or theoretical issue. The comments, extracted from journals in classes we have taught, illustrate the practicality of the topic under discussion and also show how theoretical issues relate to students’ lives. This feature illustrates how practical theories are and how much their tenets apply to our everyday lived experiences. It also allows readers to see how other students taking this course have thought about the material in each chapter. • Visual template for theory evaluation. At the conclusion of each theory chapter, a criteria for theory evaluation (presented in Chapter 3) is employed. In addition, the theory’s context, scholarly tradition (based on Robert Craig’s typology), and approach to knowing are presented on charts. • Theory at a Glance boxes. In order for students to have an immediate and concise understanding of a particular theory, we incorporate this feature at the beginning of each theory chapter. Students will have these brief explanations and short summaries before reading the rest of the chapter, thereby allowing them to have a general sense of what they are about to encounter. • Theory-Into-Practice (TIP) inserts. We include this feature to provide further application of the information contained in the chapter. We identify a conclusion or two from the theory and then provide a real-world application of the particular claim. This feature sustains our commitment to enhancing the pragmatic value of a theory. xxii PREFACE
- 28. In addition to the aforementioned features, several new additions exist in the new edition of Introducing Com- munication Theory: • Afterword: ConnectingQuests. This final section of the book provides students with an integration of the various theories in order to see the interrelationships between theories. We believe that theories cut across multiple contexts. To this end, students are asked questions that address the intersection of theories. For instance, to understand “decision making” from two theoretical threads, students are asked to compare the concept and its usage in both Groupthink and Structuration Theory. • Tables and figures. To increase conceptual organization and enhance the visual presentation of content, we have provided several tables and figures throughout the text. Further, we have provided cartoons to provide another engaging reading option. Many chapters have visual aids for students to consider, helping them to understand the material. These visuals provide a clearer sense of the conceptual organization of the theories, and they support those students who best retain information visually. • Running glossary. Throughout each chapter, a running glossary provides students immediate access to unfamiliar terms and their meanings. • Appendix. At the end of the book all of the theories are listed with a short paragraph summarizing their main points. • NEW CHAPTER ON CO-CULTURAL THEORY. We removed a chapter profiling an older theory from a discipline other than communication (Cognitive Dissonance) and replaced that with a newer theory centered in communication. Co-Cultural Theory has myriad applications for the diverse, multi-cultural world in which we live. • NEW THEORY INTO ACTION. Students will be introduced to further applications of the various theories and theoretical concepts by examining popular press stories. Stories and articles exemplifying various parts of a theory are provided, extrapolated from media headlines around the world. • NEW STUDENTS TALKING TECH. The feature has been added to reflect students’ comments about social media and technology pertaining to various theoretical issues. Dialogue applications related to Snapchat, Facebook, LinkedIn, TikTok, Twitter, YouTube, Weibo, Instagram, among others are spliced throughout the book to demonstrate students’ understanding and application of the theories to contemporary communication contexts. • NEW “ORIGINS THEORY” RECOGNITION. Because numerous theories have their origins in other theoretical frameworks, we present students a list of “subordinate” theories that were inspirational and influential upon a current theoretical discussion. • NEW TIMELY EXAMPLES. To ensure that communication theory remains relevant to all generations of students, the book includes relevant and contemporary topics, including many hashtag activism movements such as #MeToo, #TakeAKnee, #BlackLivesMatter, among others. In addition, examples related to immigration, Title IX, impeachment, minimum wage, Wikipedia, hate speech, school shootings, and many more are integrated for students to consider as they unpack the complexity of each theory. • NEW INTEGRATION OF NEARLY 200 NEW REFERENCES. The explosion in communication research, in particular, is reflected in the incorporation of dozens of new studies, essays, and books that help students understand the theory or theoretical issue. We also provide students with easy access to a citation by integrating an APA format (the accepted writing style in the communication field) so that they can see the relevancy and currency of a theory. When appropriate, we also have provided URLs for useful websites. PREFACE xxiii
- 29. New Organization of the Material New Organization of the Material Part One, Foundations, provides a conceptual base for the discrete theory chapters in Part Two. Chapter 1 begins by introducing the discipline and describing the process of communication. Chapter 2 provides the prevailing traditions and contexts that frame the communication field. In this chapter, we focus on Robert Craig’s guide to the ways in which communication theory can be considered. The chapter then turns to primary contexts of communication, which frame the study of communication in most academic settings across the country. Chapter 3 explores the intersection of theory and research. In this chapter, we provide students an understanding of the nature of theory and the characteristics of theory. The research process is also discussed, as are perspectives that guide communication research. Our goal in this chapter is to show that research and theory are interrelated and that the two should be considered in tandem as students read the individual chapters. Chapter 3 also provides a list of evaluative criteria for judging theories as well as for guiding students toward assessment of each subsequent theory chapter. With Part One establishing a foundation, Part Two, Theories and Theoretical Thinking, introduces students to 27 different theories, each in a discrete, concise chapter and discussed within a particular Approach to Knowing (Post-Positive, Interpretive, and Critical) identified in Chapter 3 and emphasized in an insert between the Foundational and Theory chapters. In addition, many of these theories cut across communica- tion contexts. The 7th edition of Introducing Communications Theory: Analysis and Application is now available online with Connect, McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment and assessment platform. Connect also offers SmartBook for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading experience proven to improve grades and help students study more effectively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content is also available through Connect, including: • An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter with general guidelines for teaching the basic theory course, sample syllabi for quarter and semester courses, chapter outlines, and classroom activities. • A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students on central concepts and ideas in each chapter. • Lecture Slides for instructor use in class. xxiv PREFACE
- 30. FOR INSTRUCTORS ® Checkmark: Jobalou/Getty Images Padlock: Jobalou/Getty Images Laptop: McGraw-Hill; Woman/dog: George Doyle/Getty Images 65% Less Time Grading You’re in the driver’s seat. Want to build your own course? No problem. Prefer to use our turnkey, prebuilt course? Easy. Want to make changes throughout the semester? Sure. And you’ll save time with Connect’s auto-grading too. Make it simple, make it affordable. Connect makes it easy with seamless integration using any of the major Learning Management Systems— Blackboard®, Canvas, and D2L, among others—to let you organize your course in one convenient location. Give your students access to digital materials at a discount with our inclusive access program. Ask your McGraw-Hill representative for more information. Solutions for your challenges. A product isn’t a solution. Real solutions are affordable, reliable, and come with training and ongoing support when you need it and how you want it. Our Customer Experience Group can also help you troubleshoot tech problems— although Connect’s 99% uptime means you might not need to call them. See for yourself at status. mheducation.com They’ll thank you for it. Adaptive study resources like SmartBook® 2.0 help your students be better prepared in less time. You can transform your class time from dull definitions to dynamic debates. Find out more about the powerful personalized learning experience available in SmartBook 2.0 at www.mheducation.com/highered/ connect/smartbook
- 31. FOR STUDENTS “I really liked this app—it made it easy to study when you don't have your text- book in front of you.” - Jordan Cunningham, Eastern Washington University Top: Jenner Images/Getty Images, Left: Hero Images/Getty Images, Right: Hero Images/Getty Images Calendar: owattaphotos/Getty Images Effective, efficient studying. Connect helps you be more productive with your study time and get better grades using tools like SmartBook 2.0, which highlights key concepts and creates a personalized study plan. Connect sets you up for success, so you walk into class with confidence and walk out with better grades. No surprises. The Connect Calendar and Reports tools keep you on track with the work you need to get done and your assignment scores. Life gets busy; Connect tools help you keep learning through it all. Learning for everyone. McGraw-Hill works directly with Accessibility Services Departments and faculty to meet the learning needs of all students. Please contact your Accessibility Services office and ask them to email accessibility@mheducation.com, or visit www.mheducation.com/about/accessibility for more information. Study anytime, anywhere. Download the free ReadAnywhere app and access your online eBook or SmartBook 2.0 assignments when it’s convenient, even if you’re offline. And since the app automatically syncs with your eBook and SmartBook 2.0 assignments in Connect, all of your work is available every time you open it. Find out more at www.mheducation.com/readanywhere
