Introduction to Databases by Dr. Kamal Gulati

Introduction to Databases
By
Dr. Kamal Gulati

Terminologies of Databases
• Data
• Information
• Knowledge
• Decision
• Information Systems
• CBIS
• Record
• Field
• Attribute
• Domain
• Tuples
• Record
• Database
• Table
• Relation
• Types of Database
• Categories of DBMS
• History of DBMS
• File Organization
• Data Hierarchy
• Traditional File Processing
• SQL
• Oracle
• MS Access
• IBM DBase 2
• Components of DBMS
• Relationship
• Management System
• Front End
• Back End
• Views of data
• Schema
• Components of
Database System
• DBMS
• Data Independence
• Examples of
Database System
• Advantages of DBMS
• Disadvantages of
DBMS
• Properties of
Databases
• Architecture of DBMS
• Database Model

Data vs. Information
•Data consists of raw facts (i.e., a list of the numbers)
•Information is a collection of facts organized (or processed)
in such a way that they have additional value (i.e., a list of the
class grades based on the exam score
–In a way, information is data that has been transformed
into a more useful form
–Turning data into information is a process performed to
achieve a defined outcome and requires knowledge

Data
• Data: Facts, figures, statistics etc. having no
particular meaning (e.g. 1, ABC, 19 etc).
• Refers to a collection of facts usually collected
as the result of experience, observation or
experiment, or processes within a computer
system, or a set of premises.
• This may consist of numbers, words, or
images, particularly as measurements or
observations of a set of variables.
• Data is often viewed as a lowest level of
abstraction from which information and
knowledge are derived

Data Examples
• Yes, Yes, No, Yes, No, Yes, No, Yes
• 42, 63, 96, 74, 56, 86
• 111192, 111234
• None of the above data sets have any
meaning until they are given a
CONTEXT and PROCESSED into a
useable form

Introduction to Databases by Dr. Kamal Gulati

Collections of data
Data may be collected, manipulated and retrieved
in various ways:
• Plain text editor - simple editing and retrieval
• Word processor - adds tables and simple
calculations
• Spreadsheet programmes - adds more
sophisticated calculations
• Database Management System (DBMS) - adds
formats, structures, rules, ...

Information
• Data that has been processed within a
context to give it meaning
OR
• Data that has been processed into a form
that gives it meaning

Example 1
Yes, Yes, No, Yes, No, Yes,
No, Yes, No, Yes, YesRaw Data
Context
Responses to the market
research question –
“Would you buy brand x
at price y?”
Information ???
Processing

Example 2
Raw Data
Context
Information
42, 63, 96, 74, 56, 86
Jaya scores in the six
AS/A2 ICT modules
???
Processing

Example 3
Raw Data
Context
Information
111192, 111234
The previous and current
readings of a customer’s
gas meter
???
Processing

12
Data
• raw facts
• no context
• just numbers and
text
Information
• data with context
• processed data
• value-added to
data
– summarized
– organized
– analyzed

Example -1
• Data: 102515
• Information:
– 10/25/16 The date of your final exam.
– $ 102515 the average starting salary of an
DBA in IT Company .
– 102515 Zip Code.
14

Example - 2
15
Data
• 6.34
• 6.45
• 6.39
• 6.62
• 6.57
• 6.64
• 6.71
• 6.82
• 7.12
• 7.06
SIRIUS SATELLITE RADIO INC.
$5.80
$6.00
$6.20
$6.40
$6.60
$6.80
$7.00
$7.20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Last 10 Days
StockPrice

Knowledge
• Knowledge is the understanding of rules
needed to interpret information
“…the capability of understanding the
relationship between pieces of
information and what to actually do
with the information”

Knowledge Examples
• Using the 3 previous examples:
– A Marketing Manager could use this information to
decide whether or not to raise or lower price y
– Jayas teacher could analyse the results to determine
whether it would be worth her re-sitting a module
– Looking at the pattern of the customer’s previous gas
bills may identify that the figure is abnormally low and
they are fiddling the gas meter!!!

