JAV151 lecture 1-6 notes exam preparing .pdf

orange= examples, red= key terms
Lecture 1: Introduction; Conventional, Global,
Planetary Histories
● Focuses on American architect Morris Lepidus, known for commercial
spaces like the Fontainebleau Hotel in Miami Beach.
Case Study: Fontainebleau Hotel
● Design and Architectural Style: The Fontainebleau was designed by Morris Lapidus, a
notable architect of the mid-20th century.. This style is characterized by curvaceous
forms, bold use of modern materials, and an emphasis on opulence. The hotel's design
breaks away from traditional, straight-lined modernist architecture, introducing sweeping
curves and whimsical details.
● Exterior Features: The Fontainebleau's façade is notable for its curved, bow-tie shape,
which allows for extensive ocean views. The use of glass and concrete is prevalent in
the design, reflecting the modernist influence. The hotel's grand entrance is emphasized
by a dramatic porte-cochere.
● The Fontainebleau Hotel remains a standout example of mid-century modern
architecture and a testament to Morris Lapidus' unique vision, combining luxury, fantasy,
and the modernist ethos in a distinctively Miami style.
● Discusses different historical perspectives: Conventional
(Euro/Western-centric), Global (post-colonial, inclusive), and Planetary
(post-humanist, environmentalist).
History can be seen through many perspectives based on the lens through which it is viewed.
Three perspectives:
1. Conventional histories
→ Euro/Western-centric
→ 1800-Present
→focus on the West, modernism, modernization, industrialization( White male architects)
→Time has had a shift from cultural intentions to Pragmatic intentions. Cultural intentions with a
well-known name raise the value of objects/art.
2. Global Histories
→ addresess globalization, inclusive entangled and transnational, transfer, colonial/postcolonial,
feminism, gender, etc.
→awareness of health,disease and pollution.
Postcolonial: deals with work produced in countries that were once, or are now, colonies of
other countries. It may also deal with architectural work by citizens of colonizing countries that

take colonies or their peoples as its subject matter. The theory is based on concepts of
otherness and resistance.
3. Planetary histories
→ post-humanist, environmentalist
Post-humanist: decenters the placement of humans above other life forms and simultaneously
rejects the view of humans as autonomous and fully defined individuals. Instead, it treats “the
human itself as an assemblage, co-evolving with other forms of life, enmeshed with the
environment and technology (Lorimer, Jamie. “Posthumanism/Posthumanistic Geographies.”
Elsevier EBooks, January 1, 2009, 344–54.
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-008044910-4.00723-9.)
Environmentalist: awareness of human impacts on nature
‌
example: crystal palace
Lecture 2 - Industrialization and Urbanization
● Explores the industrial revolution, its impact on modern architecture, and
the beginning of climate change.
Industrial Revolution:
The Industrial Revolution was a period of radical modernization and mechanization that began
in Great Britain and spread to the United States. (“Industrial Revolution Definition: History, Pros,
and Cons,” Investopedia, 2023, https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/industrial-revolution.asp.)

Two main changes:
● new materials and technology in modern architecture (use of iron as a
building material → Iron bridge at Coalbrookdale, and steel)
● Climate Change (bc of the introduction of mass manufacturing )
Direct effects: factories, railways, mines, growing cities, pollution
Indirect effects: mass production, division of labour, mass consumption
● Delivers insights into how industrialization led to urbanization, with a focus
on factory architecture and city planning.
Urbanization: complex process in which a country's population centres tend to become larger,
more specialized and more interdependent over time. (“Urbanization,”
Thecanadianencyclopedia.ca, 2015,
https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/urbanization.)
● The industrial revolution, beginning in the late 18th century, marked a significant shift
from agrarian economies to industrialized societies.
● This era saw the rise of factories which needed to be large and robust to house
machinery and a significant workforce.

● The architecture of factories was utilitarian, emphasizing functionality over aesthetics.
They were often large, multi-storied buildings with expansive interiors for machinery and
assembly lines.
Example: Mernier Chocolate Factory
● Highlights include the development of mass production, the rise of
factories and company towns, and the role of key materials like steel and
glass in architecture.
Mass Production and Urban Development:
● The advent of mass production led to increased job opportunities in urban areas,
drawing people from rural regions.
● This migration resulted in rapid urban growth, leading to the need for improved city
planning and infrastructure development.
● Cities expanded to accommodate the influx of workers and their families, resulting in the
development of new urban districts, often around industrial centers.
Example of city that had to restructure due to indsutrialization: Vienna ( talk about Ringstrasse) (
check lecture 7 tbh)
Emergence of Company Towns:
● With the rise of factories, there was a need to house workers near their place of
employment. This need led to the development of company towns.
● Company towns were communities where all buildings and amenities were owned by the
factory owner. These towns often included housing, stores, schools, and churches.
● While they provided essential services and housing for workers, these towns also raised
issues regarding the control exerted by employers over workers' lives and communities.
Example: Menier Factory and Cité Menier, Noisiel, late 19th century
Role of Key Materials like Steel and Glass in Architecture:
● The industrial revolution brought advancements in materials technology, notably the use
of steel and glass in construction.
● Steel, with its high strength-to-weight ratio, allowed for the construction of taller, more
robust buildings. It enabled architects to design larger spaces with fewer support
columns, ideal for factory settings.
● Glass was increasingly used in factory design, particularly with the development of large
pane, flat glass. This allowed for better natural lighting in factories, improving working
conditions and productivity.
Example : Crystal Palace
Lecture 3 - Geo-Engineering and infrastructure
Geoengineering:All engineering of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere

Agriculture:
● Examines the contrast between modernist and traditionalist approaches in
architecture.
Modernist Architecture: A style characterized by simplification of form and an absence of
ornamentation.
Traditionalist Architecture: Architecture that draws on traditional forms and styles, often
evoking historical designs.
● Ways of manipulating the land : Agriculture
Impact of Large-Scale Agricultural Development:
● The effects of large-scale agricultural development are shown through maps.
● This development significantly contributed to urbanization, particularly evident around
the year 2000.
Fertilizer Use:
● The use of fertilizers became increasingly important as large agricultural lands were
being developed.
● This development was in response to the growing need for food to support an expanding
global population.
The Dust Bowl in North America:
● A series of droughts and winds dried out the land, leading to massive dust storms.
● Agriculture became nearly impossible due to soil erosion, contributing to the Great
Depression.
● A similar environmental and agricultural crisis occurred in Canada
● Ways of manipulating the land :Excavations/extractions
Mining:
● Goes back 1000’s of years
● the extraction of minerals and fuels from the earth's crust.
● This changed in the 1800s when the scale had increased
● The exploitation of black people and the irreversible environmental damage done to the
landscape.
● In the last decade, there has been a shift to use heavier machinery rather than labour.
Baku, Azerbaijan( 1890-1920) : the first recorded production of goods such as metals and oils
and exploited people and the surrounding environment (oil spills etc.)
● This mine runs even today
Urban/rail Tunnels starting being built undergound/ underwater.
● St. Gothard Rail: the first use of dynamite from two sides of the mountain in order to
create a tunnel through the mountain for the train rail.

● Ways of manipulating the land :Water/land transformations
● Development of new and improved means of transportation, such as cars and railways,
significantly transformed land.
● Environmental impact due to the expansion of transportation networks.
● Facilitated urban sprawls and altered the economy.
● Contributed to cheaper transportation and market expansion.
Significant Example - Trains:
Stockton and Darlington Railway (1825):
● Historic significance as the first railway to experiment with steam engines.
● Represented a major milestone in the evolution of modern transportation.
● Led to significant changes in mobility, urban development, and economic growth.
● Marked the beginning of an era of widespread railway networks and their integration into
urban landscapes.
Lecture 4 - 1800-1850; St Petersburg
1800-1850:
Conventional:Impact of colonialism
Global : Western modernization
Planetary: Emergence of a planetary awareness
● Importance of Benin City as a significant site, particularly in relation to British
colonization and invasion.
Benin City in Nigeria:
○ The city was burned by the British, who deemed its indigenous practices as
"evil."
○ Houses in Benin City were made of wood and mud, creating a system of walls
encapsulating the city.
○ Discussion on the looting of Benin bronzes and the debate over their return to the
ancestors.
French Occupied Indian Areas:
● Indian areas occupied by the French → merging and resonating Westerners'
ideas → often not professional architects in tandem with what was occurring in
Europe
Example: Charles Wyatt's Government House, Kolkata, 1802:
● Design and Construction: Designed by Charles Wyatt, completed in 1802.
● Architectural Style: Neoclassical architecture, reflecting British influence during
the colonial era.
Neoclassicism is a revival of the many styles and spirit of classic antiquity inspired directly from
the classical period ( simple definiton)
● Inspiration: The design was inspired by Kedleston Hall in Derbyshire, England.

● Adaptation to Local Context: Adapted to suit the Indian climate and cultural
context.
● Blend of Styles: Combines European neoclassical styles with traditional Indian
elements during the colovial period.
● Covers international influences in modern architecture, including examples from
South America and the USA.
South America:
● Noted for its abstract white cubic architecture.
● Example: Wladimiro Acosta - Renowned for his work in Argentina, focusing on
climate-conscious building methods. His designs often incorporate aspects like sun
shading to create comfortable living spaces throughout the day.
United States of America:
● Richard Neutra's Lovell House in Los Angeles: An iconic example of modernist
architecture in the USA. Neutra used the concept of 'un therapy' as a form of dealing
with health issues, emphasizing the relationship between architecture, health, and the
environment.
● Discusses the influence of political ideologies on architecture, including Socialist
Realism and Neoclassicism.
Neoclassicism:
Neoclassical architecture refers to a style of buildings constructed during the revival of
Classical Greek and Roman architecture that began around 1750 and flourished in the
18th and 19th centuries.Neoclassical architecture is characterized by several features:
grand scale, simple geometric forms, Greek or Roman detail, dramatic columns, and
blank walls. ( Kristin Hohenadel, “What Is Neoclassical Architecture?,” The Spruce,
2020, https://www.thespruce.com/neoclassical-architecture-4802081.)
● Case Study: Saint Petersburg
Development:
● Founded in 1703 by Peter the Great, who established it as the new capital of Russia.
● The city's development began with virtually nothing in 1700 and was established with a
clear vision
● The city was designed to reflect the European architectural ethos, symbolizing Russia's
desire to be part of the broader European narrative. This period saw a cultural shift
where architecture was used to express Russia's burgeoning identity as a European
power.