- 32. Acknowledgments Our book owes its existence to efforts made by others in addition to the listed authors, and some people who have helped with this book may not even realize the debt we acknowledge here. We would like to thank all those who have helped us as we worked our way through this large project. First, many professors and stu- dents have written to us, providing important clarification and examples. In addition, our work rests on the shoulders of the theorists whose creations we profile in this book. We are grateful for their creative thinking, which allows us to understand and begin to predict the complexities of the communication process. We worked hard to try to capture their insights and conclusions and convert these thoughts for introductory students in theory. Further, our insights represent the discussions that we have had with our communication theory students and colleagues over the years. Several parts of this book are based on student input at both of our institutions. Students have contributed to this book in both direct and indirect ways. Textbook writers understand that no book is possible without the talents and commitment of both an edi- torial and production team. We extend our deep appreciation and admiration to those who have made our words come to life in various ways: Finally, the development editing was handled by Erin Guendelsberger and Sowmya B. We thank both of them and the entire ansrsource development team. As is customary in each book he writes, Rich would like to acknowledge his mother for her continual focus on what matters in life: being patient, helping others, and staying appreciative. He remains grateful for her continued positive influence. Rich would also like to thank his husband, Chris, who knows precisely when to make things less intense and more relaxing. Chris and his mom: two lights who shine bright in his life! In addition, Mike, Steph, Victoria and the welcoming staff at C-Salt in Cape Elizabeth were great sources of real-life examples that are woven throughout this book. The team also provided some well-timed breaks with coffee, desserts, and conversation! Lynn would like to thank her entire family for invaluable lessons in communication theory and practice. And always, Lynn is grateful for the memory of her loving parents whose steadfast support and encouragement of her scholarship, and all of her interests, sustain her in every project she undertakes. Friends and colleagues provided great support and have taught her many valuable lessons about scholarship and communication the- ory. She also wishes to thank Marquette University and her research assistant, Yin Yang, who was really a research partner during the writing of the 7th Edition. Yin was an invaluable contributor to the work. Finally, both Rich and Lynn give a special shout out to Holly Allen. Holly, a senior editor at Wiley, was the first to believe in us in 1994. She persuaded us to think about writing a textbook, the first of which was Per- spectives on Family Communication (now in its seventh edition/McGraw-Hill). We began this writing enter- prise because of Holly and, to this day, she remains an inspiration as we celebrate the various successes we’ve had in textbook writing. Thanks Holly! Always. Jamie Laferrera, Brand Manager Alexander Preiss, Product Developer Danielle Clement, Senior Content Project Manager Sarah Flynn, Content Licensing Specialist
- 33. Finally, we thank the manuscript reviewers who gave their time and expertise to keep us on track in our inter- pretation of the ideas of others. We are grateful for their careful reading and insightful suggestions, which expanded and clarified our thinking in many ways. Our text is a much more useful product because of the comments and suggestions of the following reviewers who have shaped this book over the past few editions: Dr. Javette Hayes, Cal State Fullerton Jon Conlogue, Westfield State University Melanie Laliker, Bridgewater College of Virginia Kate Joeckel, Bellevue University Dr. Lisa Hanasono, Bowling Green State University Christine Armstrong, Northampton Community College - Monroe James D. Robinson, University of Dayton Nora Madison, Chestnut Hill College Christine North, Ohio Northern University Emily Cripe, Kutztown University Greg G. Armfield, New Mexico State University Christine Armstrong, Northampton Community College Shaun Cashman, Pfeiffer University J. Dean Farmer, Campbell University Javette Grace Hayes, California State University, Fullerton Lisa Hebert, Louisiana State University Juan Liu, Wayne State University Jimmie Manning, Northern Illinois University Libby McGlone, Columbus State Community College Robert William Wawee, University of Houston Downtown Michael Barberich, University at Albany, SUNY Martha J. Haun, University of Houston Bryan Horikami, Salisbury University Anna Laura Jansma, University of California, Santa Barbara Susan Jarboe, San Diego State University Kelly Jones, Pitt Community College Rebecca Dumlao, East Carolina University Edward T. Funkhouser, North Carolina State University Scott Guest, Bowling Green State University Anna Laura Jansma, University of California, Santa Barbara Anne M. Nicotera, University of Maryland Mark Zeigler, Florida State University Randall S. Chase, Salt Lake Community College xxviii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
- 34. Kathleen Galvin, Northwestern University Reed Markham, Salt Lake Community College Chrys Egan, Salisbury University Rita L. Rahoi-Gilchrest, Winona State University Sue Barnes, Fordham University Jack Baseheart, University of Kentucky Jamie Byrne, Millersville University Thomas Feeley, State University of New York, Geneseo Amy Hubbard, University of Hawaii at Manoa Matthew McAllister, Virginia Tech Janet Skupien, University of Pittsburgh Jon Smith, Southern Utah University Katy Wiss, Western Connecticut State University Kevin Wright, University of Memphis John R. Baldwin, Illinois State University Holly H. Bognar, Cleveland State University Sheryl Bowen, Villanova University Cam Brammer, Marshall University Jeffrey D. Brand, North Dakota State University Randy K. Dillon, Southwest Missouri State University Kent Drummond, University of Wyoming James Gilchrist, Western Michigan University Laura Jansma, University of California–Santa Barbara Madeline M. Keaveney, California State University–Chico Joann Keyton, University of Kansas Debra Mazloff, University of St. Thomas Elizabeth M. Perse, University of Delaware Linda M. Pledger, University of Arkansas Mary Ann Renz, Central Michigan University Patricia Rockwell, University of Southwestern Louisiana Deborah Smith-Howell, University of Nebraska Denise Solomon, University of Wisconsin Tami Spry, St. Cloud State University Rebecca W. Tardy, University of Louisville Ralph Thompson, Cornell University ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxix
- 35. About the Authors Richard West is a Professor in the Department of Communication Studies at Emer- son College in Boston. Rich received his BA and MA from Illinois State University and his PhD from Ohio University. Rich has been teaching since 1984, and his teach- ing and research interests range from family diversity to teacher–student communica- tion. He began teaching communication theory as a graduate student and has taught the class in lecture format to more than 200 students. Rich is a past recipient of the Outstanding Alumni Award in Communication at Illinois State University and Ohio University. He is a member of several editorial boards in communication journals and co-editor of the Routledge Handbook of Communication and Bullying. Rich is also the recipient of the Distinguished Service of the Eastern Communication Association (ECA), he also serves as a Research Fellow. Where he also received recognition as a Teaching Fellow and Research Fellow. In 2008, Rich assumed the ECA Presidency. Lynn H. Turner is a Professor in Communication Studies at Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Lynn received her BA from the University of Illinois and her MA from the University of Iowa, and she received her PhD from Northwestern Uni- versity. She has taught communication theory and research methods to undergradu- ates and graduates in the Diederich College of Communication at Marquette since 1985. Prior to coming to Marquette, Lynn taught at Iowa State University and in two high schools in Iowa. Her research interests include interpersonal communication, family communication, and gendered communication. She is the recipient of several awards, including Marquette’s College of Communication Research Excellence Award, and the Book of the Year award from the Organization for the Study of Com- munication, Language, and Gender for her book with Patricia Sullivan, From the Mar- gins to the Center: Contemporary Women and Political Communication. Lynn is a past president of the Central States Communication Association and was recognized for her contributions in service and research by CSCA as a member of their Hall of Fame. Rich and Lynn, together, are coauthors of dozens of essays and articles in the communication field. In addition, the two have served as guest coeditors of the Journal of Family Communication a few times, focusing on diversity and the family. In addition, they have coauthored several books, including Gender and Communication, Perspectives on Family Communication, IPC, and Understanding Interpersonal Communication, and an Introduction to Communication. The two have coedited the Family Communication Sourcebook (Sage, 2006; Winner of the Outstanding Book Award by the National Communication Association), and The Handbook of Family Communication. Further, both are the recipients of the Bernard J. Brommel Award for Outstanding Scholarship and Service in Family Communication. Finally, both recognize the uniqueness and the honor to have served as president of the National Communication Association (Lynn in 2011; Rich in 2012), “the oldest and largest organization in the world promoting communication scholarship and education” (www.natcom.org).
- 36. CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics I suppose all of us get accustomed to look at what we are doing in a certain way and after a while have a kind of “trained incapacity” for looking at things in any other way. —Marie Hochmuth Nichols The Hernandez Family José and Angie Hernandez have been married for almost 30 years, and they are the parents of three children who have been out of the house for years. But, a recent layoff at the company where their son Eddy worked has forced the 24-year-old to return home until he can get another job. The job market after the recession was still not moving along fast enough. At first, Eddy’s parents were glad that he was home. His father was proud of the fact that his son wasn’t embarrassed about returning home, and his mom was happy to have him help her with some of the mundane tasks at home. In fact, Eddy showed both José and Angie how to instant mes- sage their friends and also put together a family website. His parents were especially happy about having a family member who was “tech-savvy” hanging around the house. But the good times surrounding Eddy’s return soon ended. Eddy brought his cell phone to the table each morning, marring the Hernandezes’ once-serene breakfasts. The clicking sound of texting and his incessant looking down under- mined an otherwise calm beginning to the day. In addition, José and Angie’s walks each morn- ing were complicated because their son often wanted to join them. At night, when they went to bed, the parents could hear Eddy Skyping with his friends, sometimes until 1:00 A.M. When Eddy’s parents thought about communicating their frustration and disappointment, they quickly recalled the difficulty of their son’s situation. They didn’t want to upset him any further. The Hernandezes tried to figure out a way to commu- nicate to their son that although they love him, they wished that he would get a job and leave the house. They simply wanted some peace, pri- vacy, and freedom, and their son was getting in the way. It wasn’t a feeling either one of them liked, but it was their reality. They considered a number of different approaches. In order to get the conversation going, they even thought about giving Eddy a few website links related to local apartment rentals. Recently, the couple’s frustration with the situation took a turn for the worse. Returning from one of their long walks, they discovered Eddy on the couch, hung over from a party held the night before at his friend’s house. When José and Angie confronted him about his demeanor, Eddy shouted, “Don’t start lecturing me now. Is it any wonder that none of your other kids call you? It’s because you don’t know when to stop! Look, I got a headache and I really don’t need to hear it right now!” José snapped, “Get out of my house. Now!” Eddy left the home, slamming the front door behind him. Angie stared out of the window, wondering when or if they would ever hear from their son again.
