introduction to cyber forensics, digital

UNIT-2: Cyberspace and the Law &
Cyber Forensics
1. Introduction, Cyber Security Regulations,
2. Roles of International Law.
3. The INDIAN Cyberspace,
4. National Cyber Security Policy,
5. Historical background of Cyber forensics, Digital Forensics Science,
6. The Need for Computer Forensics,
7. Cyber Forensics and Digital evidence,
8. Forensics Analysis of Email,
9. Digital Forensics Lifecycle,
10.Forensics Investigation,
11.Challenges in Computer Forensics

CYBERSPACE
• Cyberspace can be defined as an intricate environment that involves
interactions between people, software, and services.
• It is maintained by the worldwide distribution of information and
communication technology devices and networks.
• With the benefits carried by the technological advancements, the cyber
space today has become a common pool used by citizens, businesses,
critical information infrastructure, military and governments in a
fashion that makes it hard to induce clear boundaries among these
different groups.
• The cyberspace is anticipated to become even more complex in the
upcoming years, with the increase in networks and devices connected
to it.

2.2 Cyber Security Regulations
• There are five predominant laws to cover when it comes to cybersecurity:
• Information Technology Act, 2000 The Indian cyber laws are governed by
the Information Technology Act, penned down back in 2000. The principal
impetus of this Act is to offer reliable legal inclusiveness to eCommerce,
facilitating registration of real-time records with the Government. But with
the cyber attackers getting sneakier, topped by the human tendency to
misuse technology, a series of amendments followed.
• The ITA,enacted by the Parliament of India,highlights the grievous
punishments and penalties safeguarding the egovernance, e-banking, and e-
commerce sectors. Now, the scope of ITA has been enhanced to encompass
all the latest communication devices. The IT Act is the salient one, guiding
the entire Indian legislation to govern cybercrimes rigorously:

• Section43-Applicable to people who damage the computer systems without
permission from the owner. The owner can fully claim compensation for the
entire damage in such cases.
• Section 66 - Applicable in case a person is found to dishonestly or
fraudulently committing any act referred to in section 43. The imprisonment
term in such instances can mount up to three years or a fine of up to Rs. 5
lakh.
• Section 66B - Incorporates the punishments for fraudulently receiving stolen
communication Devices or computers, which confirms a probable three years
imprisonment. This term can also be topped by Rs. 1 lakh fine, depending
upon the severity

• Section 66C - This section scrutinizes the identity thefts related to
imposter digital signatures, hacking passwords, or other distinctive
identification features. If proven guilty, imprisonment of three years
might also be backed by Rs.1 lakh fine.
• Section 66 D - This section was inserted on-demand, focusing on
punishing cheaters doing impersonation using computer resources.

Indian Penal Code (IPC) 1980
• Identity thefts and associated cyber frauds are embodied in the
Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860 invoked along with the
Information Technology Act of 2000. The primary relevant
section of the IPC covers cyber frauds:
• Forgery (Section 464)
• Forgery pre-planned for cheating (Section 468)
• False documentation (Section 465)
• Presenting a forged document as genuine (Section 471)
• Reputation damage (Section 469)

Companies Act of 2013
• The corporate stakeholders refer to the Companies Act of 2013 as the legal
obligation necessary for the refinement of daily operations. The directives of
this Act cements all the required techno-legal compliances, putting the less
compliant companies in a legal fix.
• The Companies Act2013 vested powers in the hands of the SFIO(Serious
Frauds Investigation Office) to prosecute Indian companies and their directors.
Also, post the notification of the Companies Inspection, Investment, and Inquiry
Rules, 2014, SFIOs has become even more proactive and stern in this regard.
• The legislature ensured that all the regulatory compliances are well-covered,
including cyber forensics, ediscovery, and cybersecurity diligence. The
Companies (Management and Administration) Rules, 2014 prescribes strict
guidelines confirming the cybersecurity obligations and responsibilities upon
the company directors and leaders.

NIST Compliance-(National Institute of Standards and
Technology )
• The Cybersecurity Framework (NCFS), authorized by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST),offers a harmonized
approach to cybersecurity as the most reliable global certifying body.
• NIST Cybersecurity Framework encompasses all required guidelines,
standards, and best practices to manage the cyber-related risks
responsibly. This framework is prioritized on flexibility and cost-
effectiveness.