Western Architectural Influence:
● During the 19th century, Russia, especially Saint Petersburg, experienced a surge in
adopting Western architectural styles. This included Neoclassicism, Baroque, and later
the Art Nouveau movement.
Baroque : Baroque architecture is a highly opulent style of building, design, and art that
originated in Italy during the 17th century and spread to the rest of Europe, and eventually, the
U.S. It's characterized by extremely detailed forms, marble, large-scale decoration, and bright
colors. Baroque style was meant to represent the glory of the Roman Catholic Church.(Lauren
Thomann, “What Is Baroque Architecture?,” The Spruce, 2020,
https://www.thespruce.com/baroque-architecture-4797911.)
● The city's architecture reflected the broader European trends of the time, integrating
elements from Italian, French, and other Western architectural traditions.
Initial Development:
● The development of the city started with a church within a fortification. This strategic
choice was influenced by the ongoing war and the need for defense, impacting the city's
architectural direction.
● Peter and Paul Fortress and Cathedral: The fortress represents the founding of the city,
and the cathedral houses the tombs of Russian Tsars, symbolizing the city's religious
and royal heritage.
Urban Planning:
● The city was planned with the extension of land outwards, turning complex topography
into a structured, egg-shaped plan.
● The planning process involved deliberation on preferred land for development and its
effective subdivision.
Specific Architecture in Saint Petersberg:
● Winter Palace: Once the official residence of Russian monarchs, this palace is a prime
example of Baroque architecture. It symbolizes the imperial power and grandeur of the
Russian Empire.
● The Admiralty: Originally a shipyard, the Admiralty grew to be one of the most important
naval bases. Its architecture is a blend of Baroque and Empire style, symbolizing
Russia's maritime power.
Lecture 5 - Paris and London
Paris:
● Neoclassicism and empire in Paris: Rue de Rivoli and arc de Triomphe (1800s)
■ The statues represented significant political change.
■ When there was a new king, the sculpture would be demolished and
rebuilt.
■ The Pantheon houses tombs of notable politicians, artists, and writers.
● Haussmann’s Paris: Boulevards, parks, and infrastructure

■ A change occurred after the French Revolution.
■ Georges-Eugène Haussmann: chosen by Emperor Napoleon III to carry
out a massive urban renewal programme of new boulevards, parks and
public works in Paris commonly referred to as Haussmann's renovation of
Paris.
■ Plans to convert the Palise de Bourbon into the Chambre des Deputés.
■ Desire to transform a church into a parliamentary building.
■ A notable shift in the scale and size of buildings in architectural design
within cities.
■ Happened from 1850’s to 1870’s ( late 19th century)
● Iron architecture: Les Halles, Train stations, Sainte-Geniveve, Eiffel tower (late
19th century)
■ Adolph Alphard was pivotal in greening the city, including plantings and
structures like benches.
■ Gustave was vital for the water and sewer systems in Paris.
■ Adolph Alphard was also the landscape artist for the area where the Eiffel
Tower was built, which had an apartment at its top for Eiffel himself.
■ Theodore Villard and Charles Cotard were noted for creating a model of
the earth for public experience.
Reading: De Costa Paris
Key Themes and Ideas
Historical Context and Urban Transformation:
● Focus on Paris during the Second Empire.
● Emphasis on the evolution of urban greenery as part of broader urban planning.
Ideological Shift in Understanding Nature: (plenetary perspective)
● Changing Relationship with Nature: The period transformed how people related to and
perceived nature within an urban context. This was influenced by the rapid urbanization
and modernization of Paris. Nature was no longer seen merely as wild and untamed but
began to be appreciated as an integral part of urban living.Aesthetically, this period saw
a move towards designing urban green spaces that balanced natural beauty with
functionality.This ideological shift reflects a broader societal transformation during this
period, where nature was reimagined and redefined in the context of a modernizing and
urbanizing society. It highlights the changing attitudes towards the role and significance
of nature in urban environments.
● Nature as a Symbol of Modernity and Progress: Nature in urban settings, especially in
the form of public parks and gardens, became a symbol of modernity, progress, and the
city's advancement.The integration of natural elements into the urban fabric was viewed
as a progressive step towards improving the quality of urban life.

● Influence of Cultural and Social Trends:The transformation in the understanding of
nature was also influenced by cultural and social trends of the time. The growing middle
class and their desire for leisure spaces in the city played a role in this shift.Public parks
and gardens were seen as spaces for relaxation, socialization, and escape from the
urban hustle, reflecting a new societal value placed on nature.
● Nature as a Health and Well-being Component:There was a growing recognition of the
health benefits of green spaces in urban areas. Parks and gardens were increasingly
seen as essential for the physical and mental well-being of city dwellers.This shift was
partly driven by the public health movement, which emphasized the importance of fresh
air, sunlight, and greenery for health.
● Political and Administrative Recognition:The shift in understanding nature was not just
cultural and social but also political and administrative. The Parisian authorities, under
leaders like Haussmann, recognized the importance of integrating nature into urban
planning.This was evidenced by the creation of dedicated departments and initiatives for
developing and maintaining urban greenery.
● Role of technological advancements in urban landscape design. ( mentioned in case
study in detail)
● Interplay of Technology, Culture, and Horticulture: ( mentioned in case study in detail)
Horticulture: cultivation of plants in gardens or greenhouses, as opposed to the field-scale
production of crops characteristic of agriculture.
Important Architectural Projects
Landscaping by Barillet-Deschamps (p 239):
● Selection of trees and shrubs, designing allées.
● Creation of landscapes with contrasting areas of light, shade, and varying
textures.
● Use of cupped lawns and sequential vistas

.
Restoration of Château de Bagatelle (p 240):
● Restoration of 18th-century gardens by Thomas Blaikie.
● Involvement of Gabriel Davioud and Alphonse Hugé.
● Features include an Orientalist kiosk, restaurants, guardhouses, and urban
furniture

Case Study: Bois de Vincennes Redesign (p 234-243):
The redesign of Bois de Vincennes was a part of a larger urban planning initiative under
Napoleon III and Haussmann. It exemplified the era's approach to integrating green spaces into
the urban fabric.It contributed to setting a precedent for future urban parks, combining
architectural design with natural elements to create spaces that were both beautiful and
utilitarian.
Design Approach and Architectural Elements:
● The redesign of Bois de Vincennes incorporated architectural elements in
line with the Picturesque movement. This approach emphasized a

naturalistic and organic design, blending the park's features seamlessly
with the existing landscape.
● The incorporation of meandering paths, rockeries, and water features like
lakes and streams was a significant architectural element. These features
were designed to create a visually appealing and functional landscape