- 37. The value of communication has been lauded by philosophers (“Be silent or say something better than silence”—Pythagoras), writers (“The difference between the right word and the almost right word is the dif- ference between lightning and a lightning bug”—Mark Twain), performing artists (“Any problem, big or small, in a family usually starts with bad communication”—Emma Thompson), business leaders (“Writing is great for keeping records and putting down details, but talk generates ideas”—T. Boone Pickens), motivational speakers (“The quality of your communication is the quality of your life”—Tony Robbins), talk show hosts (“Great communication begins with connection”—Oprah), and even reality TV superstars (“Why not share my story?”—Kim Kardashian). Perhaps one of the most lasting of all words came from a 1967 film (Cool Hand Luke): “What we got here is a failure to communicate”—a quotation that has subsequently been stated in such diverse settings as in the movie Madagascar, the song “Civil War” by Guns N’ Roses, and television shows NCIS, Modern Family, Law and Order: SVU, and Frasier. It’s clear that nearly all cross sections of a Western society view communication as instrumental in human relationships. And clearly, regardless of where we live around the globe, we can't go through a day without communication. In the most fundamental way, communication depends on our ability to understand one another. Although our communication can be ambiguous (“I never thought I’d get this gift from you”), as we suggested above, one primary and essential goal in communicating is understanding. Our daily activities are wrapped in con- versations with others. Yet, as we see with the Hernandez family, even those in close relationships can have difficulty expressing their thoughts. Being able to communicate effectively is highly valued in the United States. Corporations have recognized the importance of communication. In 2019, in an agreement establishing an alliance between the Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the National Safety Management Society (https://www.osha.gov/dcsp/ alliance/nsms/nsms_20031001_final.html) communication is identified as instrumental in establishing a national dialogue on safety and health. Indeed, the entire safety profession supports this claim (http://www.com.edu/gcsi/): “First and foremost, risk managers must be good communicators.” Health care, too, is focusing more on the value of communication. Interestingly, as early as the late 1960s, doctor–patient communication has been a topic of concern in research (Korsch, Gozzi, & Francis, 1968). More recent lit- erature shows that effective doctor–patient communication is essential for the recovery of patients. Finally, in the classroom, researchers have concluded that affirming feedback/student confirmation positively affects student learning (Titsworth, Mazer, Goodboy, Bolkan, & Myers, 2015), and in athletics, this confirming com- munication influences athlete motivation and competitiveness (Cranmer, Gagnon, & Mazer, 2019). And, with respect to cross-platform messaging sites such as WhatsApp, individuals in intergenerational families report its use helps to make communicating to various family members both realistic and practical (Taipale, 2019). Make no mistake about it: Abundant evidence underscores the fact that communication is an essential, per- vasive, and consequential behavior in our society. As a student of communication, you are uniquely positioned to determine your potential for effective com- munication. To do so, however, you must have a basic understanding of the communication process and of how communication theory, in particular, functions in your life. We need to be able to talk effectively, for instance, to a number of very different types of people during an average day: roommates, teachers, ministers, salespeople, family members, friends, automobile mechanics, and health care providers, among many others. Communication opportunities fill our lives each day. However, we need to understand the whys and hows of our conversations with others. For instance, why do two people in a relationship feel a simultaneous need for togetherness and independence? Why do some women feel ignored or devalued in conversations with men? Why does language often influence the thoughts of others? How do media influence people’s behavior? To what extent can social media affect the communication among people? These and many other questions are at the root of why communication theory is so important in our society and so critical to understand. 2 CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics
- 38. Defining Communication Our first task is to create a common understanding for the term communication. Defining communication can be challenging because it’s a term that has been used by a wide assortment of people—from politicians to evangelical preachers to our parents. It is also an all-encompassing term and invoked with different moti- vations in mind. A friend might think everything is communication, while you might think that it occurs only with mutual understanding. Sarah Trenholm (2014) notes that although the study of communication has been around for centuries, it does not mean communication is well understood. In fact, Trenholm inter- estingly illustrates the dilemma when defining the term. She states, “Communication has become a sort of ‘portmanteau’ term. Like a piece of luggage, it is overstuffed with all manner of odd ideas and meanings. The fact that some of these do fit, resulting in a conceptual suitcase much too heavy for anyone to carry, is often overlooked” (p. 4). We should note that there are many ways to interpret and define communication—a result of the complexity and richness of the communication discipline. Imagine, for instance, taking this course from two different professors. Each would have their own way of presenting the material, and each classroom of students would likely approach communication theory in a unique manner. Ideally, the result would be two exciting and dis- tinctive approaches to studying the same topic. Students Talking Tech Maddy My own way of defining communication would have to include how I met my current boyfriend. I would never be with him if it wasn’t for social media and Bumble. The site let me—as a woman—make the first move. When I heard about this app, I thought, “Finally!” I was sick of guys who were looking for “now” rather than “now and later!” My boyfriend and I talked online and then over the phone, and then we met. The whole process was something I controlled, which made it easier and more comfortable for me. I can’t imagine that I would’ve had any chance to even meet this guy, let alone communicate with him, if Bumble didn’t help me start that process. This uniqueness holds true with defining communication. Scholars tend to see human phenomena from their own perspectives, something we delve into further in the next chapter. In some ways, researchers establish boundaries when they try to explain phenomena to others. Communication scholars may approach the inter- pretation of communication differently because of differences in scholarly values. With these caveats in mind, we offer the following definition of communication to get us pointed in the same direction. Communication is a social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish, interpret, and co-create meaning in their environment(s). We necessarily draw in elements of mediated communication as well in our discussion, given the importance that communication technology plays in contemporary society. With that in mind, let’s define five key terms in our perspective: social, process, symbols, meaning, and environment (Figure 1.1). CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 3
- 39. First, we believe that communication is a social process. When interpreting communication as social, we mean to suggest that it involves people and interactions, whether face-to-face or online. This necessarily includes two people, who act as senders and receivers. Both play an integral role in the communication process. When communication is social, it involves people who come to an interac- tion with various intentions, motivations, and abili- ties. To suggest that communication is a process means that it is ongoing and unending. Communi- cation is also dynamic, complex, and continually changing. With this view of communication, we emphasize the dynamics of making meaning. There- fore, communication has no definable beginning and ending. For example, although José and Angie Hernan- dez may tell their son that he must leave the house, their discussions with him and about him will definitely continue well after he leaves (e.g., “What do we do now?”). In fact, the conversation they have with Eddy today will most likely affect their communication with him tomorrow. Similarly, our past communications with people have been stored in their minds and have affected their conversations with us. The process nature of communication also means that much can happen from the beginning of a conversa- tion to the end. People may end up at a very different place once a discussion begins. This is exemplified by the frequent conflicts that roommates, spouses, and siblings experience. Although a conversation may begin with absolute and inflexible language, the conflict may be resolved with compromise. All of this can occur in a matter of minutes. Individual and cultural changes affect communication. Conversations between siblings, for example, have shifted from the 1950s to today. Years ago, siblings rarely discussed the impending death of a parent or the need to take care of an aging parent. Today, it’s not uncommon to listen to even young people talking about senior care, home health care, and even cremation arrangements. Perceptions and feelings can change and may remain in flux for quite some time. Some of you may be thinking that because the communication process is dynamic and unique it is virtually impossible to study. However, C. Arthur VanLear (1996) argues that because the communication process is so dynamic, researchers and theorists can look for patterns over time. He concludes that “if we recognize a pattern across a large number of cases, it permits us to ‘generalize’ to other unobserved cases” (p. 36). Or, as communication pioneers Paul Watzlawick, Janet Beavin, and Don Jackson (1967) suggest, the interconnect- edness of communication events is critical and pervasive. Thus, it is possible to study the dynamic communi- cation process. To help you visualize this process, imagine a continuum where the points are unrepeatable and irreversible. The communication field employed the historical spiral or helix to explain this process (Figure 1.2). In doing so, two conclusions emerged: (1) communication experiences are cumulative and are influenced by the past, and (2) because present experiences inevitably influence a person’s future, communication is nonlinear. Com- munication, therefore, can be considered a process that changes over time and among interactants. Communication Environment Social Process Symbols Meaning Figure 1.1 Key Terms in Defining Communication 4 CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics
- 40. A third term associated with our definition of communication is symbols. A symbol is an arbitrary label or representation of phenomena. Words are symbols for concepts and things—for example, the word love repre- sents the idea of love; the word chair represents a thing we sit on. Labels may be ambiguous, may be both ver- bal and nonverbal, and may occur in face-to-face and mediated communication. Symbols are usually agreed on within a group but may not be understood outside of the group. In this way, their use is often arbitrary. For instance, most college students understand the phrase “preregistration is closed”; those outside of college may not understand its meaning. Further, there are both concrete symbols (the symbol represents an object) and abstract symbols (the symbol stands for a thought or idea). Even the innocuous Twitter symbol—the hashtag—resonates in a number of fields, particularly in politics. Think, for instance, of the thousands of tweets that President Trump sent before and during his presidency, even though most of his posts represented the “politics of debasement” (Ott, 2017, p. 58). Further, in-depth political reporting and discussion are fast becoming rare in politics, and “the more candidates used Twitter to broadcast their thoughts, the more people retweeted them, spreading their messages and journalists men- tioned tweets in their election coverage (Buccoliero, Bellio, Crestini, & Arkoudas, 2018, p. 88). The search for a condensed, 140-character tweet has supplanted efforts to investigate and interrogate, sometimes called “viral politics” (Penney, 2014, p. 80). So, the hashtag symbol effectively has become a representation of a story that used to be several hundred words found in newspapers and magazines. In addition to process and symbols, meaning is central to our definition of communication. Meaning is what people extract from a message. In communication episodes, messages can have more than one meaning and even multiple layers of meaning. Without sharing some meanings, we would all have a difficult time speaking the same language or interpreting the same event. Judith Martin and Tom Nakayama (2017) point out that meaning has cultural consequences: [W]hen President George W. Bush was about to go to war in Iraq, he referred to this war as a “crusade.” The use of this term evoked strong negative reactions in the Islamic world, due to the history of the Cru- sades nearly 1,000 years ago …. While President Bush may not have knowingly wanted to frame the Iraq invasion as a religious war against Muslims, the history of the Crusades may make others feel that it is. (p. 70) Clearly, not all meaning is shared, and people do not always know what others mean. In these situations, we must be able to explain, repeat, and clarify. For example, if the Hernandezes want to tell Eddy to move out, they will probably need to go beyond telling him that they just need their “space.” Eddy may perceive “needing space” as simply staying out of the house two nights a week. Furthermore, his parents will have ∞ Figure 1.2 Communication Process as a Helix Reprinted by permission of Frank E. X. Dance. CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 5