Summary
Information Data Context Meaning= ++
Processing
Data – raw facts and figures
Information – data that has been processed (in a context) to give it meaning

20
Data  Information  Knowledge
Data
Information
Summarizing the data
Averaging the data
Selecting part of the data
Graphing the data
Adding context
Adding value

Basic system is composed of 5
components:
21
– Input, Output, Processing, Feedback, Control
• Typically processing helps transform data
into information.
Input Output
Processing
Raw Data Information

Information Systems
• Why Do People Need Information?
–Individuals - Entertainment and
enlightenment
–Businesses - Decision making, problem
solving and control

Management
Organizations Technology
Information
Systems
An information system is a system which assembles, stores, processes, and
delivers information relevant to an organization (or to society) in such a way
that the information is accessible and useful to those who wish to use it, including
managers, staff, clients, and citizens.
An information system is a human activity (social) system which may or may not
involve the use of computer systems.

• An information systems is a collection of
components that collects, processes, stores,
analyzes, and disseminates information for a
specific purpose.
• The major components of a Computer-Based
Information System (CBIS) can include :-
(1) Hardware
(2) Software
(3) Database
(4) Network
(5 ) Procedures, and
(6) People.
• The system operates in a Social Context, and the software usually
includes application programs which perform specific tasks for
users.

Record
• Collection of related data items, e.g. in the
above example the three data items had
no meaning. But if we organize them in the
following way, then they collectively
represent meaningful information.
Roll Name Age
1 ABC 19

Table or Relation
• Table or Relation: Collection of related
records.
Roll Name Age
1 ABC 19
2 DEF 22
3 XYZ 28
The columns of this relation are
called Fields, Attributes or Domains. The rows are
called Tuples or Records.

Database
• Collection of related relations. Consider
the following collection of tables
T1
Roll Name Age
1 ABC 19
2 DEF 22
3 XYZ 28
T2
Roll Address
1 VA
2 CA
3 NY
T3
Roll No Quarter
1 I
2 II
3 I
T4
Year Hostel
I H1
II H2

Relationship…
• We now have a collection of 4 tables. They can
be called a “related collection” because we can
clearly find out that there are some common
attributes existing in a selected pair of tables.
• Because of these common attributes we may
combine the data of two or more tables together
to find out the complete details of a student.
Questions like “Which hostel does the
youngest student live in?” can be answered
now, although Age and Hostel attributes are in
different tables.

Management System
• is a set of rules and procedures which
help us to create organize and manipulate
the database.
• It also helps us to add, modify delete
data items in the database.
• The management system can be either
manual or computerized.

Three Views of Data
(ANSI-SPARC)

Schema
• The word schema means
arrangement – how we want to
arrange things that we have to
store.
• Structure of Database

Internal or Physical Schema
• The lowest level, called the Internal or Physical
schema, deals with the description of how raw
data items (like 1, ABC, KOL, H2 etc.) are stored
in the physical storage (Hard Disc, CD, Tape
Drive etc.).
• It also describes the data type of these data
items, the size of the items in the storage media,
the location (physical address) of the items in the
storage device and so on.
• This schema is useful for database application
developers and database administrator.

Conceptual or Logical
Schema
• The middle level is known as the Conceptual or
Logical Schema, and deals with the structure of
the entire database.
• We are interested with the structure of the
database. This means we want to know the
information about the attributes of each table,
the common attributes in different tables that
help them to be combined, what kind of data can
be input into these attributes, and so on.
• Conceptual or Logical schema is very useful for
database administrators whose responsibility is to
maintain the entire database.

External or View Schema
• The highest level of abstraction is
the External or View Schema. This is
targeted for the end users.
• The database administrator may want to
create custom made tables, keeping in
mind the specific kind of need for each
user.
• These tables are also known as virtual
tables, because they have no separate
physical existence.

Components of Database
System
Is Composed of 5 major parts
1. Hardware
2. Software (DBMS)
3. People / Users
4. Procedures and
5. Data

DBMS
• A "Database Management System" is a software that
defines a database, stores the data, supports a query
language, produces reports, and create data entry
screens.
• Collection of components that support data acquisition,
dissemination, storage, maintenance, retrieval, and
formatting.
• The role of a DBMS in a larger system is to allow other
software, or users, to store and retrieve data in a
structured way.

Reasons for a DBMS
• A DBMS is a software package for defining and
managing a database.
• A ‘real’ database includes
definitions of
– field names
– data formats (text, binary, integer, etc.)
– record structures (fixed-length, pointers, field order, etc.)
– file structures (sequential, indexed etc.)
• rules for validating and manipulating data
• A DBMS provides Data independence.