.
Water Management and Engineering:
● A key architectural challenge was the creation and maintenance of the
park's water features. This required advanced water management and
engineering solutions, including the construction of lakes with islets and
the integration of waterways.
● The new pumping station at Saint-Maur played a crucial role in this
aspect, showing the interplay between architectural design and
technological advancement

.
Consideration of Preexisting Structures:
● The redesign had to account for preexisting properties and industrial
buildings. This constraint influenced the architectural design, requiring
adaptations that respected the existing environment while introducing new
features

.
Economic and Practical Constraints:
● Financial considerations significantly impacted the architectural aspects of
the redesign. Due to budget constraints, the municipality was hesitant to
fully commit to the project, leading to a more economical approach.
● As a result, the design had to be pragmatic, retaining the general outlines
of the old park without extensive modifications or expansions

.
Landscape Architecture and Horticulture:
● The landscape architecture of Bois de Vincennes was not just about the
placement of trees and plants but also about shaping the terrain to create
a diverse and engaging environment.
● Attention was given to the arrangement of light and shade, the creation of
mounds and valleys, and the strategic grouping of trees and shrubs to
enhance the park's aesthetic and functional value

.
London:
City infrastructure: railways above and underground, embankment, sewers
● Reference to the British crown in three ways: Georgian, Victorian, Edwardian, each
symbolizing different time periods and architectural styles.
● Georgian architecture is characterized as simplified neoclassicism, exemplified by the
Georgian townhouse with its simplistic design.
● John Soane's original design for a bank was demolished due to its unconventional
nature; he also built houses to house his art collection.

● Horace Walpole inspired the reintroduction of Gothic architecture in Europe.
● A descriptive map of London indicates areas of wealth and poverty.
● Bazalgette was responsible not only for sewage systems but also for accommodating the
railway.

Georgian architecture and planning in London (18th Century)
● The growth of London was more organic and natural compared to other cities.
● The railway system was crucial for city development.
● Robert Clive, responsible for the Clive of India company, is a symbol of colonial empire.
● East india company extracted goods and products from india
● Significant expansion of the city occurred in London towards the end of the 19th century.
Projects and Architects:
Architects: William Chambers, Robert Adam, John Nash, John Soane.
Characteristics: Simplified neoclassical style, modest and with an absence of excessive decor.
Locations and Examples:
● Westminster: A prominent area in London with Georgian architectural influences.
● Somerset House (1776-1796): A notable example of Georgian architecture, originally
had running water underneath, which is no longer the case.
● Georgian Townhouses: Characterized by simplicity, typically featuring a servant's
entrance below ground, a balcony, and a storage extension under the street.
● Bedford Street (1795): Suggests that people with less money lived behind the
townhouses.
● John Soane's Bank of England (1788-1830): A significant work by Soane, exemplifying
Georgian architectural principles.
● Cartwright Garden (Burton Gardens) by James Burton (1807): Another example of
Georgian style.
● John Nash's Park Crescent (1821): Features luxurious houses and was part of Nash's
designs for Regent Street housing during 1812-1820s, starting at Piccadilly Circle. Nash
also designed many terraces and crescent residences
Case Study: Westminster
Georgian Era (1714-1830): The Georgian period, marked by the reigns of the first four
Hanoverian kings of Britain, was a time of significant development in Westminster. This era is
characterized by the principles of symmetry, proportion, and regularity, influenced by the
classical architecture of ancient Greece and Rome.
Architectural Characteristics of Georgian architecture in Westminster:
● Symmetrical Facades: A focus on balanced and uniform façade designs.
● Classical Elements: Usage of columns, pilasters, pediments, and domed roofs.

● Sash Windows: Tall windows with glazing bars, often arranged symmetrically on
the building's façade.
● Elegant Interiors: Interiors with decorative moldings, ornate fireplaces, and grand
staircases.
● Influential Architects: Architects like John Nash played a significant role in
shaping Georgian Westminster. Nash was responsible for designing much of
Regency London, including iconic projects like Regent Street and the
development of St. James's Park and Buckingham Palace.
Impact of Georgian Architecture in Westminster
● Urban Planning: Georgian architecture significantly influenced the urban planning of
Westminster. The layout of streets and squares, such as those in Belgravia and Mayfair,
reflects the Georgian emphasis on order and symmetry.
● Cultural Significance: Georgian buildings in Westminster contributed to the area's status
as a political and cultural center of London, housing many government buildings and
residences of the aristocracy.
● Preservation and Legacy: Many Georgian buildings in Westminster are now protected as
heritage sites. Their preservation reflects the enduring aesthetic and historical value of
Georgian architecture.
● Transition to Victorian and Later Styles: As architectural tastes evolved, the Georgian
style in Westminster gave way to Victorian and Edwardian styles, though Georgian
principles continued to influence later developments.
Victorian Architecture
Gothic Revival Style: The style is marked by the beginning of Horace Walpole's
Strawberry Hill in Twickenham (1749-1776), which played a pivotal role in the Gothic
revival.
- The Gothic style was often seen as more governmental and inherently English.
- Areas like Hope Place (1851) and Vicarage Grove (1866) housed middle-class families
who could afford more than the slums.
- The London slums of 1872 represented the living conditions of the lower and working
class.
- Impressionist artists such as Monet and Turner captured elements like the notorious
London smog, highlighting the environmental impact of the Industrial Revolution.