NIST Compliance-(National Institute of Standards and
Technology )
• It promotes the resilience and protection of critical infrastructure by:
Allowing better interpretation, management, and reduction of cybersecurity
risks to mitigate data loss, data misuse, and the subsequent restoration costs
• Determining the most important activities and critical operations - to focus
on securing them Demonstrates the trust-worthiness of organizations who
secure critical assets Helps to prioritize investments to maximize the
cybersecurity ROI Addresses regulatory and contractual obligations
Supports the wider information security program
• By combining the NIST CSF framework with ISO/IEC 27001 -
cybersecurity risk management becomes simplified. It also makes
communication easier throughout the organization and across the supply
chains via a common cybersecurity directive laid by NIST.

• Final Thoughts Ashuman dependence on technology intensifies,
cyberlaws in India and across the globe need constant up-gradation and
refinements. The pandemic has also pushed much of the workforce into a
remote working module increasing the need for app security.
• Lawmakers have to go the extra mile to stay ahead of the impostors, in
order to block the mat their advent.
• Cybercrimes can be controlled but it needs collaborative efforts of the
lawmakers, the Internet or Network providers, the intercessors like banks
and shopping sites, and, most importantly,
• theusers.Onlytheprudenteffortsofthesestakeholders,ensuringtheirconfinem
enttothelaw of the cyber land can bring about
• online safety and resilience

2.3 ROLES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW:
• In various countries, areas of the computing and communication
industries are regulated by governmental bodies.
• There are specific rules on the uses to which computers and computer
networks may be put, in particular there are rules on unauthorized
access, data privacy and spamming.
• There are also limits on the use of encryption and of equipment which
may be used to defeat copy protection schemes.
• There are laws governing trade on the Internet, taxation, consumer
protection, and advertising.
• There are laws on censorship versus freedom of expression, rules on
public access to government information, and individual access to
information held on them by private bodies Some states limit access to
the Internet, by law as well as by technical means.

INTERNATIONAL LAW FOR CYBER
CRIME
• Cyber- The complexity in types and forms of cybercrime increases the
difficulty to fight back fighting cybercrime calls for international
cooperation. Various organizations and governments have already
made joint efforts in establishing global standards of legislation and
law enforcement both on a regional and on an international scale

2.4 THE INDIAN CYBERSPACE:
• Indian cyberspace was born in 1975 with the establishment of
National Informatics Centre (NIC) with an aim to provide govt with IT
solutions. Three networks (NWs) were set up between 1986 and 1988
to connect various agencies of govt. These NWs were, INDONET which
infrastructure, NICNET(the NICNW) a nation wide very small a
pertureterminal(VSAT)NW for public sector organizations as well as to
connect the central govt with the state govts and district
administrations, the third NW setup was ERNET (the Education and
Research Network), to serve the academic and researchcommunities.

2.4 THE INDIAN CYBERSPACE:
• New Internet Policy of 1998 paved the way for services from multiple Internet
service providers(ISPs) and gave boost to the Internet user base grow
from1.4million in 1999 to over 150 million by Dec 2012. Exponential growth
rate is attributed to increasing Internet access through mobile phones and
tablets. Govt is making a determined push to increase broadband penetration
from its present level of about 6%1.
• The target for broadband is 160 million households by 2016 under the National
Broadband Plan

2.5 NATIONAL CYBER SECURITY
POLICY:
• National Cyber Security Policy is a policy framework by Department of Electronics and
Information Technology.
• It aims at protecting the public and private infrastructure from cyberattacks. The policy also
intends to safeguard "information, such as personal information (of web users), financial
and banking information and sovereign data".
• This was particularly relevant in the wake of US National Security Agency (NSA) leaks
that suggested the US government agencies are spying on Indian users, who have no legal
or technical safeguards against it.
• Ministry of Communication and Information Technology(India) defines Cyberspace as a
complex environment consisting of interactions between people, software services
supported by worldwide distribution of information and communication technology.