- 41. to figure out what communication “approach” is best. They might believe that being direct may be best to get their son out of the house. Or they might fear that such clear communication is not the most effective strategy to change Eddy’s behavior. Regardless of how José and Angie Hernandez communicate their wishes, without sharing the same meaning, the family will have a challenging time getting their messages across to one another. The final key term in our definition of communication refers to the multiple environments related to com- munication. An environment is the situation or context in which communication occurs. The environment includes a number of elements, including time, place, historical period, relationship, and a speaker’s and listener’s cultural backgrounds. You can understand the influence of environments by thinking about your beliefs and values pertaining to socially significant topics such as marriage equality, physician-assisted suicide, and immigration into the United States. If you have had personal experience with any of these topics, it’s likely your views are affected by your perceptions. The environment can also be mediated. By that, we mean that communication takes place with technological assistance. At one point or another, all of us have communicated in a mediated environment, namely through email, chat rooms, or social networking sites. These mediated environments influence the communication between two people in that people in electronic relationships are (usually) not able to observe each other’s eye behavior, listen to vocal characteristics, or watch body movement (Skype and Snapchat are exceptions to this, however). Clearly, the mediated environment has received a great deal of attention over the years as communication theory continues to develop. Models of Understanding: Communication as Action, Interaction, and Transaction Communication theorists create models, or simplified representations of complex interrelationships among elements in the communication process, which allow us to visually understand a sometimes complex process. Models help us weave together the basic elements of the communication process. Although there are many communication models, we discuss the three most prominent ones here (linear, interactional, and transac- tional). In discussing these models and their underlying approaches, we wish to demonstrate the manner in which communication has been conceptualized over the years. We conclude our discussion by proposing a fourth model that infuses technology and other elements into our discussion. We term this the holistic model. Communication as Action: The Linear Model In 1949, Claude Shannon, a Bell Laboratories scientist and professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, and Warren Weaver, a consultant on projects at the Sloan Foundation, described communication as a linear process. They were concerned with radio and telephone technology and wanted to develop a model that could explain how information passed through various channels. The result was the conceptualization of the linear model of communication. This approach to human communication comprises several key elements, as Figure 1.3 demonstrates. A source, or transmitter of a message, sends a message to a receiver, the recipient of the message. The receiver is the person who makes sense out of the message. All of this communication takes place in a channel, which is the pathway to communication. Channels frequently correspond to the visual, tactile, olfactory, and auditory senses. Thus, you use the visual channel when you see your roommate, and you use the tactile channel when you hug your parent. 6 CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics
- 42. Noise Noise Target/Receiver Sender/Source Message Semantic Physical Psychological Physiological Semantic Physical Psychological Physiological Figure 1.3 Linear Model of Communication Communication also involves noise, which is anything not intended by the informational source. There are four types of noise. First, semantic noise pertains to the slang, jargon, or specialized language used by individuals or groups. For instance, when Jennifer received a medical report from her ophthalmologist, the physician’s words included phrases such as “ocular neuritis,” “dilated fun- duscopic examination,” and “papillary conjunctival changes.” This is an example of semantic noise because outside of the medical community, these words have lim- ited (or no) meaning. Psychological noise refers to a com- municator’s prejudices, biases, and predispositions toward another or the message. Physical, or external, noise exists outside of the receiver. To exemplify these two types, imagine listening to participants at a political rally. You may experience psychological noise listening to the views of a politician whom you do not support, and you may also experience physical noise from the people nearby who may be protesting the politician’s presence. Finally, physiological noise refers to the biological influ- ences on the communication process. Physiological noise, exists if you or a speaker is ill, fatigued, or hungry. Although this view of the communication process was highly respected many years ago, the approach is very limited for several reasons. First, the model presumes that there is only one message in the communication process. Yet we all can point to a number of circumstances in which we send several messages at once. Sec- ond, as we have previously noted, communication does not have a definable beginning and ending. Shannon and Weaver’s model adopts this mechanistic orientation. Furthermore, to suggest that communication is sim- ply one person speaking to another oversimplifies the complex communication process. Listeners are not so passive, as we can all confirm when we are in heated arguments with others. Clearly, communication is more than a one-way effort and has no definable middle or end. Dan Reynolds/CartoonStock Ltd CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 7
- 43. Noise Noise Noise Noise F i e l d o f e x p e r i e n c e Message Channel Sender Receiver Feedback Feedback F i e l d o f e x p e r i e n c e Figure 1.4 Interactional Model of Communication Communication as Interaction: The Interactional Model The linear model suggests that a person is only a sender or a receiver. That is a particularly narrow view of the participants in the communication process. Wilbur Schramm (1954), therefore, proposed that we also examine the relationship between a sender and a receiver. He conceptualized the interactional model of com- munication, which emphasizes the two-way communication process between communicators (Figure 1.4). In other words, communication goes in two directions: from sender to receiver and from receiver to sender. This circular process suggests that communication is ongoing. The interactional view illustrates that a person can perform the role of either sender or receiver during an interaction, but not both roles simultaneously. One element essential to the interactional model of communication is feedback, or the response to a message. Feedback may be verbal or nonverbal, intentional or unintentional. Feedback helps communicators to know whether or not their message is being received and the extent to which meaning is achieved. In the interac- tional model, feedback takes place after a message is received, not during the message itself. To illustrate the critical nature of feedback and the interactional model of communication, consider our open- ing example of the Hernandez family. When Eddy’s parents find him on the couch drunk, they proceed to tell Eddy how they feel about his behavior. Their outcry prompts Eddy to argue with his parents, who in turn, tell him to leave their house immediately. This interactional sequence shows that there is an alternating nature in the communication between Eddy and his parents. They see his behavior and provide their feedback on it, Eddy listens to their message and responds, then his father sends the final message telling his son to leave. We can take this even further by noting the door slam as one additional feedback behavior in the interaction. A final feature of the interactional model is a person’s field of experience, or how a person’s culture and expe- riences influence their ability to communicate with another. Each person brings a unique field of experience to each communication episode, and these experiences frequently influence the communication between peo- ple. For instance, when two people come together and begin dating, the two inevitably bring their fields of experience into the relationship. One person in this couple may have been raised in a large family with several siblings, while the other may be an only child. These experiences (and others) will necessarily influence how the two come together and will most likely affect how they maintain their relationship. Like the linear view, the interactional model has been criticized. The interactional model suggests that one person acts as sender while the other acts as receiver in a communication encounter. As you have experi- enced, however, people communicate as both senders and receivers in a single encounter. But the prevailing criticism of the interactional model pertains to the issue of feedback. The interactional view assumes two people speaking and listening, but not at the same time. But what occurs when a person sends a nonverbal 8 CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics
- 44. message during an interaction? Smiling, frowning, or simply moving away from the conversation during an interaction between two people happens all the time. For example, in an interaction between a mother and her daughter, the mother may be reprimanding her child while simultaneously “reading” the child’s nonverbal behavior. Is the girl laughing? Is she upset? Is she even listening to her mother? Each of these behaviors will inevitably prompt the mother to modify her message. These criticisms and contradictions inspired develop- ment of a third model of communication. Communication as Transaction: The Transactional Model The transactional model of communication (Barnlund, 1970; Frymier, 2005; Wilmot, 1987) underscores the simultaneous sending and receiving of messages in a communication episode, as Figure 1.5 shows. To say that communication is transactional means that the process is cooperative; the sender and the receiver are mutually responsible for the effect and the effectiveness of communication. In the linear model of communi- cation, meaning is sent from one person to another. In the interactional model, meaning is achieved through the feedback of a sender and a receiver. In the transactional model, people build shared meaning. Further- more, what people say during a transaction is greatly influenced by their past experience. So, for instance, at a college fair, it is likely that a college student will have a great deal to say to a high school senior because of the college student’s experiences in class and around campus. A college senior will, no doubt, have a different view of college than, say, a college sophomore, due in large part to their past college experiences. Transactional communication requires us to recognize the influence of one message on another. One message builds on the previous message; therefore, there is an interdependency between and among the components of communication. A change in one causes a change in others. Furthermore, the transactional model pre- sumes that as we simultaneously send and receive messages, we attend to both verbal and nonverbal elements of a message. In a sense, communicators negotiate meaning. For instance, if a friend asks you about your family background, you may use some private language that your friend doesn’t understand. Your friend may make a face while you are presenting your message, indicating some sort of confusion with what you’ve said. As a result, you will most likely back up and define your terms and then continue with the conversation. This Communicator Message/Feedback Shared field of experience Noise Physiological Psychological Physical Semantic Field of experience Communicator Field of experience Figure 1.5 Transactional Model of Communication CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 9
