Introduction to history: definition, issues, sources, and methodology

Editor's Notes

• #4: This chapter introduce history as a discipline and as a narrative. It presents the definition of the history, which transcends the common definition of history as the study of the past. This chapter also discusses several questions and issues in history that consequently opens up for the theoretical aspects of the discipline. The distinction between primary and secondary sources is also discussed in relation to the historical subject matter being studied and the historical methodology employed by the historian. Ultimately. This chapter also tackles the task of the historian as the arbiter of facts and evidences in making his interpretation and forming historical narrative.
• #5: Traditional Understanding of History has always been known as the study of the past. Give me some words you associate with the word history. History does not limit to memorizing dates. Places, names, and events from distant eras. This low appreciation of the discipline may be rooted from the shallow understanding of history’s relevance to their lives and to their respective contexts. While the definition of history as the study of the past is not wrong, it does not give justice to the complexity of the subject and its importance to human civilization. History as a discipline existed for around 2,400 years and is as old as mathematics and philosophy. This term was then adapted to classical Latin where it acquired a new definition. That meaning stuck until the early parts of the twentieth century. History became an important academic discipline.
• #6: According to Zeus Salazar, a prominent Filipino historian and scholar, history ("kasaysayan") is not just a chronicle of past events but a culturally rooted narrative that reflects a people's collective experience and identity. Salazar is the main proponent of the Pantayong Pananaw (for-us-from-us perspective) in Philippine historiography. Salazar emphasized that the term kasaysayan comes from the root word saysay (meaning or significance). History should therefore be a meaningful account that makes sense to the community, not just a mere listing of facts and dates.
• #7: Pre-history- period where no written records exist or when the writings of people were not preserved. Analyzed through fossils and artifacts by the archeologists and anthropologists. The time before humans invented writing systems, which is thought to have lasted from around 2.5 million years ago to 3,600 BCE. It's also known as pre-literary history. History- Analyzed through wood carves, engraved metals, written, papyrus, written papers. Earliest writing system in Philippines- Baybayin
• #9: 1. History allows us to learn about significant events, social changes, and advancements that shaped the world. By knowing what happened in the past, we can better understand why societies, cultures, and governments are the way they are today. 2. Building Identity: History connects individuals and communities to their roots and heritage. It helps us understand where we come from and what values and traditions have been passed down through generations, strengthening our sense of identity. 3. Fostering Patriotism: Understanding a nation’s struggles and achievements instills pride and love for one's country. Learning about heroes and significant historical events encourages people to contribute positively to their society. 4. Inspiring Progress: Innovations often build upon past discoveries. By understanding historical breakthroughs in science, technology, and art, we can be inspired to create new solutions and advancements. 5. Cultural Preservation: History safeguards a society’s traditions, languages, and cultural practices. It ensures that future generations remain connected to their cultural heritage and that diverse cultures continue to thrive. 6. Informing Decision-Making: The study of history reveals both triumphs and failures. By examining these events, we can avoid repeating mistakes, such as political conflicts, social injustices, or environmental disasters. Leaders and policymakers often draw on historical lessons when making decisions. Understanding historical trends helps predict outcomes and develop strategies to handle social, economic, and political issues.
• #11: It means that unless a written document can prove a certain historical event, then it cannot be considered as a historical fact. Giving premium to written documents essentially invalidate the history of other civilizations that do not keep written record.
• #12: Just like any other academic disciplines, history progressed and opened up to the possibility of valid historical sources, which were not limited to written documents, like government records, chronicler’s accounts, or personal letters.
• #13: Nobilities, monarchs, the elite, and even the middle class would have their birth, education, marriage, and death as matters of government and historical record. But what of peasant families or indigenous groups who were not given much thought about being registered to government records? Does the absence of written documents about them mean that they were people of no history or past? Did they even exist?
