La3 compnet notes

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COMPUTER NETWORKS
AND COMMUNICATIONS
LESSON 67
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS AND
COMMUNICATIONS
COMPUTER NETWORK
A computer network is a system of interconnected computers and peripheral
devices. For example, it may connect computers, printers, scanners and
cameras.
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Using hardware and software, these interconnected computing devices can
communicate with each other through defined rules of data communications.
In a network, computers can exchange and share information and resources.
A computer network may operate on wired connections or wireless
connections.
When two or more networks are linked or connected and are able to
communicate with one another using suitable hardware and software, it is
called an internet work.

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COMMUNICATIONS
Communications is about the
transfer of information from a
sender, across a distance, to a
receiver.
Using electricity, radio waves or
light, information and data in the
form of codes are transmitted
through a physical medium such as
wire, cable, or even the atmosphere.
The information that is transmitted
(sent) can be text, voice, sound,
video, graphics and images, or a
combination of all these, which we
call multimedia.
We transmit information or data by
using two types of signals, namely
analogue and digital.
Computers communicate with
digital signals. The older forms of
communications technology, such
as telephones and radios, use
analogue signals.
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Therefore, in order to make communications possible from
computers, across telephones and radios and back to computers and other
digital devices again, there must be a signal translator, which we call – a
modem.
The modem, which is short for
modulator or demodulator,
converts digital signals into
analogue and back again into
digital signals for information to
move across the telephone line.
CONNECTIONS FOR NETWORKING
Communications among computing
devices in a network can only
happen through defined rules of
communications and connections. In
general, for communications in a
network to be possible, there must
be:
a physical medium – to allow
data to travel across it from
device to device
a set of rules called protocols
to ensure that interconnected
computing devices have the
same standards for exchange
of information to occur
smoothly.
a system application for
managing network information
flow to ensure that data transmission sent from one device is
received by the intended receiver.
If any of these levels of connectivity
is missing, communications for
networking will not be possible.
For example, if the physical medium
is cut off, there will be no
communications.
If protocol between interconnected
devices are not the same, data
transmission will not be ‘understood’
between devices. If there is no
network management application
available, there will be no means of
ensuring that information from one
device will be sent to the correct
receiving device.

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Protocol
Often simply referred to as a protocol, a communications protocol is a set of
rules or standards designed so that computers can exchange information
with a minimal errors.
LESSON 68
COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATIONS
INTRODUCTION
In order for a network to properly operate, two categories of network
communications components are needed; ‘Hardware’ and ‘Software’.
Computers, hub, switch, router,
network interface cards and both
wired and wireless communications
media fall under the ‘Hardware’
category.
Operating systems and applications fall
under the ‘Software’ category.
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NETWORK COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Signals which carry information
in a communications system
travel through a physical
medium.
This physical medium is called
a communications channel, or at
other times a communications
link, a communications line, or
a communications medium.
Some common types of network
communications channels are
the:
twisted-pair wire
coaxial cable
fibre-optic cable
satellite systems
wireless systems (namely using radio waves, microwaves and
infrared)
NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS AND NETWORKING
DEVICES
The Network Interface Card or NIC is one of the most
important communications devices for a PC.
Communications channels provide the most basic level
of connectivity medium for a network.

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The NIC provides connection
between the computer and the
network’s communications media.
This connection is necessary because
the NIC functions as a data conversion
device to move data from the PC’s
system to the network medium and
vice versa.
The Network Interface Card also
supplies the basic addressing system
used to get data from PC to PC across a
network.
The other hardware component that is
required for communications to work
on a network is the networking device,
such as the hub, switch, router and
even the modem.
The function of these devices is
generally to control the flow of data on
a network.
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NETWORK SOFTWARE
How do computers communicate on a network?
Once we have got the necessary hardware set up for a network, we will
need to have suitable software on the network computers that would be able
to provide some basic functions, such as connecting to other
computers on the network, sharing resources and files and
providing for network security for users who are online.
In general, network software must be able to handle
networking protocols and connections within the network and with other
networks. Most importantly, it should also provide file systems functions to
organise disk space on the network computers for sharing purposes.
Since most computer networks are connected to the Internet, network
software must have some form of management and security services to
protect the network as well as computers on the network, from unauthorised
access.

158
LESSON 69
APPLICATION SOFTWARE: ADVANCED FEATURES OF
PRESENTATION SOFTWARE
Networking and communications technology is fast changing the way people
view society and how we plan our daily social activities.
Through networking technology alone, many today are
finding friends online, visiting a library in another
country. Some people are able to go to the banks
after they are closed, as well as getting the latest
development in news from within and outside the
country.
Mobile communications today is also based on the
networking technology. Surfing the internet is not only
limited to the desktop computer users but also those
who have mobile phones with wireless technology. At
present there are more than 7 million such users
across the world.
The internet has helped science and medical research
progress further as doctors and researchers from
anywhere in the world can contribute and cooperate in
any problem brought to their attention. Technological
solutions can be discovered quickly as individuals
come forward to offer their help through the internet.
Homemakers, students, teachers, business people,
and almost anyone with access to networked
computer go online and continue their path of lifelong
education anywhere, anytime.
Organisations and individuals can make connections
and establish communications within seconds with
people nearby or overseas. Online communities can be
formed and important issues and opinions to difficult
problems can be discussed without a threatening
environment.
All these are now possible because of networks and communications
technology.
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IMPORTANCE OF NETWORKS AND
COMMUNICATIONS
Information is now made easy with the availability of network
communications.
In a clinic for example, network communications
plays an important part in keeping patients’
database for easy retrieval. Unlike in conventional
practice, doctors and nurses have to look for a
patient’s personal file from hundreds or maybe
thousands of records. With network
communication, the clinic saves time and
manpower allocation can be effectively planned.
E-Business
E-business or electronic business refers to
conducting business transactions on the
internet, not only limited to buying and selling
but also servicing customers and collaborating
with business partners.
E-business supports many types of business
transactions, including online shopping, selling
and renting. Users can browse the website and
choose from the list of items or services to
buy. Payment is usually via credit card.

