Introduction+to+research
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This document provides an introduction to research methods. It discusses the differences between basic or pure research, which aims to develop general knowledge and is typically conducted in academic settings, and applied or policy-oriented research, which aims to solve practical problems and influence decision making. Both quantitative and qualitative research methods are explored, as well as different research paradigms like positivism, phenomenology, and critical theory. The document also covers topics like user-centered design, components of research design, and considerations for choosing between qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Introduction+to+research
- 1. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH Maya Ninova, PhD Qualitative researcher/Independent consultant maya.ninova@gmail.com
- 2. WHAT IS THE RESEARCH? Systematic process of collecting and analysing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon with which we are concerned or interested.
- 3. FORMS OF RESEARCH ...aims to develop a body of general knowledge by means of a combination of empirical enquiry and application of theory. BASIC OR PURE RESEARCH…
- 4. FORMS OF RESEARCH Usually occurs in academic settings BASIC OR PURE RESEARCH… Results are published in a peer reviewed journal and, Have an impact on the scientific community.
- 5. FORMS OF RESEARCH ...deals with solving practical problems, and ...aims to provide knowledge and information that can be used to influence policy and decision making APPLIED OR POLICY ORIENTED RESEARCH...
- 6. FORMS OF RESEARCH ...is conducted by applied researchers, employed by private or public sector, and NGOs APPLIED OR POLICY ORIENTED RESEARCH... No free sharing of results in peer reviewed journals Results are used by companies, governments, NGOs in decision making
- 7. FORMS OF RESEARCH BASIC VS APPLIED RESEARCH Use similar methods of research but with different goals and objectives Academic research expect to increase global knowledge, while applied research must be able to tap into it Basic research is interested in Know -why, applied in Knowhow
- 8. FORMS OF RESEARCH BASIC VS APPLIED RESEARCH Must not discriminate between basic and applied research- each is equally important and difficult Time scales ,objectives and assessment criteria are necessarily different Each can benefit from superiority of the other in certain aspects of conduct of research Intersection between both is ideal model for R&D
- 9. USER RESEARCH FOR DESIGN - ROOTS Many methods employed in user research have their roots in cultural anthropology,social behavioral sciences and psychology : - experiments - questionnaires - interviews - observation - focus group - workshops - telephone survey
- 10. USER RESEARCH FOR DESIGN - PRACTICE "Our job is to find new uses for technology by spending time with people in their daily lives. It's not good enough to just keep producing technology with no notion of whether it's going to be useful to people.“ Genevieve Bell, Intel, 2008
- 11. USER-CENTERED DESIGN - DEFINITION The term ‘user-centered design’ originated in Donald Norman’s research laboratory at the University of California San Diego (UCSD) in the 1980s. User-Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction (Norman & Draper, 1986) and The Psychology of Everyday Things (2002). “We must design our technologies for the way people actually behave, not the way we would like them to.”
- 12. USER-CENTERED DESIGN Design Thinking = WHAT TO DESIGN Design Practice = HOW TO DESIGN DESIGN DOMAINS DECISION MAKING Bill Moggridge, 2002 Technology: Feasibility Technology Roadmap s& Prototyping People: Desirability Idea Generation, Scenarios of Use & Experience Prototyping Business: Viability Business Modeling & Planning
- 13. USER-CENTERED DESIGN WHAT HAPPENS WHEN WE HAVE TO DECIDE WHICH FUTURE WE WANT? ANALYSIS EVALUATION SYNTHESIS What is the problem? Definition of the system & collection of data Which future do we want? Possible alternatives What do we implement? Design of the final solution The Designer as a “opportunity-scout” The Designer as a “Story-teller” The Designer is an “executor”
- 14. USER-CENTERED DESIGN - THE PROCESS The overall process is based on identifying future needs through design & research methods. By looking at topics from a human perspective, you can work with stakeholders to co-create valuable solutions for genuine needs. Here is a visualization of the process People Research Conceptst Scenarios Prototypes Blueprint & Strategy How we learn What we design How it works How it feels How to implement
- 15. USER-CENTERED DESIGN - THE PROCESS Inputs and Outputs at each phase of the process People Research Conceptst Scenarios Prototypes Blueprint & Strategy Research Question Design challenge Initial scenario Assumptions to test & Questions to answer about your idea Refined Service Concept based on user feedback Inspiration & Insight Multiple ideas synthesized into a concept Various use cases of your concept (best-worst case scenario) Learnings from prototyping that can be applied for concept refinement Designed service with all touchpoints, user actions and stakeholders clearly defined
- 16. COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH Theory Epistemology Method
- 17. THREE WAYS OF THINKING ABOUR THEORY That which underpins research design Theory as paradigm That which may inform our understanding of the phenomenon under investigation Theory as a ‘lens’ That which may emerge from our study Theory as new knowledge
- 18. THEORY AS A PARADIGM Philosophical assumptions about what constitutes social reality (ontology) What we accept as valid evidence of that reality (epistemology) The means by which we investigate that context (methodology) The means by which we gather evidence (methods)
- 19. 4 KEY “PARADIGM” QUESTIONS 1. What do we believe exists? (Ontology) Fundamental beliefs that someone holds about the nature of the social world and its relationship to individual social actors. 1.1. Objectivism Social reality exists independent of the observer and social actors Organisations and culture are said to exist as a tangible object, external to the social actor 1.2.Constructionism Social reality is constructed by people in particular social, cultural and historical contexts Social phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors Not only produced through social interaction but they are in a constant state of revision.