- 45. example highlights the degree to which two people are actively involved in a communication encounter. The nonverbal communication is just as important as the verbal message in such a transactional process. Earlier we noted that the field of experience functions in the interactional model. In the transactional model, the fields of experience exist, but overlap occurs. That is, rather than person A and person B having sepa- rate fields of experience, eventually the two fields merge (see Figure 1.5). This was an important addition to the understanding of the communication process because it demonstrates an active process of understand- ing. That is, for communication to take place, individuals must build shared meaning. For instance, in our earlier example of two people with different childhoods, the interactional model suggests that they would come together with an understanding of their backgrounds. The transactional model, however, requires each of them to understand and incorporate the other’s field of experience into their life. For example, it’s not enough for Julianna to know that Paul has a prior prison record; the transactional view holds that she must figure out a way to put his past into perspective. Will it affect their current relationship? How? If not, how will Julianna discuss it with Paul? The transactional model takes the meaning-making process one step further than the interactional model. It assumes reciprocity, or shared meaning. Communication Models of the Future As we move further into the 21st century, we have to ask the question: Are these models sufficient as we examine human communication? We already know that communication models are usually incomplete and unsuitable for all purposes (Perse & Lambe, 2017). The answer is fairly complex. First, the proliferation of new social networking sites (SNS), for example, and their influence upon communication demand that com- munication models integrate technological discussions. Second, this integration must necessarily be thought- ful, given the plethora of SNS. Traffic to SNS has grown exponentially over the past few years with about 75 percent of online adults using social networking (http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheets/social-networking- fact-sheet)—up from 7 percent in 2005. The diversity of these sites—from Facebook to LinkedIn to Instagram to Snapchat—suggests that no simple model will be possible. To this end, we suggest that the holistic model of communication might be on the horizon (Turner & West, 2019). This approach emphasizes some of the foundational elements found in our definition and the other models. The holistic model of communication underscores communication as a coherent combination of environment, shared technology experience, and communication effect. We address these elements below (Figure 1.6). First, we believe that all communication occurs in a context, or an environment in which a message is sent. Context is complex and includes more than the tangible; it can be cultural, historical, and/or situational. We briefly address each type of context below. The cultural context pertains to the various patterns of communication that are unique to a particular culture. Whether we’re addressing its rules, roles, or norms, cultures both in the United States and across the globe are idiosyncratic, and we cannot ignore this distinctness when talking about the communication process. Imagine, for instance, talking to a colleague. Culture always influences the communication that takes place between and among people. We return to a more comprehensive discussion of the impact of culture on com- munication in Chapter 2. For now, it’s simply important to note that the cultural context influences people’s communication. In the historical context, messages are understood in relationship to the historical period in which they are exchanged, underscoring the process-centered nature of communication, which we identified earlier. For each of you, for instance, sending a text or an email is second nature (first nature for many of you!). But, think 10 CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics
- 46. about the sci-fi nature of such a message if you lived in the 1940s! The notion of what it meant to be “unem- ployed” during the Great Depression is vastly different from the interpretation of “unemployment” today. In fact, the word “underemployed” is often used more frequently to avoid the negative meaning related to not having sufficient income to live (Barnichon & Zylberberg, 2019). The word was never fully understood in the early 1900s! The situational context is the tangible environment in which communication occurs—the train on the way to your job, the breakfast bar, and the inside of a mosque are examples of situational contexts. Environmental conditions such as overhead lighting, room temperature, and room size are components of this context. Fur- ther, the social and emotional climates are also associated with this context. For example, to what degree are the communicators friendly/unfriendly or supportive/unsupportive? Think also about the consequences of talking about marriage equality to an audience of GLBT families and to a group of Orthodox Jews. When you examine Figure 1.6, you will note that the holistic model shows each communicator carries with them a technological field of experience, expanding upon a concept identified in the interactional model. The technological field of experience refers to a person’s use of technology as it influences or is influenced by their culture, past experiences, personal history, and/or heredity. The infusion of technology in this model distinguishes it from the other three. First, communicators employ technology with a variety of goals in mind, namely, to stay in touch, to stay up to date, to network, to meet new people, to share opinions, and so forth. Contemporary models of communication must include technology, as we noted earlier, to understand the nuances of SNS, in particular, and their value to the communication process. Moreover, the holistic model shows a common technological field of experience between communicator A and communicator B. This overlap between fields of experience is where messages are exchanged. Thus, the model suggests more than sending a Facebook post; for communication to be achieved, someone must com- ment. That communication can either be direct (“I love your post!”) or indirect (“Will someone tell this per- son that they’re nuts?!”). So, to co-create meaning, a comment-response dynamic must take place. Finally, the holistic model shows that all communication generates some type of effect, or a result, coming from the communication encounter. Effect suggests that something evolved from the conversation. For exam- ple, if you hear a commercial for an Amazon product and go out and buy that product, you experienced an effect. If you are a member of a task group at work and you have a really productive meeting, you might feel more confident that you can get the job finished on time than you did before the meeting. That is an effect. Context Cultural Situational Historical Co-Creation of Meaning Context Cultural Situational Historical Communicator Communicator Shared technology S h a r e d t e c h n o l o g y S h a r e d t e c h n o l o g y S h a r e d t e c h n o l o g y Figure 1.6 Holistic Model of Communication CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 11
- 47. Effects range in their magnitude; some are large (you and a friend stop speaking to each other), while others are more minor (you feel better about the choice of car you recently purchased), but they always exist in any communication encounter. Thinking about the holistic model and its relationship to platforms such as Snapchat will be an ongoing process for years to come. Clearly, Shannon, Weaver, Schramm, and Barnlund could never have envisioned such technology. We’re sure that in the not-so-distant future, we will have an abundance of research on the influences of these technological influences on the communication process. You now have a basic understanding of how we define communication, and we have outlined the basic ele- ments and a few communication models. Recall this interpretation as you read the book and examine the various theories. It is probable that you will interpret communication differently from one theory to another. Remember that theorists set boundaries in their discussions about human behavior, and, consequently, they often define communication according to their own view. One of our goals in this book is to enable you to articulate the role that communication plays in a number of different theories. Thus far, we have examined the communication process and unpacked the complexity associated with it. We have identified the primary models of communication, trying to demonstrate the evolution and maturation of the communication field. We now explore a component that is a necessary and vital part of every commu- nication episode: ethics. Ethics and Communication In the movie The Insider, which was based on a true story, the lead character’s name is Jeffrey Wigand, a former tobacco scientist who violated a contractual agreement and exposed a cigarette maker’s efforts to include addictive ingredients in all cigarettes. The movie shows Wigand as a man of good conscience with the intention of telling the public about the company and its immoral undertakings. Wigand clearly believed that saving lives was the right and only thing to do, and he made his actions fit his beliefs: He acted on his ethics. In this section, we examine ethics, or the perceived rightness or wrongness of action or behavior. Ethics is a type of moral decision making (Carter, 2020), and determining what is right or wrong is influenced by soci- ety’s rules and laws. For example, although some may believe Wigand’s efforts were laudable, others may note that Wigand apparently knew what was going on when he signed a contract prohibiting him from disclosing company secrets. Furthermore, the murkiness of ethics is evidenced when one considers that Wigand made a lot of money before disclosing what was occurring. The United States is built on standards of moral conduct, and these standards are central to a number of institutions and relationships. Because ethical standards tend to shift according to historical period, the envi- ronment, the conversation, and the people involved, ethics can be difficult to understand. Let’s briefly dis- cuss ethical issues as they pertain to cultural institutions; a more comprehensive explanation of ethics can be found elsewhere (see Roger, 2018). To begin, George Cheney, Debashish Munshi, Steve May, and Erin Ortiz (2010) posit the following: “Com- munication, as both a discipline and an ‘interdiscipline’ or field, is poised to play a unique role in advancing discussions of ethics because the field offers an array of concepts and principles attuned to the examination of ethics” (p. 1). Their words resonate throughout this discussion. Let’s start here by asking why we should understand ethics, next explain ethics as it relates to society, and finally, explain the intersection of ethics and communication theory. As you think about this information, keep in mind that ethical decision making is culturally based. That is, what we consider to be ethical and appropriate in one society is not necessarily a shared value in another society. For instance, though many 12 CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics
- 48. in the United States can identify with the plight of the Hernandez family, you should know that in many cultures, having a son return to his family-of-origin is revered and would not pose the problems that the Her- nandezes are experiencing. Why study ethics? The response to this question could easily be another question: Why not study it? Ethics permeates all walks of life and cuts across gender, race, class, sexual identity, and spiritual/religious affilia- tion, among others. In other words, we cannot (and should not) escape ethical principles that guide our lives. Ethics is part of virtually every decision we make, regardless of our cultural heritage. Moral development is part of human development, and as we grow older, our moral code undergoes changes well into adulthood. Ethics is also what prompts a society toward higher levels of integrity and truth. Elaine Englehardt (2001) observes that “we don’t get to ‘invent’ our own system of ethics” (p. 2), which means that we generally follow a given cultural code of morality. And, Ken Andersen (2003) argues that without an understanding and an expression of ethical values, society will be disadvantaged: “Violating the norms of ethical communication is, I believe, a major factor in the malaise that has led many people to withdraw from the civic culture whether of their profession, their associations, their political arena” (p. 14). From a communication perspective, ethical issues surface whenever messages potentially influence others. Consider, for instance, the ethics associated with telling your professor that you couldn’t turn in a paper on time because a member of your family is ill, when such an illness doesn’t exist. Think about the ethics involved if you take an idea of a coworker and present it to your boss as if it were your own. Consider the ethical consequences of going out on several dates with someone and choosing not to disclose a past felony for assault, or of posing as someone other than yourself on Tinder.com or Tweeting events that are decep- tive. Television, too, carries ethical implications. For example, can television promote racial tolerance and harmony and simultaneously present portrayals of cultural groups in stereotypic and offensive ways? We con- tinue our discussion of ethics by identifying some of the institutions whose ethical standards have been the subject of much conversation. Business and industry, religion, entertainment, education, medicine, politics, and technology are just a few of the many fields that have been prone to ethical lapses and have been chal- lenged in communicating messages of integrity (Table 1.1). Table 1.1 Examples of Ethical Decision Making in the United States INSTITUTION EXAMPLES OF ETHICAL ISSUES Business and industry Should CEOs be given pay raises in companies that are not profitable? Religion Should the church allow priests to counsel couples who are about to be married? Entertainment Does viewing violence in movies prompt violence in society? Higher education Should student fees go to political activist groups on campus? Medicine Can pharmaceutical companies be held responsible for sample medicines? Politics Should political candidates make promises to citizens? Technology Should Facebook be prohibited from sharing any of your personal data with advertisers? CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 13