• #14: This loophole was recognized by historians who started using other kinds of historical sources, which may not be in written form but were just as valid. A few of these examples are oral traditions in forms of epics and songs, artifacts, architecture, and memory. History thus became more inclusive and started collaborating with other discipline as its auxiliary disciplines. With the aid of archaeologists, historians can use artifacts from a bygone era to study ancient civilizations that were formerly ignored in history because of lack of documents. Linguists can also be helpful in tracing historical evolutions, past connections among different groups, and flow of cultural influence by studying language and the changes that it has undergone. Even scientists like biologists and biochemists can help with the study of the past through analyzing genetic and DNA patterns of human societies.
• #15: History is the study of the past, the events that happened in the past, and the causes of such events. While, historiography is the history itself. It is the study of how a history is written, who wrote it, and what factors influenced how it was written. Historiography is the study of the history and methodology of history as a discipline. What historians do Historians- Study the past to unravel its mysteries. They use primary sources like archival collections to gather evidence. Historiographers- Study how historians interpret the past. They analyze the writing of history to learn how to write objective, scholarly articles and books.
• #16: What historians do Historians- Study the past to unravel its mysteries. They use primary sources like archival collections to gather evidence. Historiographers- Study how historians interpret the past. They analyze the writing of history to learn how to write objective, scholarly articles and books. For example: History- José Rizal, national hero of the Philippines, completed Noli Me Tangere in Spanish in 1887 while he was studying in Europe. "Jose Rizal's execution by the Spanish authorities was a pivotal moment that galvanized the Filipino people to fight for independence."  Historiographer- José Rizal wrote Noli Me Tangere to expose the corruption and exploitation of the Filipino people under Spanish colonization. "Recent scholarship has debated whether Rizal intended to incite a violent revolution through his writings, with some arguing that his primary goal was to achieve reforms within the existing colonial system." 
• #17: The methods employed by the historian and the theory and perspective, which guided him, will also be analyzed. Historiography is important for someone who studies history because it teaches the student to be critical in the lessons of history presented to him.
• #18: When you make mistakes, it's like touching something hot—you learn not to touch it again. In life, mistakes teach valuable lessons so you don't repeat them. If you messed up during an exam by not studying enough, you know next time to prepare better. In short, mistakes show you what not to do, while great achievements remind you to continue doing what works well. Both are useful guides for moving forward!
• #19: school of thought is just a way of thinking about something
• #20: Positivism is the school of thought that emerged between the 18th and 19th century. This thought requires empirical and observable evidence before one can claim that a particular knowledge is true. Positivism also entails an objective means of arriving at a conclusion. In the discipline of history, the mantra “no document, no history” stems from this very same truth, where historians were required to show written primary documents in order to write a particular historical narrative. Positivist historians are aksi expected to be objective and impartial not just in their arguments but also on their conduct of historical research. Knowledge comes only from things we can observe, measure, or test scientifically. If you can't see it, test it, or prove it, then it doesn't count as reliable knowledge.
• #21: Positivism is the school of thought that emerged between the 18th and 19th century. This thought requires empirical and observable evidence before one can claim that a particular knowledge is true. Positivism also entails an objective means of arriving at a conclusion. In the discipline of history, the mantra “no document, no history” stems from this very same truth, where historians were required to show written primary documents in order to write a particular historical narrative. Positivist historians are aksi expected to be objective and impartial not just in their arguments but also on their conduct of historical research. Knowledge comes only from things we can observe, measure, or test scientifically. If you can't see it, test it, or prove it, then it doesn't count as reliable knowledge. As a narrative, any history that has been taught and written as always intended for a certain group of audience. When the ilustrados, like Jose Rizal, Isabelo de los Reyes, and Padre Paterno wrote history, they intended it for the Spaniards so that they would realize that Filipinos are people of their own intellect and culture.
• #23: Postcolonial history looks at two things in writing history: first is to tell thee history of the nation that will highlight their identity free from that of colonial discourse and knowledge, and second is to criticize the methods, effects, and idea of colonialism. Postcolonial history is therefore a reaction and an alternative to the colonial history that colonial powers created and taught to their subjects.