Notable Buildings and Architects:
● William Wilkins' National Gallery (1832-1838).
● John Nash's work in Trafalgar Square.
● The Houses of Parliament (Palace of Westminster) constructed between 1837-1867.
Significant Structures and Districts:
● The West India Docks (1802) and Tower Bridge (1886-1894).

● The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, constructed in 1851, symbolized the advent of the
industrialization period.
● The Albertopolis district, a collection of cultural buildings including the Royal Albert Hall
(1872) and the Victoria and Albert Museum (1872). Notably, the Victoria and Albert
Museum is known for containing many cultural artefacts acquired during the colonial
period.
Lecture 6: 1850-1900; Arts/Crafts/Industry
Period of 1850-1900: Age of Imperialism
Imperialism is the policy or act of extending a country’s power into other territories or
gaining control over another country’s politics or economics. (Kimberly Amadeo and
Matthew Webber, “What Is Imperialism?,” The Balance, 2019,
https://www.thebalancemoney.com/imperialism-definition-and-impacts-on-us-history-477
3797.)
● Second Industrial Revolution: Transition to electricity, production of glass, steel,
concrete.
● Western-style Architecture Globally: Influence of cultural colonialism in architecture.
Concrete in Architecture:
● Reinforcement with Iron and Steel: This innovation led to the development of reinforced
concrete, significantly enhancing the strength and durability of concrete structures.
● Francois Coignet: Recognized as one of the first to apply reinforced concrete in
construction (Paris-St Denis, 1853). His pioneering work laid the foundation for modern
concrete architecture.
● Francois Hennebique: Another key figure in the development of reinforced concrete.
Hennebique's focus was more on the material and structural possibilities rather than the
architectural form. This approach allowed for exploring new architectural forms and
typologies that were previously not possibl ( example:Maison Hennebique,
Bourgla-Reine, 1905)
Steel in Architecture:
● New Architectural Forms: The introduction of steel in construction allowed for new types
of buildings that were lighter, stronger, and could reach greater heights than ever before.
Examples of Steel Use:
● Forth Bridge, Edinburgh: A significant example of steel's use in large-scale
infrastructure, demonstrating its strength and flexibility (commenced in 1882 and
was completed in 1890.)
● Paul Sedille's Le Printemps Store in Paris: Showcases the use of steel in
commercial architecture, allowing for larger, open interior spaces (renovated in
the 1880s)

● France Jourdain's La Samaritaine Store in Paris: Another example where steel
was used to create spacious interiors and innovative designs (founded in 1870,
and its significant expansions using steel structures occurred towards the end of
the 19th century)
● Department Stores in Paris: Steel, along with iron and glass, was instrumental in
the construction of new department stores. These materials facilitated the
creation of large open spaces, filled interior courtyards, and enabled the
construction of expansive staircases.
● Vladimir Shukov: His work demonstrates the dichotomy between conventional
architecture and innovative uses of steel, particularly in large window ceilings and
structures like Water Tower, Nizhny Novgorod, 1896 and Radio Tower, Moscow,
1922
Case Study:France Jourdain's La Samaritaine Store in Paris
Design Overview
● Architects and Era: Frantz Jourdain, and later Henri Sauvage, were instrumental in the
design of La Samaritaine, blending Art Nouveau and Art Deco styles. The building dates
back to the early 1900s, a period rich in architectural experimentation and innovation.
● Art Nouveau Influence: The store's design is notably influenced by Art Nouveau, evident
in its decorative elements, curved forms, and extensive use of glass.
Art Nouveau :Art Nouveau was a movement that emerged as a reaction against the academic
art of the 19th century. It was characterized by its use of a long, sinuous, organic line and was
employed most often in architecture, interior design, jewelry and glass design, posters, and
illustration.
The Role of Steel in Design
● Structural Framework: Steel was used to create a robust structural framework. This was
revolutionary at the time, allowing for larger open spaces and greater flexibility in the
interior layout.
● Spacious Interiors: The steel framework enabled the creation of vast, open-plan floors.
This openness was a significant departure from the more compartmentalized layouts of
traditional buildings. It allowed natural light to permeate the space, creating an inviting
and comfortable shopping environment.
● Large Windows and Glasswork: Steel's strength facilitated the installation of large
windows and glass panels. These features not only enhanced the building's aesthetic
appeal but also contributed to the bright and airy interiors. The extensive use of glass in
the façade, supported by the steel structure, was a hallmark of early modernist
architecture.
● Innovative Use of Materials: Jourdain's design combined steel with other materials like
glass and iron in innovative ways, demonstrating the potential of industrial materials in
creating aesthetically pleasing and functional public spaces.

● Elevators and Escalators: The inclusion of steel-framed elevators and escalators was a
modern feature that improved customer circulation and enhanced the shopping
experience.
Architectural Significance
Modern Retail Architecture: La Samaritaine is an excellent example of how industrial
materials like steel were used to revolutionize retail architecture. The building's design
focused on creating a shopping experience that was both luxurious and accessible.
Skyscrapers: Emergence and Evolution
Origins and Development:
● Steel + Elevator + Electricity = Skyscrapers: This formula encapsulates the
technological advancements that made skyscrapers possible. The combination of
strong steel structures, reliable elevators, and widespread electricity usage
allowed buildings to reach unprecedented heights.
● Elisha Otis's Elevator (1861): The invention of the safety elevator by Elisha Otis
in 1861 played a crucial role. Demonstrated at the Universal Expo in Paris, this
invention ensured the safety of vertical transport in tall buildings.
● Highrise Architecture in Chicago: The concept of skyscrapers as a new
architectural form emerged in Chicago. William LeBaron Jenny's work, with its
emphasis on light structures and the openness of façades, was instrumental in
this development.
● Louis Sullivan's Architectural Philosophy: Louis Sullivan, a key figure in
skyscraper development, advocated for the principle of "Form Follows Function."
He emphasized that buildings should express their size and utility, shaping a new
architectural dogma.
Skyscrapers in New York and Chicago:
● Early Skyscrapers: Initially, skyscrapers in New York did not have an elegant
appearance. It was only after Chicago architects began working in New York that
the design of skyscrapers developed more aesthetically.
● Frank Furness's Influence: Furness contributed to creating architecture that
deviated from pre-existing European molds, fostering a distinctly American style.
● European Influence: In the 19th century, European architects were also seeking
culturally fitting designs due to rising nationalism. They were interested in
creating buildings that expressed national identity and resisted the changes
brought by industrialization.
Skyscrapers and National Identity:
● American and European Architecture: There was a trend in Europe and America
to create architecture that reflected national ideals and identity. This was a
response to the globalization of architectural styles and the desire to establish a
unique cultural expression.
● Impact of Industrialization: The advancement of industrialization led some, like
William Morris, to advocate for more traditional forms of architecture. This