Data Independence
• It is the property of the database which
tries to ensure that if we make any
change in any level of schema of the
database, the schema immediately above
it would require minimal or no need of
change.
• Example: Construction of Building

Data Independence
• One must be able to change storage
mechanisms and formats without having to
modify all application programmes.
For example:
• method of representation of alphanumeric data
(e.g., changing date format to avoid Y2000
problem)
• method of representation of numeric data (e.g.,
integer vs. long integer or floating-point)
• units (e.g., metric )
• file structure (sequential, sorted, indexed, etc.)

Data independence can be classified
into the following two types:
• 1. Physical Data Independence: any
change made in the physical schema, the
need to change the logical schema is
minimal.
• 2. Logical Data Independence: any
change made in the logical schema, the
need to change the external schema is
minimal.

Example for Physical Data
Independence
• You have bought an Audio CD of a recently released film and
one of your friends has bought an Audio Cassette of the
same film. If we consider the physical schema, they are
entirely different.
• The first is digital recording on an optical media, where
random access is possible. The second one is magnetic
recording on a magnetic media, strictly sequential access.
However, how this change is reflected in the logical schema is
very interesting.
• For music tracks, the logical schema for both the CD and the
Cassette is the title card imprinted on their back. We have
information like Track no, Name of the Song, Name of the
Artist and Duration of the Track, things which are identical for
both the CD and the Cassette. We can clearly say that we
have achieved the physical data independence here.

Example for Logical Data
Independence
• CD you have bought contains 6 songs, and some of your
friends are interested in copying some of those songs
(which they like in the film) into their favorite collection.
• One friend wants the songs 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, another wants
1, 3, 4, 5 and another wants 1, 2, 3, 6. Each of these
collections can be compared to a view schema for that
friend.
• Now by some mistake, a scratch has appeared in the CD
and you cannot extract the song 3.
• Obviously, you will have to ask the friends who have
song 3 in their proposed collection to alter their view
by deleting song 3 from their proposed collection as
well.

Example usage of Database
System
• Membership and subscription mailing lists
• Accounting and bookkeeping information
• The data obtained from scientific research
• Customer information and Inventory
information
• Personal records
• Library information

Examples of Business Databases
• Telephone book
• Student data
• Music
• Fingerprint database
• Dictionaries
• Customer data
• Real estate listings
• Hospital/patient data
• Inventory
–Barcode scanner keeps
inventory in database

Advantages for DBMS
1. Reduction of Redundancy
2. Sharing of Data
3. Data Integrity
4. Data security

Disadvantages of DBMS
1. We have to invest a good amount in acquiring the
hardware, software, installation facilities and training
of users.
2. We have to keep regular backups because a failure can
occur any time. Taking backup is a lengthy process
and the computer system cannot perform any other job
at this time.
3. While data security system is a boon for using
DBMS, it must be very robust. If someone can bypass
the security system then the database would become
open to any kind of mishandling.

Properties of databases
• 1. Completeness
• 2. Integrity
• 3. Flexibility
• 4. Efficiency
• 5. Usability

1. Completeness
• Ensures that users can access the data
they want includes ad hoc queries, which
would not be explicitly given as part of a
statement of data requirements.
• Database has to support the requirements
• It requires the complete understanding of
database structure, relationship and
constraint.

2. Integrity
• Ensures that data is both consistent (no
contradictory data) and correct (no invalid
data), and ensures that users trust the
database.
• Database integrity ensures that data
entered into the database is accurate,
valid, and consistent.

3. Flexibility
• Ensures that a database can evolve
(without requiring excessive effort) to
satisfy changing user requirements.
• Ability to upgrade or change the
functionality of database up to the current
need.

4. Efficiency
• Ensures that users do not have unduly
long response times when accessing data.
• The database should be able to perform
effectively.
• The designer has to choose the right
DBMS, the right access path in order to
improve the efficiency.

5. Usability
• Ensures that data can be accessed and
manipulated in ways which match user
requirements.
• The database design significantly impacts
the quality and usability of the data.
• A poorly designed database may place the
entire organization at risk due to the
incomplete or incorrect information.

Client-Server Architecture of
DBMS

Typesof Data Model
• ObjectOriented
• Entity Relationship
• Functional
• Semantic
• Network
• Hierarchical
• Relational
• Unify
• FrameMemory

Database organization /
Database Model
Six Models of database organization:
1. Flat (TABULAR)
2. Relational RDBMS
3. Hierarchical HDBMS
4. Object-oriented OODBMS
5. Network NDBMS

Flat databases
• These databases are the simplest and consist of
single files stored in a tabular form. These files
have no relationships that can be built with other
files. Simple spreadsheet programs that allow
users to input, query, and manipulate
information within a single disk file is an example
of a tabular database.
• A single kind of record with a fixed number of
fields.
• Notice the repetition of data, and thus an
increased chance of errors.