2.5 NATIONAL CYBER SECURITY
POLICY:
• VISION:
• To build a secure and resilient cyberspace for citizens, business, and
government and also to protect anyone from
• intervening in user's privacy.
• MISSION:
• To protect information and information infrastructure in cyberspace,
build capabilities to prevent and respond to
• cyber threat, reduce vulnerabilities and minimize damage from cyber
incidents through a combination of institutional
• structures, people, processes, technology, and cooperation

OBJECTIVE:
• Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (India) define objectives as
follows:
• To create a secure cyber ecosystem in the country, generate adequate trust and confidence in
IT system and transactions in cyberspace and thereby enhance adoption of IT in all sectors of
the economy.
• To create an assurance framework for the design of security policies and promotion and
enabling actions for compliance to global security standards and best practices by way of
conformity assessment (Product, process,
• technology &people).
• To strengthen the Regulatory Framework for ensuring a SECURE CYBERSPACE
ECOSYSTEM.
• To enhance and create National and Sectoral level 24X7 mechanism for obtaining strategic
information regarding threats to ICT infrastructure, creating scenarios for response, resolution
and crisis management through effective predictive, preventive, protective response and
recovery actions

INTRODUCTION TO CYBER FORENSICS
• Computer forensics is the application of investigation and analysis techniques to
gather and preserve evidence.
• Forensic examiners typically analyze data from personal computers, laptops,
personal digital assistants, cell phones, servers, tapes, and any other type of media.
• This process can involve anything from breaking encryption,to executing search
warrants with a law enforcement team, to recovering and analyzing files from hard
drives that will be critical evidence in the most serious civil and criminal cases.
• The forensic examination of computers, and data storage media, is a complicated
and highly specialized process.
• The results of forensic examinations are compiled and included in reports. In many
cases, examiners testify to their findings, where their skills and abilities are put to
ultimate scrutiny

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CYBER
FORENSICS
• It is difficult to pinpoint when computer forensics history began. Most experts
agree that the field of computer forensics began to evolve more than 30 years
ago.
• The field began in the United States, in large part, when law enforcement and
military investigators started seeing criminals get technical.
• Government personnel charged with protecting important, confidential, and
certainly secret information conducted forensic examinations in response to
potential security breaches to not only investigate the particular breach, but to
learn how to prevent future potential breaches.
• Ultimately, the fields of information security, which focuses on protecting
information and assets, and computer forensics, which focuses on the response
to hi-tech offenses, started to intertwine

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CYBER FORENSICS
• Over the next decades, and up to today, the field has exploded. Law
enforcement and the military continue to have a large presence in the
information security and computer forensic field at the local, state, and
federal level.
• Private organizations and corporations have followed suit – employing
internal information security and computer forensic professionals or
contracting such professionals or firms on an as-needed basis.
• Significantly, the private legal industry has more recently seen the need for
computer forensic examinations in civil legal disputes, causing an explosion
in the e-discovery field.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CYBER FORENSICS
• The computer forensic field continues to grow on a daily basis. More and
more large forensic firms, boutique firms, and private investigators are
gaining knowledge and experience in the field.
• Software companies continue to produce newer and more robust forensic
software programs. And law enforcement and the military continue to
identify and train more and more of their personnel in the response to
crimes involving technology

DIGITAL FORENSICS:
• Digital Forensics is defined as the process of preservation, identification,
extraction, and documentation of computer evidence which can be used
by the court of law.
• It is a science of finding evidence from digital media like a computer,
mobile phone, server, or network.
• It provides the forensic team with the best techniques and tools to solve
complicated digital- related cases.
• Digital Forensics helps the forensic team to analyzes, inspect, identifies,
and preserve the digital evidence residing on various types of electronic
devices.
• Digital forensic science is a branch of forensic science that focuses on
the recovery and investigation of material found in digital devices related
to cybercrime.

THE NEED FOR COMPUTER FORENSICS:
• Computer forensics is also important because it can save
your organization money.
• From a Technical standpoint, the main goal of computer
forensics is to identify, collect, preserve, and analyze data in
a way that preserves the integrity of the evidence collected
so it can be used effectively in a legal case.

CYBER FORENSICS AND DIGITAL EVIDENCE:
• Digital evidence is information stored or transmitted in binary form that
may be relied on in court.
• It can be found on a computer hard drive, a mobile phone, among other
places.
• Digital evidence is commonly associated with electronic crime,ore-
crime,such as child pornography or credit card fraud.
• However, digital evidence is now used to prosecute all types of crimes, not
just e-crime.
• For example, suspects' e-mail or mobile phone files might contain critical
evidence regarding their intent, their whereabouts at the time of a crime
and their relationship with other suspects.
• In 2005, for example, a floppy disk led investigators to the BTK serial killer
who had eluded police capture since 1974 and claimed the lives of at least
10victims.