• #24: Postcolonial history is therefore a reaction and an alternative to the colonial history that colonial powers created and taught to their subjects. Focuses on understanding and challenging the effects of colonization on cultures, societies, and identities. One of the problem confronted by history is the accusation that the History is always written by victors. This connotes that the narrative of the past is always written from the bias of the powerful and the more dominant player. For Instance, the history of the second world war in the Philippines always depicts the United States as the hero and the Imperial Japanese Army as the oppressors. Filipinos who collaborated with the Japanese were lumped in the category of the traitors or collaborations. However, a more thorough historical investigation will reveal a more nuanced account of the history of that period instead of a simplified narrative as a story of hero versus villain.
• #27: Primary Source are materials written or produced in the time period that you may be investigating. are immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic, from people who had a direct connection with it. 
• #28: Keep in mind that a primary source reflects only one point of view and may contain a person’s bias toward an event.
• #29: President of South Africa’s democracy Mandela became a global icon of resistance against injustice, racism, and oppression. His life and legacy continue to inspire people worldwide in the pursuit of human rights, social justice, and equality. Mandela's leadership, resilience, and dedication to peace have made him one of the most respected figures in modern history.
• #30: Rizal kept extensive journals during his travels, particularly in Europe, where he documented his observations about the societies he encountered, his thoughts on various political and social issues, and his reflections on Filipino identity and colonial oppression. These are considered primary, first-hand sources.
• #31: During World War II, after the fall of the Philippines to Japanese forces, General Douglas MacArthur famously declared, "I shall return" as he left the Philippines to regroup and strategize for the liberation of the country. This speech became symbolic of hope and perseverance for Filipinos during the occupation. MacArthur fulfilled his promise by returning to liberate the Philippines in 1944.
• #32: Apolinario Mabini, a key leader of the Philippine Revolution and the first prime minister of the Philippines, wrote extensively about the revolution and the early years of the Philippine Republic. His writings, which include letters and political papers, serve as first-hand accounts of the revolutionary movement and the establishment of the nascent Filipino government
• #33: During the period of Martial Law (1972-1981), various audio recordings, including radio broadcasts, speeches, and interviews, were made. These recordings are now significant primary sources for understanding the political atmosphere and the suppression of freedom of speech during this authoritarian regime. Interviews with activists and victims of human rights abuses, recorded during this period, continue to serve as valuable sources for documenting life under Martial Law.
• #39: Newspaper became a primary source if the article was written at the same time something happened. However, it a reporter in 2025 wrote about the 1972 Martial Law Declaration of Marcos using information or data written by someone from 1972, then that would be a secondary source. Lay man’s term, If I tell you something, I am the primary source. If you tell someone else what I told you, you are the secondary source.
• #40: Both primary and secondary sources are useful in writing and learning history. However, historians and students if history need to thoroughly scrutinize these historical sources to avoid deception and to come up with the historical truth. The historian should be able to conduct an external and internal criticism of the source, especially primary sources which can age in centuries.
• #41: Example of the things that will be examined when conducting external criticism of a document include the quality of paper, the type of the ink, and the language and words used in the materials.
• #44: One of the most scandalous cases of deception in Philippine History is the hoax Code of Kalantiaw. The code was a set of rules contained in an epic, Maragtas, which was allegedly written by a certain Datu Kalantiaw. The document was sold to the National Library and was regarded as an important pre colonial document until 1968, when American Historian William Henry Scott debunked the authenticity of the code due to anachronism and lack of evidence to prove that the code existed in the precolonial Philippine society.
• #45: PRIMARY SECONDARY PRIMARY SECONDARY Primary Source Secondary Source Primary Source Primary Source Secondary Source Primary Source
• #46: Secondary Source Primary Source Primary Source Secondary Source Primary Source
• #47: True False False False False False True False False False