Relational Model
• The relational model (RDBMS, Relational database
management system): The data is stored in two-‐
dimensional tables (rows and columns). The data is
manipulated based on the relational theory of
mathematics.
• For example, a data set containing all the real estate transactions in
a town can be grouped by the year the transaction occurred; or it
can be grouped by the sale price of the transaction; or it can be
grouped by the buyer's last name; and so on.

Hierarchical Model
• These databases have a tree like structure
with every node of the tree representing a
different tabular file. Each file is related to
one another through the link to the file
above or below. Lateral links between
files are not allowed.
• The data is sorted hierarchically, using a
downward tree. This model uses pointers to
navigate between stored data. It was the ﬁrst
DBMS model.

Each of the boxes in the diagram represents one
database. The top database in the hierarchical model is
called the "parent" database. The databases under it
are called "child" databases. One "parent" can have
many "children," but a "child" can only have one
"parent." The child databases are all connected to the
parent database via links called "pointers."

A Hierarchical Database for a Human
Resources System

Network Model
• Is like the hierarchical model, this model uses
pointers toward stored data. However, it
does not necessarily use a downward tree
structure.

Network Model
• Depicts data logically as many-to-many
relationships

Object BasedData Model /
Object-oriented Database
• An object database (also object-oriented
database) is a database model in which
information is represented in the form of objects
as used in object-oriented programming.
• The object oriented model deﬁnes a database
in terms of objects, their properties, and their
operations.
• The most commonly object based data models
are entity relation, semantic, Object
oriented, and functional data models.

The Object-Oriented Model
• The object model (ODBMS, object-‐oriented
database management system)
• The data is stored in the form of objects,
which are structures called classes that
display the data within. The ﬁelds are
instances of these classes

PhysicalBasedData Model
• Physical based data model describes how data
is stored in the computer by representing
information such as record formats, record
orderings, and access paths.
• It is the process of choosing speciﬁc storage
structures and access paths for the database
ﬁles to achieve good performance for the
various database applications.

TYPES OF DATABASE
• CENTRAIZED
• DISTRIBUTED

DATA BASE
SERVER
ATM
ATM
ATM
TELECOM LINES,LAN,
CENTRAIZED DATA BASE

DISTRIBUTED DATABASE
DATA
BASE
SERVER
WORKSTATION
INDIA CHINA
USA
DATA
BASE
SERVER
Workstation
Data base server
workstation
network

Distributed Database
• Databases can be decentralized either
by partitioning or by replicating
• Partitioned database: Database is
divided into segments or regions.
• For example, a customer database can
be divided into Eastern customers and
Western customers, and two separate
databases maintained in the two
regions.
• RAID

DISTRIBUTED DATABASE CAN BE:
HOMOGENEOUS
HETEROGENEOUS

Various Common of DBMS /
Categories of DBMS
Server DBMS
• Oracle
• Microsoft SQL
Server
• IBM DB2
• Open Source:
MySQL, Firebird,
PostgreSQL
Desktop DBMS
• Microsoft Access
• FoxPro
• Paradox
• Approach
• FileMaker Pro
• Lotus

Benefitsof Desktop Database
• Easy Management
 Simple functionality tomodifyand maintain the
database
• Low RunningCost
 No need for extra hardware support
 No need tohire expertise
• Easy to use
 No advance technical knowledge is needed
 Programs arenormally veryintuitive and easy to learn.

Benefitsof Server Database
• Increase Scalability
 any element canbe upgraded when needed
• Increase Flexibility
 new technology can be easily integrated into the
system
• Increase Accessibility
 server can be accessed remotely and across
multiple platforms
Contd..

Benefitsof Server Database
• Increase performance
 Different CPU’sprocessapplication in parallel
Easier to tune the server machine since the task is only to
perform database processing
• Increase Consistency
 Centralization - access, resources, and data security are
controlled through the server.

Things to Considerto Select DBMS
1. Data Model
2. Number of user
3. Number of sites
4. Cost
5. Purpose

Data Model
• A setof conceptsto describe the structure of a
database and certain constrain that the database
shouldobey.
• Typesof data model:
– Hierarchy
– Relational
– Network
– Relational
– Object-oriented
• Current commercial database usedrelational data
model.
• Object oriented – has been implemented but
not had widespread use.