pushback against modernity was evident in the designs of buildings that, despite
being built in the 19th century, appeared to be from an older era.
Significance of Skyscrapers:
● Architectural Innovation: Skyscrapers represent a significant shift in architectural
design, combining aesthetics with the practical needs of urban expansion and the
use of new materials and technologies.
● Symbol of Modernity: They symbolize the industrial and economic prowess of a
city or a nation, especially in the context of the rapid urbanization and industrial
growth of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Arts and Crafts Movement (1849-1890)
Origins and Philosophy:
● The movement was a response to the Industrial Revolution, with a strong desire
to return to pre-industrial craftsmanship and simplicity.
● It emphasized the value of handcrafted work, as opposed to mass-produced
goods, and sought to revive traditional building crafts and techniques.
● The movement was partly a reaction against the perceived moral and aesthetic
decline caused by industrialization.
● Initially, the movement was strongest in Britain, where it originated, but it
eventually spread to other parts of Europe and North America.
Key Figures and Contributions:
● John Ruskin: criticized the environmental and social impacts of industrialization, noting
the degradation of landscapes and moral values.
● William Morris: leading figure in the movement, promoted the idea of joy in labor and the
beauty of handmade objects. He strongly opposed modernization, emphasizing a return
to pre-Renaissance purity in design and craftsmanship.
Movement Characteristics:
● Focus on Handcraftsmanship: The movement highlighted the importance of individual
artisan skills in creating furniture, textiles, and buildings.
● Design Principles: Simplicity, functionality, and beauty were central to the designs. The
movement sought a harmonious balance between form and function.
● Influence on Architecture: The architectural aspect of the movement emphasized
simplicity and the use of locally sourced materials, often reflecting medieval, romantic, or
folk styles of decoration.
Social and Cultural Impact:
● Reaction to Industrialization:
○ The movement can be seen as a critique of the social, moral, and aesthetic
consequences of the Industrial Revolution.
○ It was also a pushback against the increasing prevalence of machine-made
products, which were viewed as lacking the quality and character of handcrafted
items.

● Legacy:
○ The Arts and Crafts Movement had a lasting impact on later design and
architectural styles, including influencing the development of Art Nouveau and
Modernist movements.Its principles of craftsmanship and quality in design
continue to influence contemporary architecture and design practices.
Art Nouveau and Art Deco:
Art Nouveau (1890-1940) :
Art Nouveau was a movement that emerged as a reaction against the academic art of the 19th
century. It was characterized by its use of a long, curvy, organic lines and was employed most
often in architecture, interior design, jewelry and glass design, posters, and illustration.
● Art Nouveau's global influence highlights the interconnectedness of the art world in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries. It shows how styles and movements can transcend
their origins, inspiring and being reshaped by different cultures and societies. This global
spread of Art Nouveau contributed significantly to the diversity and richness of artistic
expression during this period
Global Influence:
● European Cities:
○ The style had a strong presence in European cities like Brussels and Paris. In
these cities, Art Nouveau became known for its decorative and architectural
designs, characterized by organic, fluid lines and often incorporating floral and
other natural motifs.
○ In Russian towns and Helsinki, Art Nouveau also made its mark, showcasing the
versatility and adaptability of the style across different cultural contexts.
● Colonial Extension:
○ The style extended to colonial regions, influencing local architecture and design.
For instance, in Vietnam, french colonialism changed their architecture.
● Art Nouveau in Architecture and Design:
○ In architecture, Art Nouveau buildings often featured asymmetrical shapes,
extensive use of arches and curved forms, stained glass, and intricate tile work.
Significance of Art Nouveau's Global Reach
● Cultural Exchange:
● Art Nouveau's global spread illustrates the exchange of artistic ideas across
borders. It demonstrates how a style originating in one part of the world can be
adapted and reinterpreted in different cultural contexts.
● Influence on Local Art Forms:
● In regions under colonial influence, Art Nouveau merged with local art forms,
leading to unique hybrid styles. This blend of local and European elements is a
testament to the dynamic nature of cultural interaction during this period.
● Transition to Modernism:

● Art Nouveau played a crucial role in the transition from traditional to modern
design. Its emphasis on natural forms and intricate details paved the way for later
modernist movements, influencing artists, architects, and designers worldwide.
Art Deco (1920s–1940s):
Art Deco was a style of visual arts, architecture, and design that first appeared in France before
World War I and developed into a major style in western Europe and the United States during
the 1920s. It took its name from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels
Modernes, held in Paris in 1925, where the style was first exhibited.
Characteristics:
● Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, and faith in social and technological
progress.
● It was characterized by precise and boldly delineated geometric shapes and strong
colors, and used most notably in household objects and in architecture.
● Social and Cultural context: Art Deco was a pastiche of styles that borrowed from design
styles of the past, brought them together, and modernized them, making it a style of its
own.
Comparison and Contextualization:
● While Art Nouveau emphasized curvilinear forms and naturalistic designs, Art Deco
moved towards a more streamlined, geometric aesthetic, reflecting the industrial age and
modernity.
● Cultural Significance:Both movements reflected the times in which they emerged. Art
Nouveau during the turn of the century with its emphasis on nature and organic forms,
and Art Deco in the interwar period, symbolizing modernity, progress, and elegance.
● Legacy: Both Art Nouveau and Art Deco have left enduring legacies in architecture,
design, and the arts. They continue to be celebrated for their distinct aesthetic
contributions and as symbols of the cultural and historical periods in which they thrived.
Case Study: Art Nouveau in Colonial Vietnam
French Colonial Influence:
● During the French colonial period in Vietnam, there was a significant infusion of
European architectural styles, including Art Nouveau. The French colonial
administration and settlers brought with them their architectural preferences and
styles, which were then integrated into local buildings.
● This period saw the construction of numerous structures combining French
architectural styles with traditional Vietnamese elements.
Architecture and Urban Planning:
● In cities like Hanoi and Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City), French colonial rule led to
the development of urban planning and architectural designs that reflected
European tastes, including Art Nouveau elements.
● Examples:

■ Hanoi Opera House: Located in the heart of Hanoi, this building is a prime
example of French Colonial architecture, mirroring the design of the
Palais Garnier in Paris.
■ Saigon Central Post Office: In Ho Chi Minh City, this building, designed by
Gustave Eiffel, is a symbol of the French colonial era, featuring a blend of
European and Asian designs.
Cultural and Political Context:
● The introduction of European architectural styles, including Art Nouveau, in
Vietnam was not just an aesthetic choice but also a political statement,
representing the colonial power's influence and cultural dominance.
● This architectural legacy is part of the broader narrative of colonialism, where
colonial powers imposed their culture and tastes on colonized lands.
Case Study: Art Nouveau Sagrada Família - Antoni Gaudí
Location: Barcelona, Spain.
Architect: Antoni Gaudí, a central figure in Catalan modernism.
Construction: Began in 1882 and is famously still under construction, with completion targeted
for 2026, the centenary of Gaudí's death.
Design Elements:
● The Sagrada Família is renowned for its richly detailed and unique style, combining
Gothic and curvilinear Art Nouveau forms.
● Gaudí's design is characterized by complex geometric forms, intricate sculptures, and an
abundance of symbolic Christian imagery.
● The building's façades and the eighteen spires are designed to represent various
religious themes and figures, with each spire dedicated to a different biblical character.
Innovation and Technique:
● Gaudí's innovative use of architectural techniques and his deep understanding of
structural principles allowed him to create a building that was not only aesthetically
groundbreaking but also structurally advanced.
Industrialization in Architecture: Late 19th to Early 20th Century (how this lecture ties
together basically)
Technological Advances:
● The advent of the Industrial Revolution brought about significant technological
advancements such as the development of steel, glass, and reinforced concrete.
These materials allowed for new architectural forms and designs.
● The use of steel in particular enabled the construction of skyscrapers and large
bridges, marking a significant shift in how buildings were designed and
constructed.

● Influence on Architectural Styles:
● Industrialization influenced several architectural styles, including Art Nouveau
and Art Deco. These styles reflected the era's fascination with new technologies
and materials.
● The period also saw the emergence of the Chicago School of Architecture, which
heavily utilized steel in its designs, leading to the birth of the modern skyscraper.
● New Building Types:
● Industrialization led to the creation of new building types, such as factories,
warehouses, and department stores. These structures often featured large open
spaces, made possible by advances in building materials.
● The design of department stores, for example, took advantage of iron, glass, and
later steel, to create expansive, light-filled interiors.
Key Developments and Innovations
● Reinforced Concrete:The use of reinforced concrete revolutionized building construction.
It provided increased strength and flexibility, allowing for more daring architectural
designs.
● Elevators and Skyscrapers:The invention of the safety elevator by Elisha Otis was a
critical development, making high-rise buildings practical and safe.This innovation led to
a new era of skyscraper construction, first emerging in Chicago and then spreading to
other urban centers.
Social and Cultural Impacts
● Urbanization:Industrialization spurred rapid urbanization, with people moving to cities in
large numbers. This led to a demand for new types of buildings, such as apartment
complexes, public institutions, and commercial spaces.
● Cultural Shifts:The changes in architecture reflected broader cultural shifts of the time.
The emphasis on functionality, efficiency, and new technology marked a departure from
traditional architectural styles.
Case Study :Le Corbusier: Maison Domino
Concept:
● Maison Domino was a prototype for a prefabricated housing system designed by the
Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier in 1914-1915.
● This concept was developed as a response to the need for mass housing, particularly
after World War I, which had resulted in a significant housing shortage (tied to rapid
urbanization).
Design Principles:
● The Maison Domino system featured a simple structural framework made of reinforced
concrete. This framework consisted of columns and floor slabs, which allowed for open
and flexible floor plans.
● The use of a flat roof provided additional living space, which was an innovative feature
for the time.
● Its design emphasized functionality and was meant to be easily replicated, making it
suitable for rapid construction and mass production.