- 49. Students Talking: Caitlyn I could go on and on about how my high school dealt with unethical situations. We had one kid smok- ing in the bathroom, but nothing happened to him because he was the son of a school board mem- ber. We had a girl who had a cheat sheet for her math midterm, but because she admitted to it, the teacher did nothing about it. Even our principal was caught with another married parent. The school board just asked him to leave. It’s like there are no ethics anymore. Business and Industry Perhaps no cultural institution has been under more ethical suspicions of late than “corporate America.” Unethical behavior in corporations has reached proportions never before seen. In fact, many of these scan- dals prompted the Occupy Wall Street protest movements in 2011 and 2012, and in 2016, the rise of (then) two little-known U.S. Senators from New England: Elizabeth Warren and Bernie Sanders. Further, ongoing websites dedicated to discovering and revealing how companies violate ethical standards exist (https://global exchange.org/campaigns/corporatecriminals2017/). Because a corporation is usually obsessed about its reputation, companies have tried to hide costs, use cre- ative accounting practices, commit accounting fraud, and a plethora of other ethical breaches. In fact, in the movie The Big Short, an ex-physician invests more than $1 billion of investors’ money into credit defaults in the home mortgage industry. While some argued this was legal, the decision to take advantage of an impending mortgage crisis was clearly an unethical business practice. Other examples are not Hollywood- based but found around the globe: The former head of the World Bank engineers a job promotion and salary increase for his longtime companion; WorldCom declares bankruptcy after the discovery of an $11 billion accounting “error”; Trump University in New York, a defunct for-profit education company, was sued by for- mer students who claimed that they were duped by the organization because it did nothing to educate them about real estate; Volkswagen, the world’s biggest automaker, admits to rigging diesel emissions tests in the United States and Europe; Enron inflates earnings reports and hides billions in debt, while increasing salaries of its executives; the founder of Adelphia Communications and his two sons commit bank and securities fraud, leading to the company’s demise; and Boeing ignores safety upgrades to its 737 to cut costs. Finally, the Bernie Madoff investment securities scandal included Madoff bilking nearly $64 billion from over 4,500 clients. The list of business scandals has been especially prominent. But with the advent of Corporate Ethics Statements, congressional legislation requiring public accountability, improved transparent accounting prac- tices, and increased accountability to stockholders, most businesses have begun to improve their ethical stand- ing. Of course, much, much more needs to be done to eliminate lingering levels of distrust. Religion and Faith Both Eastern and Western civilizations have stressed ethics in their moral traditions. For instance, according to Taoism, no one exists in isolation, and, therefore, empathy and insight will lead to truth. For the Buddhist, 14 CHAPTER 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics
- 50. Other documents randomly have different content
- 52. T XIV THE JUNIOR MEMBER he offices of Kenyon, Hood and Gallatin were in the Mills Building, and consisted of six rooms, one for each of the members of the firm, and three for the clerks, stenographers and library. They were plainly but comfortably furnished, and gave no token of extraordinary prosperity or the lack of it. In no sense did they resemble the magnificent suites which were maintained elsewhere in the building by more precocious firms which had discovered the efficacy of the game of “bluff,” and which used it in their business with successful consistency. And yet there was an air of solidity here which indicated a conservatism more to the liking of the class of people who found use for the services of Kenyon, Hood and Gallatin. John Kenyon, the senior member, belonged to that steadily decreasing class of lawyers who look upon their profession as a calling with traditions. He belonged to an older school of practitioners which still clung to the ethics of a bygone generation. The business of many big corporations went up in the elevator which passed before the door of John Kenyon’s private office to a floor above, where its emissaries could learn how to take the money that belonged to other people without being jailed, or, having been jailed, how they could most quickly be freed to obtain the use of their plunder. But Mr. Kenyon made no effort to divert this tide. He wanted no part of it in his office. The corporate interests which he represented were for the most part those which required his services to resist the depredations planned upstairs. John Kenyon would have been a great lawyer but for the lack of one important ingredient of greatness—imagination. His knowledge
- 53. of the law was extraordinary. His mind was crystal-clear, analytical but not inventive, judicial but not prophetic. He would have graced the robes of a Justice of the Supreme Bench; but as a potent force in modern affairs he was not far from mediocrity. He had begun his career in the office of Philip Gallatin’s grandfather, had been associated with Philip Gallatin’s father, but with the passing of the old firm he had opened offices of his own. The initiative which he lacked had been supplied by Gordon Hood, a brisk Bostonian of the omniscient type; and the accession of young Philip Gallatin four years ago had done still more to supply the ingredients which modern conditions seemed to require. It had meant much to John Kenyon to have Phil in the firm, for the perspective of Time had done little to dim the luster which hung about the name of Gallatin and the junior member had shown early signs that he, too, was possessed of much of the genius of his forebears. Kenyon had watched the development of the boy with mingled delight and apprehension and, with the memory of the failings of his ancestors fresh in his mind, had done what he could to avert impending evil. It was at his advice that young Gallatin had gone to the Canadian woods, and he had noted with interest and not a little curiosity his return to his desk two months ago sobered and invigorated. Phil had plunged into the work which awaited him with quiet intention, and the way he had taken hold of his problems and solved them, had filled the senior partner with new hopes for his future. He loved the boy as he could have loved a son, as he must love the son of Evelyn Westervelt, and it had taken much to destroy John Kenyon’s belief in Phil’s ultimate success. But this last failure had broken that faith. Through the efforts of Gordon Hood the firm had won the suit for which Phil Gallatin had prepared it, but it was an empty victory to John Kenyon, who had seen during the preparation of the case Phil Gallatin’s chance, his palingenesis—the restitution of all his rights, physical and moral. Fully aware of John Kenyon’s attitude toward him, for two weeks Philip Gallatin had remained uptown and, until his dinner at Mrs. Pennington’s, to which he had gone in response to especial pleading,
- 54. had hidden himself even from his intimates. He had sent word to John Kenyon that he was indisposed, but both men knew what his absence meant. John Kenyon had been the one rock to which Phil Gallatin had tied, the one man with whom he had been willing to talk of himself, the one man of all his friends from whom he would even take a reproach. It was on John Kenyon’s account, more even than on his own, that Gallatin so keenly suffered for his failure at the critical moment. The time had indeed come for a reckoning, and yesterday Gallatin had planned to retire from the firm and save his senior partner the pains of further responsibility on his account. He had been weighed in the balance, a generous balance with weights which favored him, and had been found wanting. But last night a miracle had happened and the visit of renunciation which he had even planned for this very morning had been turned into one of contrition and appeal. And difficult as he found the interview before him, he entered the office with a light step and a face aglow with the new resolution which had banished the somber shadow that for so long had hung about him. It was early, and the business of the day had just begun. At his appearance several of the stenographers looked up from their work and scrutinized him with interest, and the chief clerk rose and greeted him. “Good morning, Tooker,” he nodded cheerfully. “Is Mr. Kenyon in yet?” “No, sir. It’s hardly his time——” “Please tell him I’d like to see him if he can spare me a moment.” Then he entered a door which bore his name and closed it carefully behind him, opened his desk, glanced at his watch, made two or three turns up and down the room and then took up the telephone book, Logan—Lord—Lorimer, Loring. There it was. 7000 Plaza. He hesitated again and then rang up the number. It was some moments before the butler consented to get Miss Loring, and when he did she did not recognize his voice.
- 55. “Who is it?” she asked. “Can’t you guess?” “Oh, Phil! I didn’t know you at all. Where are you?” “At the office.” “Already! And I’m not out of bed!” “Did I wake you? I’m sorry——” “I’m glad. I didn’t mean to go to sleep, but I did sleep, somehow ——” “I haven’t been asleep. I couldn’t——” “Why not?” “It’s so much pleasanter to be awake.” “I think so, too, but then I dreamed, Phil.” “Pleasant dreams?” “Oh, beautiful ones, full of demigods and things.” “What things?” “Enchanted broughams. Oh, how did it happen, Phil?” “It had to happen.” “I can’t believe it yet.” He laughed. “If I were there I’d try to convince you.” “Yes, I think you could. I’m willing to admit that.” “Are you sorry?” “N-o. But I’m so used to being myself. I can’t understand. It’s strange—that’s all. And I’m glad you called me. I’ve had a terrifying feeling that you must be somebody else, too.” “I am somebody else.” “I mean somebody I don’t know very well.”
- 56. “There’s a remedy for that.” “What?” “Doses of demigod. Repeat every hour.” “Oh——!” “Don’t you like the prescription?” “I—I think so.” “Then why not try it?” “I—I think I ought to, oughtn’t I?” “I’m sure of it. In a day or so the symptoms you speak of will entirely disappear.” “Are you sure?” “Positive.” “I—I think they’re less acute already. You really are you, aren’t you?” “If I wasn’t, you wouldn’t be you, don’t you see?” “Yes, and I’d be frightfully jealous if I had been somebody else.” She laughed. “Oh, Phil! What a conversation! I hope no one is listening.” “I’m sure they’re not. They couldn’t understand anyway.” “Not unless they’re quite mad—as we are. What are you doing? Working?” “Yes, drawing a deed for an acre in Paradise.” “Don’t be foolish. Who for?” “Me. And there’s a deed of trust.” “I’ll sign that.” “We’ll both sign it. It’s well secured, Jane. Don’t you believe me?” “Yes, I do,” slowly.
- 57. There was a pause and then he asked, “When can I see you?” “Soon.” “This afternoon?” “I’ve a luncheon.” “And then——” “Tea at the——Oh, Phil, I’ll have to cut that. There’s a dance to- night, too, the Ledyards’.” “This is getting serious.” “What can I do? I’ve been frightfully rude already. Can’t you go?” “Not sufficiently urged.” “Then I shan’t either. I don’t want to go. I want—the acre of Paradise.” “Where will I meet you, Jane?” “Here—at four.” “I’ll be there.” “Until then, good-by, and, Phil——” “Yes.” “Please wear that flannel shirt, disreputable hat and——” “And the beard?” “No—not the beard. But I want to be convinced there’s no mistake.” “I’d rather convince you without them.” “Oh, I’ve no doubt you will,” she sighed. “There’s so much I’ve got to say to you, Phil. I won’t know where to begin——” “Just where you stopped.” “But I—I wasn’t saying anything—just then. I couldn’t. There— there were reasons.”