Numberof users
• Single user– support only oneuserat onetime
• Multi user– support multiple use at one time

Number of sites
• Centralized
• Data isstored at a single computer site.
• DBMScansupport multiple user,but the
DBMSand the database reside totally at a
single computer site.
• Distributed
• Canhave manythe actual database and
DBMS software distributed over many
sites,connected by a computer network.

Cost
• Quite difficult to propose any type of DBMS
based oncostwhichprovide different type of
services.
• Open sourceproduct : MySQL, PostgrSQL

Purpose
• General Purpose
– Does notincludemany transactions
• Special Purpose
– Requiremanytransaction.
– Whenperformanceisprimaryconsideration,aspecial
purposeofDBMS canbedesign.
– OnlineTransactionProcessing(OLTP)systemwhich
supportlargenumberofconcurrentprocessingwithout
imposingexcessivedelay
– Example:AirlineReservationSystem

Comparisonbetween DBMS
DBMS Operating
System
Estimated
Price
Transaction
Support
Interface Max DB size
Oracle Window
Mac
Unix
$40000 -
$12800
Yes GUI
SQL
Unlimited
IBM DB2 Window
Mac
Unix
$25000 -
$800000
Yes GUI
SQL
512 TB
SQL Server Window Yes GUI
SQL
524258 TB
MySQL Window
Linux
Mac
Solaris
Netware
Open Source Yes GUI
SQL
256 TB
Microsoft
Access
Window Package with
Microsoft
products
GUI
SQL
2G

Group Discussion
• Youare responsible for selecting a newDBMS
product for a group of usersin your
organization. Howshouldyou do about
evaluating and selecting the best DBMS
product?

TheImpact of Information
Technology on Work and Society
 1969: TheArpanet isintroduced,funded by thedepartment of defence.
 1970: The first automaticteller machineis introduced.
 1971:
 The first singlechip central processingunitwas introduced,theIntel 4004.
 The first network e-mail messageissentby Ray Tomlinson of BoltBoranekand Newman.
 1972: Lexitron,Wang and VYTECintroduceWord Processing systems.
 1973: The Xerox PauloAlto Research Centredeveloped theAlto, anexperimental computerthat uses a graphical user
interface and a mouse.
 1978: RonRivest,Adi Shamir and LeonardAdelman introduce the RSAcipher as a public key cryptosystem.
 1979: The first electronic spreadsheetprogram is introduced.
 1981: IBM introducesitsfirst personalcomputerwith anoperating system developed by Microsoft.
 1983: The switchover to theTCPIPprotocol marksthebeginning of theglobal Internet.
 1985: Microsoft releases theWindows operating system.
 1989: The world wide web project isproposed to theEuropeanCouncilfor NuclearResearch (CERN).
 1990: Windows version3.0 isreleased bringing a stable graphical userinterface to theIBM Personal Computer.
 1993:TheMosaicNCSA isdeveloped by theNational Centrefor Super-computing Applications.
 1995:Thefirst full lengthfeature moviecreated by a computerisreleased.Toy Story.
 Late1990’s:The emergenceof electronic commerce.

Contribution of Database
Technology to Society
• Reduced Application Development Time
– Less time to create new application using DBMS.
– Example: Print report, Retrieve Data
• Flexibility
– Allow evolutionary changes to the structure of
database without affecting the stored data and
existing application.
Contd…

Contribution of Database
Technology to Society
• Availability of Up-to-Date Information
– Available to all user
– As soon as update apply, it is available to all
users.
• Economic of Scale
– DBMS can be shared among various
department and activities thus reduced the
data redundancy

• Database systems were first developed in the 1960’s.
• They were then mostly used for business applications with large
amounts of structured data, typically in the banking, insurance, and
airline industries.
• Today, virtually all large corporations use database systems to keep
track of customers, suppliers, reservations, orders, deliveries,
invoices, employees, etc. As database systems became more
versatile, powerful, and user friendly, their use in number of areas.
• For example management information systems (MIS), decision
support systems (DSS), ad hoc query systems, inventory control
systems, point of sale systems (POS), and more.