CYBER FORENSICS AND DIGITAL EVIDENCE:
• In an effort to fight e-crime and to collect relevant digital evidence for
all crimes, law enforcement agencies are incorporating the collection
and analysis of digital evidence, also known as computer forensics,
into their infrastructure.
• Law enforcement agencies are challenged by the need to train officers
to collect digital evidence and keep up with rapidly evolving
technologies such as computer operating systems.

• Cyberforensics can be divided into two domains:
• 1. Computer forensics;
• 2. network forensics.

FORENSICS ANALYSIS OF EMAIL
• E-mail forensics refers to the study of source and content of e-
mail as evidence to identify the actual sender and recipient of a
message, data/time of transmission, detailed record of e-mail
transaction, intent of the sender, etc.
• This study involves investigation of metadata, keyword
searching, port scanning, etc. for authorship attribution and
identification of e-mail scams.

FORENSICS ANALYSIS OF EMAIL
• Various approaches that are used for e-mail forensic are:
• Header Analysis–Meta data in thee-mail message in the form of
control information
• i.e. envelope and headers including headers in the message body contain
information about the sender and/or the path along which the message has
traversed.
• Some of these may be spoofed to conceal the identity of the sender. A
detailed analysis of these headers and their correlation is performed in
header analysis

Bait Tactics
• – In bait tactic investigation an e-mail with http: “<imgsrc>” tag having image source at
some computer monitored by the investigators is send to the sender of e-mail under
investigation containing real(genuine)e-mail address.
• When the e-mail is opened, alog entry containing the Ip address of the recipient(sender of
the e-mail under investigation) is recorded on the http server hosting the image and thus
sender is tracked.
• However, if the recipient (sender of the e-mail under investigation) is using a proxy server
then IP address of the proxy server is recorded.
• The log on proxy server can be used to track the sender of the e-mail under investigation. If
the proxy server’s log is unavailable due to some reason, then investigators may send the
tactic e-mail containing a)Embedded Java Applet that runs on receiver’scomputerorb)
• HTML
• page withActiveXObject.BothaimingtoextractIPaddressofthereceiver’scomputerand e-mail
it to the investigators

Server Investigation
• –In this investigation, copies of delivered e-mails and server logs are investigated
to identify source of an e-mail message.
• E-mails purged from the clients (senders or receivers) whose recovery is
impossible may be requested from servers (Proxy or ISP) as most of them store a
copy of all e-mails after their deliveries.
• Further, logs maintained by servers can be studied to trace the address of the
computer responsible for making the e-mail transaction.
• However, servers store the copies of e- mail and server logs only for some
limited periods and some may not co-operate with the investigators.
• Further, SMTP servers which store data like credit card number and
otherdatapertainingtoownerofamailboxcanbeusedtoidentifypersonbehindane-
mailaddress

Network Device Investigation
• – In this form of e-mail investigation, logs maintained by the
network devices such as routers, firewalls and switches are
used to investigate the source of an e-mail message.
• This form of investigation is complex and is used only when
the logs of servers (Proxy or ISP) are unavailable due to
some reason, e.g. when ISP or proxy does not maintain a log
or lack of co-operation by ISP’s or failure to maintain chain
of evidence

Software Embedded Identifiers
• – Some information about the creator of e-mail, attached files or documents may
be included with the message by thee-mail software used by the sender for
composing e-mail.This information may be included in the form of custom
headers or in the form of MIME content as a Transport Neutral Encapsulation
Format (TNEF). Investigating the e-mail for these details may reveal some vital
informationaboutthesenderse-mailpreferencesandoptionsthatcouldhelpclientside
evidence gathering. The investigation can reveal PST file names, Windows logon
username, MAC address, etc. of the client computer used to send e-mailmessage

SenderMailerFingerprints
• –Identification of software handling e-mail at server can be
revealed from the Received header field and identification of
software handling e-mail at client can be ascertained by
using different set of headers like “X-Mailer” or equivalent.
• These headers describe applications and their versions used
at the clients to send e-mail.
• This information about the client computer of the sender
can be used to help investigators devise an effective plan
and thus prove to be very useful.