- 20. 4 KEY “PARADIGM” QUESTIONS 2. What constitutes reliable & valid knowledge? (Epistemology) There are three main epistemological perspectives: 2.1. Positivism Interested in causes and predicting likelihood of incidences, seeks to explain, creates social ‘facts’. 2.2. Phenomenology Interested in social meanings, seeks to interpret, uses direct involvement, creates data on social interactions. 2.3. Critical Interested in understanding social phenomena in their social context, seeks out structural relationships, data is historical, structural and ideological.
- 21. 4 KEY “PARADIGM” QUESTIONS 3. How we produce reliable and valid knowledge? (Methodology) What ‘Strategies of inquiry’ are appropriate to our ontological/epistemological position (descriptive/confirmatory <-> explanatory/exploratory) (‘Flat world’ theory <-> Exploring other cultures) 4. How can we collect data to test our theories or describe social phenomena? (Methods) What data collection approaches/tools are appropriate to the methodology
- 22. MODELS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH 1. QUALITATIVE STUDY An inquiry which seeks to understand social phenomena through the exploration and interpretation of the meanings people attach to, and make sense of, their experiences of the social world Associated with the Phenomenology and Critical epistemology Key principle: Subjectivity/interpretation Theory developed: during and/or after (‘a posteriori’) the study (theory generation) Process: Inductive
- 23. MODELS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH 2. QUANTITATIVE STUDY An inquiry based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers and analysed with statistical procedures, in order to determine whether the predictive generalisations of the theory hold true Associated with: Post/positivism Key principle: Objectivity Theory stated: before (‘a priori’) the study (theory verification) Process: Deductive
- 24. MODELS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH 3. MIXED-METHOD STUDY Concurrent: Quantitative and qualitative strategies employed in parallel Sequential: Qualitative informs quantitative (or vice versa)
- 25. QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE Reality is socially constructed Reality is objective Reality is context interrelated Reality is context free Holistic Reductionistic Reasoning is inductive Reasoning is deductive and inductive Discovery of meaning is the basis of knowledge Cause-and-effect relationships are the bases of knowledge Develops theory Tests theory
- 26. QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE Meaning of concepts Measurement of variables Process oriented Outcome oriented Control unimportant Control important Rich descriptions Precise measurement of variables Basic element of analysis is words Basic element of analysis is numbers Uniqueness Generalization QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- 27. QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE Subject matter is unfamiliar Subject matter clearly defined Exploratory research, when relevant concepts are unknown or their definitions unclear When measurement problems are minor and have been resolved When meaning rather than frequencies are sought When detailed numerical description of a representative sample is required When flexibility of approach is needed to allow for discovery of unexpected; in-depth investigation When repeatability of measurements is important For studying selected issues, cases or events in detail When generalizations of results and comparison across populations is needed WHEN TO USE WHAT?