File Organization Terms and
Concepts
• Bit: Smallest unit of data; binary digit (0,1)
• Byte: Group of bits that represents a single character
• Field: Group of words or a complete number
• Record: Group of related fields
• File: Group of records of same type

Data Storage
Name Symbol Binary Number of Bytes Equal to
Kilobyte KB 2^10 1,0241024 B
Megabyte
MB
2^20 1,048,5761024 KB
Gigabyte
GB
2^30 1,073,741,8241024 MB
Terabyte
TB
2^40 1,099,511,627,7761024 GB
Petabyte
PB
2^50 1,125,899,906,842,6201024 TB
Exabyte
EB
2^60 1,152,921,504,606,840,0001024 PB
Zettabyte
ZB
2^70 1,180,591,620,717,410,000,0001024 EB
Yottabyte
YB
2^80 1,208,925,801,182,620,000,000,0001024 ZB

File Organization Terms and
Concepts (Continued)
• Database: Group of related files
• Entity: Person, place, thing, event about which
information is maintained
• Attribute: Description of a particular entity
• Key field: Identifier field used to retrieve, update, sort a
record

SQL
• SQL or structured query language is a
programming language designed for
managing data in relational database
management system(with RDBMS
Concept).
• Its scope include data insert, update,
delete, creation & modification.

Oracle
• Oracle DBMS is one of the most widely
deployed DBMS. The oracle product has
proven itself in many of the largest data
stores supporting entire corporations.
• Oracle secures and protects the privacy of
sensitive business information, manages
all internet content of an organization,
reduces the time by analyzing data faster.

MS-Access
• Microsoft access is a relational database
management system from Microsoft.
• MS Access stores data in its own format
and can also import or link directly to data
stored in other applications and
databases.

IBM DBase 2
• DBase 2 was the first widely used
database management system for
microcomputers.
• For handling data dbase 2 provided
detailed procedural commands to open
and traverse records in data files(USE ,
SKIP ,GO TOP , GO BOTTOM ,
REPLACE , STORE)

Components of DBMS:
• Data definition language: Specifies
content and structure of database and
defines each data element
• Data manipulation language: Used to
process data in a database
• Data dictionary: Stores definitions of
data elements and data characteristics

Linking Internal Databases to the
Web

SQL (Structured Query
Language)
• Is a programming language that is used to
manage data in relational database’s.
Microsoft SQL server is a best example.
Microsoft SQL server is a relational
database that is used to store and retrieve
data by applications either on the same
computers or over the network.

Basic features of SQL server
• A relational database is a set of tables
containing data fitted into predefined categories.
• Each table contains one or more data categories
in columns.
• Each row contains a unique instance of data for
the categories defined by the columns.
• User can access data from the database without
knowing the structure of the database table.

Limitations for SQL database
• Scalability: Users have to scale relational
database on powerful servers that are expensive
and difficult to handle. To scale relational
database it has to be distributed on to multiple
servers. Handling tables across different servers
is a chaos.
• Complexity: In SQL server’s data has to fit into
tables anyhow. If your data doesn’t fit into tables,
then you need to design your database structure
that will be complex and again difficult to handle.

NoSQL database
• In the past few years, the”one size fits all“-thinking
concerning data stores has been questioned by both,
Science and web companies, which has lead to the
emergence of a great variety of alternative databases.
The movement as well as the new datastores is
commonly subsumed under the term NoSQL.
• The basic quality of NoSQL is that, it may not require
fixed table schemas, usually avoid join operations, and
typically scale horizontally. Academic researchers
typically refer to these databases as structured storage,
a term that includes classic relational databases as a
subset.

• NoSQL database also trades off “ACID”
(atomicity, consistency, isolation and
durability). NoSQL databases, to varying
degrees, even allow for the schema of
data to differ from record to record. If there
doesn’t exist schema or a table in NoSQL,
then how do you visualize the database
structure? Well here is the answer
• http://www.thewindowsclub.com/difference
-sql-nosql-comparision

Q) Problems with the Traditional File Environment
Q) Difference Between DBMS & RDBMS
Q) Characteristics of DBMS
Q) Disadvantages of Hierarchical and Network DBMS
Q) ACID Properties of DBMS
Q) Difference between SQL and NoSQL
Class Discussion

Thanks You !
My Areas of Interest are IT Project management, Big Data Analytics, Internet & Web
Technology, Social Media Marketing, Management Information System, Database
Management System, Networking, Advanced Excel with Visual Basis and Decision Support
System.
Feel free to contact me at:
Email: drkamalgulati@gmail.com
LinkedIn: https://in.linkedin.com/in/drkamalgulati
Dr. Kamal Gulati
Ph. D., M.Sc. (CS) , M.C.A., M.B.A
Certification in Big Data (Wiley), CCNA, MCP, Brain bench (Windows)

Introduction to Databases by Dr. Kamal Gulati

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