EMAIL FORENSICS TOOLS
• Erasing or deleting an email doesn’t necessarily mean that it
is gone forever. Often emails can be forensically extracted
even after deletion. Forensic tracing of e-mail is similar to
traditional detective work. It is used for retrieving
information from mail box files

MiTec Mail Viewer
This is a viewer for Outlook Express, Windows Mail/Windows LiveMail, Mozilla Thunder bird
message databases, and single EMLfiles.
It displays a list of contained messages with all needed properties, like an ordinary e-mail
client. Messages can be viewed in detailed view, including attachments and an HTML preview.
It has powerful searching and filtering capability and also allows extracting
emailaddressesfromallemailsinopenedfoldertolistbyoneclick.Selectedmessages can be saved to
eml files with or without their attachments. Attachments can be extracted from selected
messages by one command.

OST and PST Viewer
• – Nucleus Technologies’ OST and PST viewer tools help you
view OST and PST files easily without connecting to an MS
Exchange server. These tools allow the user to scan OST and
PST files and they display the data saved in it including email
messages, contacts, calendars, notes, etc., in a proper folder
structure.

eMailTrackerPro–
• eMailTrackerPro analyses the headers of an e-mail to detect the
IPaddressofthemachinethatsentthemessagesothatthesendercanbetracke
ddown. It can trace multiple e-mails at the same time and easily keep
track of them. The geographical location of an IP address is key
information for determining the threat level or validity of an e-
mailmessage

EmailTracer
• – EmailTracer is an Indian effort in cyber forensics by the
Resource Centre for Cyber Forensics (RCCF) which is a
premier centre for cyber forensics in India. It develops cyber
forensic tools based on the requirements of law
enforcement agencies

Fig 2.1: Digital Forensics Lifecycle

• 2.12 DIGITAL FORENSICS LIFECYCLE: There are many type of
Cyber crimes taking place in the digital world, it is important
for the investigator to collect, analyze, store and present the
evidence in such a manner that court will believe in such
digital evidences and give appropriate punishment to the
Cyber criminal

• Collection: The first step in the forensic process is to identify potential
sources of data and acquire data from them.
• Examination: After data has been collected, the next phase is to examine
the data, which involves assessing and extracting the relevant pieces of
information from the collected data. This phase may also involve
bypassing or mitigating OS or application features that obscure data and
code, such as data compression, encryption, and access control
mechanisms.
• Analysis: Once the relevant information has been extracted, the analyst
should study and
analyzethedatatodrawconclusionsfromit.Thefoundationofforensicsisusinga
methodical approach to reach appropriate conclusions based on the
available data or determine that no conclusion can yet bedrawn

• Reporting:Theprocessofpreparingandpresentingtheinformat
ionresultingfromtheanalysis phase. Many factors affect
reporting, including the following:
• a. Alternative Explanations: When the information regarding
an event is incomplete, it may not be possible to arrive at a
definitive explanation of what happened. When an event has
two or more plausible explanations, each should be given
due consideration
inthereportingprocess.Analystsshoulduseamethodicalappro
achtoattempttoprove or disprove each possible explanation
that is proposed

• AudienceConsideration.Knowingtheaudiencetowhichthedata
orinformationwill be shown isimportant.
• c. Actionable Information. Reporting also includes
identifying actionable information gained from data that
may allow an analyst to collect new sources ofinformation

FORENSICS INVESTIGATION:
• Forensics are the scientific methods used to solve a crime.
Forensic investigation is the gathering and analysis of all
crime-related physical evidence in order to come to a
conclusion about a suspect. Investigators will look at blood,
fluid, or fingerprints, residue, hard drives,
computers,orothertechnologytoestablishhowacrimetookpla
ce.Thisisageneraldefinition, though, since there are a
number of different types offorensics.

• TYPES OF FORENSICS INVESTIGATION
• Forensic Accounting /Auditing
• Computer or CyberForensics
• Crime SceneForensics
• ForensicArchaeology
• ForensicDentistry
• ForensicEntomology
• ForensicGraphology
• ForensicPathology
• ForensicPsychology
• ForensicScience
• ForensicToxicology

CHALLENGES IN COMPUTER FORENSICS:
• Digital forensics has been defined as the use of scientifically derived
and proven methods towards the identification, collection,
preservation, validation, analysis, interpretation, and presentation
of digital evidence derivative from digital sources to facilitate the
reconstruction of events found to be criminal.But these digital
forensics investigation methods face some major challenges at the
time of practical implementation. Digital forensic challenges are
categorized into three major heads as per Fahdi, Clark, and Furnell
are:
•  Technicalchallenges
•  Legalchallenges
•  ResourceChallenges

