King2e ppt ch06

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1
Chapter 6
Memory

instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may
not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in
whole or part.
2
Chapter Preview
• The nature of memory
• Memory encoding
• Memory storage
• Memory retrieval
• Forgetting
• Tips from the science of memory—for
studying and for life

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Memory
• Retention of information or experience over
time and Processes
• Processes:
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval

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Memory Encoding
• Process by which information enters memory
storage
• Automatic
• Effortful (With effort)
• Attention
• Levels of processing
• Elaboration
• Use of mental imagery

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Attention
• To begin memory encoding, must pay
attention to information
• Selective attention
• Focusing on specific aspects
• Limitation of brain’s resources
• Divided attention
• Attending to several things simultaneously

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Attention
• Sustained attention
• Attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged
period of time
• Multi-tasking

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Processing & Elaboration
• Levels of processing
• Continuum from shallow to deep
• Deeper processing, better memory
• Deep, elaborate processing is powerful
• Elaboration
• Number of different connections made
• Evident in physical activity of brain

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Figure 6.2 – Depth of Processing

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Use of Mental Imagery
• Powerful encoding tool
• Verbal code
• Image code
• Dual-code hypothesis
• Memory for pictures better than memory for
words
• Pictures stored as both image codes and verbal
codes

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Memory Storage
• How information is:
• Retained over time
• Represented in memory
• Atkinson-Shiffrin theory
• Sensory memory
• Short-term memory
• Long-term memory

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Figure 6.5 - Atkinson and
Shiffrin’s Theory of Memory

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Sensory Memory
• Holds information in sensory form for an
instant
• Echoic memory
• Auditory sensory memory
• Retained for up to several seconds
• Iconic memory
• Visual sensory memory
• Retained for only about ¼ second

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Short-Term Memory
• Limited-capacity (7±2 items)
• Information retained for up to 30 seconds,
without strategies to retain it longer
• Chunking
• Grouping information into higher-order units
• Rehearsal
• Conscious repetition of information

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Working Memory
• Alternative approach to explaining short-term
memory
• Three-part system to hold information
temporarily
• Phonological loop
• Briefly stores speech-based information

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Working Memory
• Visuo-spatial working memory
• Stores visual and spatial information
• Central executive
• Integrates information

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Figure 6.8 - Baddeley’s View of
Working Memory

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Long-Term Memory
• Relatively permanent memory
• Stores huge amounts of information for long
time
• Explicit memory
• Implicit memory

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Explicit (Declarative) Memory
• Conscious recollection of information that can
be verbally communicated
• Permastore content
• Episodic memory
• Autobiographical information
• Semantic memory
• Knowledge about the world

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Figure 6.11 - Some Differences
Between Episodic and Semantic Memory

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Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory
• Nonconscious recollection of skills and
sensory perceptions
• Procedural memory
• Memory for skills
• Classical conditioning
• Memory for associations between stimuli
• Priming
• Activation of information already in storage

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Memory: Organization
• Schema
• Preexisting mental concept to organize and
interpret information
• Script
• Schema for an event
• Connectionism (parallel distributed
processing)
• Memory is stored throughout the brain in
connections among neurons

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Memory: Location
• Neurons
• Memory located in specific circuits of neurons
• Neurotransmitters play a role in forging
connections
• Long-term potentiation
• Simultaneous activation of neurons strengthens
memory

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Memory: Location
• Brain structures
• Explicit memory
• Hippocampus, temporal lobes, limbic system
(amygdala)
• Implicit memory
• Cerebellum, temporal lobes, hippocampus

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Figure 6.12 – Structures of the Brain
Involved in Different Aspects of Long-Term
Memory

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Memory: Retrieval
• When information retained in memory comes
out of storage
• Serial position effect
• Tendency to recall items at beginning and end of
lists
• Primacy effect
• Better recall for items at beginning of list
• Recency effect
• Better recall for items at end of list

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Memory: Retrieval
• Factors
• Retrieval cues
• Retrieval task
• Recall
• Memory task to retrieve previously learned
information
• Recognition
• Memory task to identify, or recognize, learned
items

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Memory: Retrieval
• Encoding specificity principle
• Information present at time of learning tends to
be effective as retrieval cue
• Context-dependent memory
• Remembering better when attempting to recall
information in same context in which it was
learned

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Memory: Retrieval
• Autobiographical memories
• Special form of episodic memory containing
recollections of own life experiences

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Figure 6.15 - The Three-Level Hierarchical
Structure of Autobiographical Memory

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Memory: Retrieval
• Flashbulb memory
• Emotionally significant events
• Recalled with vivid imagery
• Memory for traumatic events
• May contain inaccuracies

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Memory: Retrieval
• Repressed memories
• Defense mechanism by which person, traumatized
by an event, forgets it – and then forgets act of
forgetting
• May be special case of motivated forgetting

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Eyewitness Testimony
• May contain errors
• Memory for emotional events
• Focus on:
• Distortion
• Bias
• Inaccuracy

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Figure 6.16 - Ebbinghaus’s
Forgetting Curve

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Forgetting
• Encoding failure
• Not ‘forgotten’ but, never encoded
• Information never entered into long-term
memory
• Retrieval failure
• Forgotten information

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Forgetting: Interference
• Forgetting because other information gets in
way of remembering
• Proactive interference
• Material learned earlier disrupts retrieval of
material learned later
• Retroactive interference
• Material learned later disrupts retrieval of
material learned earlier

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Figure 6.18 - Proactive and
Retroactive Interference

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Forgetting
• Decay
• Neurochemical memory ‘trace’ disintegrates over
time
• Cannot, alone, explain forgetting
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT state)
• Confident of knowing something but unable to
retrieve it from memory

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Prospective Memory
• Remembering information about future
events
• Includes timing and content
• Time-based prospective memory
• Intention to engage in behavior after passage of
time

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Prospective Memory
• Event-based prospective memory
• Intention to engage in behavior when some
external event elicits it

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Amnesia
• Loss of memory
• Anterograde amnesia
• Disorder that affects retention of new information
• Retrograde amnesia
• Memory loss for a segment of past, but not for
new events

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Applying Memory Tips
• To your studies:
• Organize
• Encode
• Rehearse
• Retrieve
• To your life:
• Autobiographical memory and the life story
• Generative (vs. contamination) life stories

King2e ppt ch06

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