Influence on Modern Architecture:
● Le Corbusier’s Maison Domino is considered a landmark in the development of modern
architecture. It introduced principles that would become fundamental to modernist
architecture, such as the use of a grid, the separation of load-bearing structures from the
walls, and the free facade.
● The design allowed for large windows and open spaces, breaking away from the
traditional, closed, and compartmentalized layouts of the time.
Legacy:
● Although the Maison Domino was never widely adopted in its original form, the ideas it
presented influenced numerous architects and became foundational in modern
architectural design.
● The concept of prefabricated and standardized components, as introduced by Maison
Domino, laid the groundwork for later developments in building technology and
industrialized construction methods.
Conservation and Heritage in Architecture ( again how the lecture ties together and art
and crafts impact)
Arts and Crafts Movement and Conservation:
● The Arts and Crafts Movement, which emerged as a reaction to industrialization,
played a significant role in the conservation and heritage movement. This
movement emphasized the importance of traditional craftsmanship and raised
awareness about preserving architectural heritage.
● It was not just about preserving buildings for their aesthetic value but also for
their cultural and historical significance.
Revival of Vernacular Traditions:
● There was a growing interest in reviving and preserving vernacular architectural
traditions. This interest was partly driven by a desire to maintain a connection
with the past and to counter the homogenizing effects of industrialization.
● Architects and conservationists began to value the unique qualities of local
architectural styles, materials, and construction methods, which were seen as an
integral part of a region's cultural heritage.
Open-Air Museums and Preservation Efforts:
● The period saw the beginning of open-air museums and other efforts to preserve
vernacular architecture. These museums aimed to showcase traditional building
techniques and local architectural styles, often in a natural setting.
● This initiative reflected a growing awareness of the need to protect not only grand
and monumental buildings but also the more commonplace or "average"
architecture that represented the everyday lives of people.
Impact on Modern Conservation Practices
● The principles established during this time laid the groundwork for modern architectural
conservation movements. The focus was not only on preserving buildings for their
historical value but also for their role in maintaining the cultural identity of a place.

● Architectural heritage began to be seen as a proxy to the history of a country or a
community. The conservation of heritage sites became synonymous with preserving the
historical narrative and cultural identity.
Case Study: Crystal Palace
This covers:
- Industrialization, mass production , prefabrication and modular design ( lecture 2, 6)
- Planetary perspective (lecture 1)
- Victorian architecture (lecture 5)
- The use of glass as a primary architectural feature ( lecture 2,6)
- Arts and crafts industry (lecture 6)
Conventional: modern, industrial, prefab
Global: display of colonial power, ‘exotic’ representation of the
non-West
Planetary: environmental concerns, protection against pollution,
attempt to climatization
Concept and Design
● Origin: The Crystal Palace was conceived for the Great Exhibition of 1851, the first
world's fair, to showcase the latest innovations in technology and the arts.
● Designer: Joseph Paxton, primarily known as a gardener and greenhouse builder,
designed the Crystal Palace, drawing on his experience with glasshouse construction.
Architectural Features
● Material Innovation: The building was primarily made of iron and glass, a novel approach
at the time, showcasing the possibilities of these materials in large-scale construction.
- Glass as a Main Feature: The building was pioneering in its use of glass on a
large scale, which was a novelty at the time. Its vast expanses of glass walls and
roof brought natural light into an interior of unprecedented size.
- Iron and Glass Structure: The combination of glass with an iron framework was
innovative, demonstrating both materials' potential in creating large, open spaces
free from traditional structural constraints.
● Prefabrication: One of the most revolutionary aspects was its prefabricated design. The
components were manufactured off-site, then transported and assembled quickly
on-site, a precursor to modern modular construction techniques.
● Modular and Temporary Structure: The Crystal Palace was modular, allowing for its parts
to be reused or reconfigured. It was initially erected in Hyde Park, London, and later
moved to Sydenham in South London.

● Use of Glass: The extensive use of glass walls and ceilings allowed for an abundance of
natural light, a stark contrast to the traditionally dark and heavy Victorian buildings of the
era. This feature created a transparent, airy environment inside.
Structural Design
● Ridge-and-Furrow Roofing: The roof was designed in a ridge-and-furrow pattern, which
was effective for rainwater drainage and allowed for more uniform lighting.
● Cast Iron Framework: The building's framework was made of cast iron, a material
chosen for its strength and flexibility. This allowed for the creation of a vast, open interior
space without internal supports obstructing views.
● Inspiration from Nature: Paxton's design was partly inspired by the Victoria amazonica, a
giant water lily. He had previously designed a greenhouse for these lilies and used the
principles he learned from this to conceive the roof structure of the Crystal Palace.
● Strength and Elegance: The ribbed structure of the lily’s leaf, capable of supporting
considerable weight, influenced the design of the Crystal Palace’s roof, balancing
strength with elegance.
● Rapid Construction: The building's design allowed for rapid construction, a feat of
engineering and logistics at the time. The entire structure was erected in just a few
months, a testament to Paxton's ingenuity and the efficiency of industrial production
methods.
Legacy and Influence
● Exhibition Space: As an exhibition space, the Crystal Palace was vast and versatile, able
to house a wide array of exhibits from different countries and industries.
○ Medieval Court: Inside the Crystal Palace, different areas were dedicated to
various historical styles, including a medieval court. This court was an exhibition
space for the arts and crafts industry, displaying the era's craftsmanship and
artistic capabilities.
○ Showcasing Diversity: The inclusion of different styles, like the medieval court,
highlighted the diverse range of design and production during the Victorian
period, from traditional craftsmanship to modern industrial techniques.
● Impact on Architecture: The Crystal Palace had a profound impact on architecture,
demonstrating the potential of new materials and building techniques. It influenced the
development of modern architecture, particularly in terms of large-scale glass and iron
structures.
● Symbol of the Industrial Age: The building was a symbol of the Industrial Revolution,
showcasing the technological and engineering feats of the time.
● Demise and Legacy: The original structure was destroyed by fire in 1936. However, its
legacy continues, inspiring contemporary architects and engineers with its innovative
design and construction methods

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