Anti-forensics techniques are
categorized into the following types
• TECHNICAL CHALLENGES
• As technology develops crimes and criminals are also
developed with it. Digital forensic
expertsuseforensictoolsforcollectingshredsofevidenceagains
tcriminalsandcriminalsuse such tools for hiding, altering or
removing the traces of their crime, in digital forensic this
process is called Anti- forensics technique which is
considered as a major challenge in digital forensics world

• Encryption
• It is legitimately used for ensuring the privacy of
information by keeping it hidden from an unauthorized
user/person. Unfortunately, it can also
• be used by criminals to hide their crimes

• Data hiding in storage space
• Criminals usually hide chunks of data inside the storage
medium in invisible form by using system commands, and
programs.
• Covert Channel
• Acovertchannelisacommunicationprotocolwhich allows an
attacker to bypass intrusion detection technique and hide
data over the network. The
attackeruseditforhidingtheconnectionbetween
• him and the compromised system

• Other Technical challenges are:
•  Operating in thecloud
•  Time to archive data
•  Skillgap
•  Steganography

LEGAL CHALLENGES
• Thepresentationofdigitalevidenceismoredifficultthanitscollectionb
ecausetherearemany instances where the legal framework
acquires a soft approach and does not recognize every
aspectofcyberforensics,as
inJagdeoSinghV.TheStateandOrscaseHon’bleHighCourtof Delhi
held that “while dealing with the admissibility of an intercepted
telephone call in a CD and CDR which was without a certificate
under Sec. 65B of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872the court
observed that the secondary electronic evidence without
certificate u/s. 65B of Indian Evidence Act, 1872 is not admissible
and cannot be looked into by the court for any purpose
whatsoever.”

• This happens in most of the cases as the cyber police lack
the necessary qualification and ability to identify a possible
source of evidence and prove it. Besides, most of the time
electronic evidence is challenged in the court due to its
integrity. In the absence of
properguidelinesandthenonexistenceofproperexplanationof
thecollection,andacquisition of electronic evidence gets
dismissed initself

• Absence of guidelines and standards
• In India, there are no proper guidelines for the collection
and acquisition of digital evidence. The investigating
agencies and forensic laboratories are working on the
guidelines of their own. Due to this,
• the potential of digital evidence has been destroyed

• Limitation of the Indian Evidence Act,1872
• TheIndianEvidenceAct,1872havelimitedapproach, it is not
able to evolve with the time and address the E-evidence are
more susceptible to tampering, alteration, transposition,
etc. the Act is silent on the method of collection of e-
evidence it only focuses on the presentation of electronic
evidence in the court by accompanying a certificate as per
subsection 4 ofSec. 65B[12]. This means no matter what
procedure is followeditmustbeprovedwiththehelpofa
• certificate.

• Other Legal Challenges
•  PrivacyIssues
•  Admissibility inCourts
•  Preservation of electronicevidence
•  Power for gathering digitalevidence
•  Analyzing a runningcomputer

• RESOURSE CHALLENGES:
• Astherateofcrimeincreasesthenumberofdataincreasesandth
eburdentoanalyzesuchhuge
dataisalsoincreasingonadigitalforensicexpertbecausedigitale
videnceismoresensitiveas compared to physical evidence it
can easily disappear. For making the investigation process
fast and useful forensic experts use various tools to check
the authenticity of the data but dealing with these tools is
also a challenge initself

Types of Resource Challenges are:
• Change intechnology:
• Due to rapid change in technology like operating systems,
application software and hardware, reading of digital
evidence becoming more difficult because new version
software’s are not
supportedtoanolderversionandthesoftwaredevelopingcomp
aniesdidprovideanybackward compatible’s which also
affectslegally.

• Volume andreplication:
• The confidentiality, availability, and integrity of electronic
documents are easily get manipulated. The combination of
wide-area networks and the internet form a big network
that allows flowing data beyond the physical boundaries.
Such easiness of communication and
availabilityofelectronicdocumentincreasesthevolumeofdata
whichalsocreatedifficultyin the identification of original and
relevantdata.

introduction to cyber forensics, digital

introduction to cyber forensics, digital

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