- 58. He laughed gayly. “I’ve still other reasons.” “Oh!” “Convincing ones.” “Phil, I won’t listen. Good-by!” “Good-by.” “Hadn’t we better go for a walk?” she asked. “No—please——” “Oh, very well,” with a tone of resignation. “There—you see, I’m submitting again. At four, then. Good-by.” She cut off and he hung up the receiver, sitting for a long while motionless, looking out of the window. He took out his watch and was examining it impatiently when the chief clerk came in. “Mr. Kenyon will see you now, Mr. Gallatin,” he said. John Kenyon paused in the reading of his mail and looked up over the half-moons in his glasses when Gallatin appeared at the door. “Come in, Phil,” he said quietly, offering his hand. He sat down at his desk again and formally indicated the chair nearest it. His manner was kindly and full of an old-fashioned dignity, indicating neither indifference nor encouragement, and this seemed to make Philip Gallatin’s position if anything more difficult and painful. Instead of sitting, Gallatin turned toward the window and stood there. “I’ve come back, Uncle John,” he muttered. Kenyon glanced up at him, the calm judicial glance of a man who, having no venal faults himself, tolerates them in others with difficulty. There was no family relationship between the men, and Gallatin’s use of the familiar term at this time meant much, and something in Phil Gallatin’s pose arrested Kenyon’s eye, the jaw that had worked forward and was now clamped tightly by its throbbing
- 59. muscles, the bulk of the squared shoulders and the decision with which one hand clasped the chair-back. “I’m glad of that, Phil,” he said. “I was on the point of thinking you had given me up.” “I had. I had given you up. I haven’t been down here because I knew it wasn’t necessary for me to come and because I thought you’d understand.” “I understood.” “I wrote you two or three letters, but I tore them up. I wanted to sever my connection with the firm. I wanted to save you the pain of thinking about me any longer. I knew I hadn’t any right here, that I haven’t had any right here for a long while—two or three years, that I had been taking my share of fees I had never earned, and that it was only through your friendship for me that I’ve been encouraged to stay as long as this. I wanted to save you the pain of talking to me again——” “I’ve never denied you my friendship, Phil. I don’t deny it now. I only thought that you might have——” Gallatin turned swiftly and raised his hand. “Don’t, Mr. Kenyon! For God’s sake, don’t reproach me,” he said ardently. “Reproaches won’t help me—only wound. They’ve already been ringing in my ears for days—since the last time——” he paused. “Never mind.” Gallatin strode the length of the room, struggling for the control of his voice, and when he came back it was to stand facing the senior partner quite composed. “There isn’t a man in the world who would do as much for one who merited so little. I’m not going over that. Words can’t mean much from me to you; but what I would like you to know is that I don’t want to go out of the firm, and that, if you’ll bear with me, I
- 60. want another chance to prove myself. I’ve never promised anything. You’ve never asked me to. Thank God, that much of my self-respect at least is saved out of the ruins. I want to give my word now——” “Don’t do that,” said Kenyon hurriedly. “It isn’t necessary.” “Yes, I must. I’ve given it to myself, and I’ll keep it, never fear. That—was the last—the very last.” Kenyon twisted his thin body in his chair and looked up at the junior member keenly, but as he did so his eyes blurred and he saw, as thirty years ago he had seen the figure of this boy’s father standing as Phil Gallatin was standing enmeshed in the toils of Fate, gifted, handsome, lovable—and yet doomed to go, a mental and physical ruin, before his time. The resemblance of Philip Gallatin to his father was striking—the same high forehead, heavy brows and deep-set eyes, the same cleanly cut aquiline nose, and heavy chin. There were lines, too, in Phil Gallatin’s face, lines which had appeared in the last two years which made the resemblance even more assured. And yet to John Kenyon, there seemed to be a difference. There was something of Evelyn Westervelt in him, too, the clean straight line of the jawbone and the firmly modeled lips, thinner than the father’s and more decisive. “I’m glad of that, Phil,” he said slowly. “I’m not asking you to believe in me again. Broken faith can’t be repaired by phrases. I don’t want you to believe in me until I’ve made good. I want to come in here again on sufferance, as you took me in six years ago, without a share in the business of the firm that I don’t make myself or for which I don’t give my services. I want to begin at the bottom of the ladder again and climb it rung by rung.” “Oh, I can’t listen to that. Our partnership agreement——” “That agreement is canceled. I don’t want a partnership agreement. It’s got to be so. I’ve been thinking hard, Mr. Kenyon. It’s responsibility I need——”
- 61. “You’re talking nonsense, Phil. You did more work in the Marvin case than either Hood or myself.” “Perhaps, but I didn’t win it,” he said quickly. “The firm did.” “I can’t agree with you. I’ll come in this office on the conditions I suggest, or I must withdraw. My mind is made up on that. I don’t want to go, and it won’t be easier for me anywhere else. This is where I belong, and this is where I want to fight my battle, if I can do it in my own way without the moral or financial help of any one— of you, least of all.” Gallatin paused and walked, his head bent, the length of the room. John Kenyon followed him with his eyes, then turned to the window and for a long while remained motionless. Philip Gallatin returned to the vacant chair and sat leaning forward eagerly. The senior partner turned at last, his kind homely face alight with a smile. “You don’t need my faith, my boy, if you’ve got faith of your own, but I give it to you gladly. Give me your hand.” He got up and the two men clasped hands, and Phil Gallatin’s eyes did not flicker or fade before the searching gaze of the other man. It was a pact, none the less solemn for the silence with which one of them entered into it. “You’re awake, Phil?” he asked. “Yes, that’s it, Uncle John. Awake,” said Gallatin. “I’m glad—I’m very glad. And I believe it. I’ve never been able to get used to the idea of your being really out of here. We need you, my boy, and I’ve got work for you, of the kind that will put your mettle to the test. There’s a great opportunity in it, and I’ll gladly turn it over to you. ‘Sic itur ad astra,’ my boy. Will you take it?” “Gladly. A corporation case?”
- 62. “Sanborn et al. vs. The Sanborn Mining Company. Sit here and I’ll explain it to you.”
- 63. W XV DISCOVERED omen have a code of their own, a system of signals, a lip and sign language perfectly intelligible among themselves, but mystifying, as they purpose it to be, to mere man. Overweening husbands, with a fine air of letting the cat out of the bag, have been known to whisper that these carefully guarded secrets are no secrets at all, and that women are merely children of a larger growth, playing at hide and seek with one another (and with their common enemy) for the mere love of the game, that there are no mysteries in their natures to be solved, and that the vaunted woman’s instinct, like the child’s, is as apt to be wrong as often as it is right. Of course, no one believes this, and even if one did, man would go his way and woman hers. Woman would continue to believe in the accuracy of her intuitions and man would continue to marvel at them. Woman would continue to play at hide and seek, and man would continue to enjoy the game. Call them by what name you please, instinct, intuition, or guesswork, Mrs. Richard Pennington had succeeded by methods entirely feminine, in discovering that Phil Gallatin’s Dryad was Jane Loring, that he was badly in love with her and that Jane was not indifferent to his attentions. Phil Gallatin had not been difficult to read, and Mrs. Pennington took a greater pride in the discovery of Jane’s share in the romance, for she knew when Jane left her house in company with Phil that her intuition had not erred. Jane Loring had kissed her on both cheeks and called her “odious.”
- 64. This in itself was almost enough, but to complete the chain of evidence, she learned that Dawson, her head coachman, in the course of execution of her orders, had gone as far North as 125th Street before his unfortunate mistake of Miss Loring’s number had been discovered by the occupants of the brougham. Mrs. Pennington realized that this last bit of evidence had been obtained at the expense of a breach of hospitality, for she was not a woman who made a practice of talking with her servants, but she was sure that the ends had justified the means and the complete success of her maneuver more than compensated for her slight loss of self-respect in its accomplishment. But while her discovery pleased her, she was not without a sense of responsibility in the matter. She had been hoping for a year that a girl of the right kind would come between Phil and the fate he seemed to be courting, for since his mother’s death he had lived alone, and seclusion was not good for men of his habits. She had wanted Phil to meet Jane Loring, and her object in bringing them together had been expressed in a definite hope that they would learn to like each other a great deal. But now that she knew what their relations were, she was slightly oppressed by the thought of unpleasant possibilities. It was in the midst of these reflections that Miss Jaffray was announced, and in a moment she entered the room with a long half- mannish, half-feline stride and took up her place before the mantelpiece where she stood, her feet apart, toasting her back at the open fire. Mrs. Pennington indicated the cigarettes, and Nina Jaffray took one, rolling it in her fingers and tapping the end of it on her wrist to shake out the loose dust as a man would do. “I’m flattered, Nina,” said Nellie Pennington. “To what virtue of mine am I indebted for the earliness of this visit?” “I slept badly,” said Nina laconically. “And I’m the anodyne? Thanks.” “Oh, no; merely an antidote.”
- 65. “For what?” “Myself. I’ve got the blues.” “You! Impossible.” “Oh, yes. It’s quite true. I’m quite wretched.” “Dressmaker or milliner?” “Neither. Just bored, I think. You know I’ve been out five years now. Think of it! And I’m twenty-four. Isn’t that enough to make an angel weep?” “It’s too sad to mention,” said Mrs. Pennington. “You used to be such a nice little thing, too.” Nina Jaffray raised a hand in protest. “Don’t, Nellie, it’s no joke, I can tell you. I’m not a nice little thing any longer, and I know it. I’m a hoydenish, hard-riding, loud-spoken vixen, and that’s the truth. I wish I was a ‘nice little thing’ as you call it, like Jane Loring for instance, with illusions and hopes and a proclivity for virtue. I’m not. I like the talk of men——” “That’s not unnatural—so do I.” “I mean the talk of men among men. They interest me, more what they say than what they are. They’re genuine, somehow. You can get the worst and the best of them at a sitting. One can’t do that with women. Most of us are forever purring and pawing and my-dearing one another when we know that what we want to do is to spit and claw. I like the easy ways of men—collectively, Nellie, not individually, and I’ve come and gone among them because it seemed the most natural thing in the world to do. I’ve made a mistake. I know it now. When a girl gets to be ‘a good fellow’ she does it at the expense either of her femininity or her morals. And men make the distinction without difficulty. I’m ‘a good fellow,’” she said scornfully, “and I’m decent. Men know it, but they know, too, that I have no individual appeal. Why only last week at the Breakfast the Sackett boy clapped me on the back and called me ‘a jolly fine chap.’ I put
- 66. him down, I can tell you. I’d rather he’d called me anything— anything—even something dreadful—if it had only been feminine.” She flicked her cigarette into the fire and dropped into a chair. Mrs. Pennington laughed. “All this is very unmanly of you, Nina.” “Oh, I’m not joking. You’re like the others. Just because I’ve ridden through life with a light hand, you think I’m in no danger of a cropper. Well, I am. I’ve had too light a hand, and I’m out in the back-stretch with a winded horse. You didn’t make that mistake, Nellie. Why couldn’t you have warned me?” Mrs. Pennington held off the embroidery frame at arm’s length and examined it with interest. “You didn’t ask me to, Nina,” she replied quietly. “No, I didn’t. I never ask advice. When I do, it’s only to do the other thing. But you might have offered it just the same.” “I might have, if I knew you wouldn’t have followed it.” “No,” reflectively. “I think I’d have done what you said. I like you immensely, you know, Nellie. You’re a good sort—besides being everything I’m not.” “Meaning—what?” “Oh, I don’t know. You’re all woman, for one thing.” “I have had two children,” smiled the other toward the ceiling. “I could hardly be anything else.” “Is that it?” asked the visitor; and then after a pause, “I don’t like children.” “Not other people’s. You’d adore your own.” “I wonder.” Mrs. Pennington’s pretty shoulders gave an expressive shrug.