- 28. DATA COLLECTION STRATEGIES QUALITATIVE In-depth interview (one-on-one/ group) Focus group Participant observation Document and archive reviews QUANTITATIVE Surveys Questionaries Structured interviews
- 29. RESEARCH DESIGN Choose a topic Defining the problem/ research questions/objectives Literature review/ Background information Selecting the research method /qualitative, quantitative, mixed/ Timetable Selecting unit of analysis Defining the sample Collection of data Interpretation of data Ethical issues Dissemination
- 30. State your research problem. Are there any sub-problems? What is the background (literature review) on this problem? What is good about tackling this problem? Why should we be interested in answering the research question? Discuss your problem with peers and experts. Have you looked at this problem from all sides to minimize unwanted surprises? Think through the process. Are you capable of addressing the issue? Can you foresee any pitfalls in data collection and analysis? What tools are available for you to use? What research procedure will you follow? THINGS TO CONSIDER WHILE DESIGNING THE RESEARCH
- 31. Can be individuals, groups, organizations, social artifacts (i.e. products of social beings, for example, books, poems, paintings, automobiles, buildings, songs, pottery, jokes and scientific discoveries). behaviours (eg: social interactions, such as friendship choices, court cases, traffic accidents). UNIT OF ANALYSIS
- 32. Characteristics Orientations (attitudes, beliefs, prejudices, personality traits) Organizations (would be in terms of policy, procedures etc .) Social interactions, actions POINTS OF FOCUS
- 33. Even if it were possible, it is not necessary to collect data from everyone in a community. The study’s research objectives and the characteristics of the study population determine which and how many people to select. DETERMINING THE SAMPLE
- 34. SAMPLE SIZE Usually smaller than quantitative study. Two general guidelines: the number of participants is sufficient when… - the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting - the point at which the data gathered begin to be redundant (data saturation)
- 35. SAMPLING METHODS Three of the most common sampling methods are: Purposive sampling Quota sampling Snowball sampling
- 36. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING Purposive sampling groups participants according to pre-selected criteria relevant to a particular research question. ex. Technology high school teachers in Barcelona Sample sizes depend on: - Resources and time available - The study’s objectives If the researcher needs a specific number of participants, quota sampling is better.
- 37. QUOTA SAMPLING Quota sampling begins with two decisions: - What characteristics? - How many people? Characteristics are selected in order to find participants who have experience with or knowledge of the research topic. The researcher goes into the community and selects the predetermined number of people demonstrating the pre-selected characteristics.
- 38. SNOWBALL SAMPLING Snowball sampling is a form of purposive sampling. Participants refer the researcher to other potential participants. Snowball sampling is often used to find and recruit “hidden populations” – groups not easily accessible to researchers. (example: file-sharers of copyright-protected content via torrent technology)
- 39. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Provide project description at start Mutual respect and trust (prolonged interaction) Respect for social and cultural contexts Voluntary participation Informed consent Beneficence – doing good for others and preventing harm Clarify confidentiality and anonymity (within group as well)
- 40. TYPES OF DATA IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Written field notes Audio recordings of conversations Video recordings of activities Diary recordings of activities / thoughts Documents Depth information on: - thoughts, views, interpretations - priorities, importance - processes, practices - intended effects of actions - feelings and experiences
- 41. TOOLS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Video camera/Audio recorder Still camera Internet Software for qualitative analysis /NVivo, Atlas.ti, Saturate/ Post its Notebooks Library Tools are not research methods, they help your research method
- 42. DATA ANALYSIS – CODING Treat data as answers to open-ended questions - ask data specific questions - assign codes for answers
- 43. EXAMPLE – HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING ACTIVITIES AND PRACTICES Teachers are interviewed about their teaching activities and practices - What are the assessment criteria? - What are the assets? - What are the challenges they face in settings? - What are their teaching activities? - …. Written notes Audio/video recordings of interviews
- 44. EXAMPLE – HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING ACTIVITIES AND PRACTICES Step 1: translate field notes (optional)
- 45. EXAMPLE – HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING ACTIVITIES AND PRACTICES Step 2: list questions / focal points What are their strategies for assessment? Which assets they state as important? What kind of challenges they face in their work? Teaching philosophy ...
- 46. EXAMPLE – HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING ACTIVITIES AND PRACTICES Step 3: Go through data and ask questions Assets: Integration of components Philosophy: Inspire proactive attitude
- 47. EXAMPLE – HIGH SCHOOL TEACHING ACTIVITIES AND PRACTICES THE RESULT: - list of codes - frequency of each code -a sense of the importance of each code frequency != importance
- 48. Categories are created ahead of time - from existing literature - from previous open coding SYSTEMATIC CODING
- 49. Find the main themes / thematic analysis/ Use quotes / scenarios to represent them REPORTING THE RESULTS Example: Attitudes and philosophy Teachers try to solve all kind of problems related to the learning process with flexibility and proactive behavior. Often they supply more kits of their own and redesign not only CTC curriculum but official curriculum too, "the block is very static (it's a fixed curriculum), but we design and adjust things around this. We talk with each other and we also go to different courses or meet ups with teachers and we hear new ideas and tendencies, we participate in conferences, maker fairs, we go to citilab, fablab" (FJ,HS). This is done in order to fit students needs as sometimes teachers feel that students "just don't get anything" (Josep, HS). Simple tasks are considered to be more effective because "that's how students can see the evolution step by step" (Josep, HS).
- 50. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH Maya Ninova, PhD Qualitative social researcher/Independent consultant maya.ninova@gmail.com