- 67. “Marry, my dear. Nothing defines one’s sex so accurately. Marry for love if you can, marry for money if you must, but marry just the same. You may be unhappy, but you’ll never be bored.” Nina Jaffray gazed long into the fire. “I’ve been thinking about it,” she said. “That’s what I came to see you about.” “Oh, Nina, I’m delighted!” cried Nellie Pennington genuinely, “and so flattered. Who, my dear child?” “I’ve been thinking—seriously.” “You must have had dozens of offers.” “Oh, yes, from fortune hunters and gentlemen jockeys, but I’m not a philanthropic institution. Curiously enough my taste is quite conventional. I want a New Yorker—a man with a mind—with a future, perhaps, neither a prig nor a rake—human enough not to be too good, decent enough not to be burdensome—a man with weaknesses, if you like, a poor man, perhaps——” “Nina. Who?” Miss Jaffray paused. “I thought I’d marry Phil Gallatin,” she said quietly. Mrs. Pennington laid her embroidery frame down and looked up quickly. Nina Jaffray’s long legs were extended toward the blaze, but her head was lowered and her eyes gazed steadily before her. It was easily to be seen that she was quite serious—more serious than Mrs. Pennington liked. “Phil Gallatin! Oh, Nina, you can’t mean it?” “I do. There isn’t a man in New York I’d rather marry than Phil.” “Does he know it?” “No. But I mean that he shall.” “Don’t be foolish. You two would end in the ditch in no time.”
- 68. Nina straightened and examined her hostess calmly. “Do you think so?” she asked at last. “Yes, I think so——” Nellie Pennington paused, and whatever it was that she had in mind to say remained unspoken. Instinct had already warned her that Nina was the kind of girl who is only encouraged by obstacles, and it was not her duty to impose them. “Stranger things have happened, Nellie,” she laughed. “But are you sure Phil will—er—accept you?” “Oh, no, and I shan’t be discouraged if he refuses,” she went on oblivious of Nellie Pennington’s humor. “Then you do mean to speak to him?” “Of course.” Nina’s eyes showed only grave surprise at the question. “How should he know it otherwise?” “Your methods are nothing, if not direct.” “Phil would never guess unless I told him. For a clever man he’s singularly stupid about women. I think that’s why I like him. Why shouldn’t I tell him? What’s the use of beating around the bush? It’s such a waste of time and energy.” Mrs. Pennington’s laugh threw discretion to the winds. “Oh, Nina, you’ll be the death of me yet. There never was such a passion since the beginning of Time.” “I didn’t say I loved Phil Gallatin,” corrected Nina promptly. “I said I’d decided to marry him.” “And have you any reason to suppose that he shares your—er— nubile emotions?” “None whatever. He has always been quite indifferent to me—to all women. I think the arrangement might be advantageous to him. He’s quite poor and I’ve got more money than I know what to do with. He’s not a fool, and I’m—Nellie, I’m not old-looking or ugly, am I? Why shouldn’t he like me, if he doesn’t like any one else?”
- 69. “No reason in the world, dear. I’d marry you, if I were a man.” Mrs. Pennington took to cover uneasily, conscious that here was a situation over which she could have no control. She was not in Phil Gallatin’s confidence or in Jane Loring’s, and the only kind of discouragement she could offer must fail of effectiveness with a girl who all her life had done everything in the world that she wanted to do, and who had apparently decided that what she now wanted was Phil Gallatin. Nina’s plans would have been amusing had they not been rather pathetic, for Nellie Pennington had sought and found below her visitor’s calm exterior, a vein of seriousness, of regret and self-reproach, which was not to be diverted by the usual methods. Did she really care for Phil? Clever as Mrs. Pennington was, she could not answer that. But she knew that it was a part of Nina Jaffray’s methods to do the unexpected thing, so that her sincerity was therefore always open to question. Nellie Pennington took the benefit of that doubt. “Has it occurred to you, Nina, that he may care for some one else?” Her visitor turned quickly. “You don’t think so, do you?” she asked sharply. “How should I know?” Mrs. Pennington evaded. “I’ve thought of that, Nellie. Who was Phil’s wood-nymph? He’s very secretive about it. I wonder why.” “I don’t believe there was a wood-nymph,” said Mrs. Pennington slowly. “Besides, Phil would hardly be in love with that sort of girl.” “That’s just the point. What sort of a girl was she? What reason could Phil have for keeping the thing a secret? Was it an amourette? If it was, then it’s Phil Gallatin’s business and nobody else’s. But if the girl was one of Phil’s own class and station, like——” “Miss Loring,” announced the French maid softly from the doorway.
- 70. Nina Jaffray paused and an expression of annoyance crossed her face. She straightened slowly in her chair, then rose and walked across the room. Mrs. Pennington hoped that she would go, but she only took another cigarette and lit it carefully. “You’re too popular, Nellie,” she said, taking a chair by the fire. Mrs. Pennington raised a protesting hand. “Don’t say that, Nina. For years I’ve been dreading that adjective. When a woman finds herself popular with her own sex it means that she’s either too passée to be dangerous, too staid to be interesting, or too stupid to be either. Morning, Jane! So glad! Is it chilly out or are those cheeks your impersonal expression of the joy of living?” “Both, you lazy creature! How do you do, Nina? This is my dinner call, Mrs. Pennington. I simply couldn’t wait to be formal.” “I’m glad, dear.” And then mischievously, “Did you get home safely?” “Oh, yes, but it was a pity to take poor Mr. Gallatin so far out of his way,” she replied carelessly. “Poor Phil! That’s the fate of these stupid ineligible bachelors—to act as postilion to the chariot of Venus. Awfully nice boy, but so uninteresting at times.” “Is he? I thought him very attractive,” said Jane. “He’s one of the Gallatins, isn’t he?” “Yes, dear, the last of them. I was afraid you wouldn’t like him.” “Oh, yes, I do. Quite a great deal. He’s a friend of yours, isn’t he, Nina?” “I’ve known him for ages,” said Miss Jaffray dryly; and then to Mrs. Pennington, “Why shouldn’t Jane like him, Nellie?” “Oh, I don’t know,” she finished with a gesture of graceful retirement. Their game of hide and seek was amusing, but
- 71. hazardous in the present company, so she quickly turned the conversation into other channels. Nina Jaffray and Jane Loring had met in the late autumn at a house party at the Ledyards’ place in Virginia, and while their natures were hardly concordant, each had found in the other some ingredients which made for amiability. Jane’s interest had been dictated by curiosity rather than approval, for Nina Jaffray was like no other girl she had ever met before. Whatever her manners, and these, Jane discovered, could be atrocious, her instincts were good, and her intentions seemed of the best. To Miss Jaffray, Jane Loring was ‘a nice little thing’ who had shown a disposition not to interfere with other people’s plans, a nice little thing, amiable and a trifle prudish, for whom Nina’s kind of men hadn’t seemed to care. They had not been, and could never be intimate, but upon a basis of good fellowship, they existed with mutual toleration and regard. Nellie Pennington, from her shadowed corner, watched the two girls with the keenest of interest and curiosity. Nina Jaffray sat with hands clasped around one upraised knee, her head on one side listening carelessly to Jane’s enthusiastic account of the Ledyards’ ball, commenting only in monosyllables, but interested in spite of herself in Jane’s ingenuous point of view, aware in her own heart of a slight sense of envy that she no longer possessed a susceptibility to those fresh impressions. Nina was not pretty this morning, Nellie Pennington thought. Hers was the effectiveness of midnight which requires a spot-light and accessories and, unless in the hunting field, midday was unkind to her; while Jane who had danced late brought with her all the freshness of early blossoms. But she liked Nina, and that remarkable confession, however stagy and Nina-esque, had set her thinking about Jane Loring and Mr. Gallatin. It was a pretty triangle and promised interesting possibilities. Jane was still speaking when Nina interrupted, as though through all that she had heard, one train of thought had persisted.
- 72. “What did you mean, Nellie, about Phil Gallatin being ineligible?” she asked. “And I know you don’t think him stupid. And why shouldn’t Jane Loring like him? I don’t think I understand?” Nellie Pennington smiled. She had made a mistake. Hide and seek as a game depends for its success upon the elimination of the bystander. “I am afraid, of course, that Jane would be falling in love with him,” she said lightly. And then, “That would have been a pity. Don’t you think so, Nina?” “There’s hardly a danger of that,” laughed Jane, “seeing that I’ve just—just been introduced to the man. You needn’t be at all afraid, Nina.” “I’m not. Besides he’s awfully gone on a wood-nymph. You saw him blush when I spoke of it at dinner here—didn’t you, Jane?” “Yes, I did,” said Jane, now quite rosy herself. “Phil wouldn’t have blushed you know,” said Nina confidently, “unless he was terribly rattled. He was rattled. That’s what I can’t understand. Suppose he did find a girl who was lost in the woods. What of it? It’s nobody’s business but his own and the girl’s. I’d be furious if people talked about me the way they’re talking about Phil and that girl. I was lost once in the Adirondacks. You were, too, in Canada only last summer, Jane. You told me so down in Virginia and ——” Jane Loring had struggled hard to control her emotion, and bent her head forward to conceal her discomposure, but Nina’s eyes caught the rising color which had flowed to the very tips of her ears. “Jane!” cried Nina in sharp accents of amazed discovery. “It was you!” The game of hide and seek had terminated disastrously for Jane, and her system of signals, useful to deceive as well as reveal had betrayed her. It was clearly to be seen that further dissimulation
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