160
Online Education
With a network connection, online
education is made possible.
Students at any location around the
world can participate in an online
classroom, download tutorial
questions and submit their
assignments.
E-Banking
E-banking or electronic banking is the most
popular banking facility nowadays. It handles
all types of banking transactions like account
management, fund transfer and payments
primarily over the internet.
User can pay bills, check the account balance
and transfer money to other parties, using e-
banking facilities twenty four hours a day and
seven days a week.
With e-banking, most of the transactions can
be done at home or from the office, thus users
save time on travelling and queuing at the
bank counters.
Long Distance Communication
Long distance communication is made easy via
network availability. Communication is possible
via voice, text or video. The cost of having this
type of communication is cheaper than making
a normal phone call and definitely faster and
more effective than corresponding via letters of
fax.
In business, important decisions can effectively
made through video conference meeting.
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LESSON 70
TYPES OF NETWORKS
TYPES OF NETWORKS
Three types of networks:
Local Area Network or LAN
Metropolitan Area Network or MAN
Wide Area Network or WAN
Here:
LAN - the email system within the school lab in SMK KL
MAN - the email system within KL city
WAN - the email system between KL and London
A LAN covers a small region of space, typically a single building.
A MAN is a collection of LANs with the same geographical area, for instance
a city.
A WAN can be a collection of LANs or MANs or the mix of two with a very
large geographical area, for instance a country or even beyond the border.

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LESSON 71
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
Local Area Network (LAN) is the smallest network
compared to the other two networks.
The simplest form of LAN is to connect two computers
together.
LAN is operated within a limited physical area, such as
at home, school, a single building or
several buildings.
A network which consists of less
than 500 interconnected devices
across several buildings, is still
recognised as a LAN.
Inexpensive hardware used in LAN previously include
twisted pair, coaxial cables and the higher end is fibre
optic or wireless. However, coaxial cables are now
being replaced by a higher speed cabling system
such as CAT5 using RJ45 connectors.
LAN is a very high speed network (from previously
10Mbps) to 100Mbps, which is faster than MAN and WAN.
Local Area Network is a group
of computers and network
devices connected together,
usually within the same
building.
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LESSON 72
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
First, you have to understand the word
metropolitan. Metropolitan describes
important cities such as Kuala Lumpur, Manila,
Singapore, Tokyo, London and New York.
MAN is a network of computers located at
different sites within a large physical area, such
as a city. Companies that have several branches
within the Kuala Lumpur city such as banks,
might find a MAN useful to them.
In this case, setting up a MAN across long
distances can be best connected using fiber
optics. Sometimes, a MAN can be a collection of
several LANs within the same city.
MAN often acts as a high speed network
(although not as fast as a LAN) to allow
sharing of regional resources.
MAN can be
defined as a group
of computers and
network devices
connected
together within a
large physical
area.
LESSON 73
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN) is the largest network
of all network types. The Internet is the largest
WAN in the world. WAN generally covers large
distances such as states, countries or
continents.

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An example in the society using WAN is the
banking organisation. Local banks have always
maintained their business online by connecting
all computers of their branches in the countries.
International banks also use WAN to connect
their computers all over the world.
Actually, WAN is a group of MANs or LANs or the
mixture of both networks.
A device called a router is
needed to connect the MANs
and LANs all over a large
physical area. A router is a
special networking device
that connects two or more
different networks and keeps
data flowing between them.
A router makes all the different networks communicate,
such as connecting LAN to LAN, LAN to WAN or WAN to
WAN.
The transmission media in WAN uses the fibre optic
cable. WAN is still considered a fast network with
speeds 20 – 2000 Kbps, but slower than LAN and MAN.
LESSON 74
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TYPES OF NETWORK
SETTING UP COST
Setting up a MAN network is more expensive than a LAN
but less than a WAN. Managers have to consider the cost
of buying the necessary hardware, software, medium and
maintenance service for the desired network.
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NETWORK SIZE
The network size of a MAN falls between LAN
and WAN. As you know, a LAN usually covers
only a limited area such as a school lab; a MAN
will cover a greater area such as a city while a
WAN will cover the largest geographical area
such as the size of Malaysia.
SPEED
LAN offers the best speed in transmitting information
followed by MAN and WAN. In addition, LANs are
capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much
faster than data which is transmitted over a
telephone line although the distances are limited.
LAN is also frequently used to provide a shared
connection to other networks using a link to a WAN.
A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow
sharing of regional resources (similar to a large LAN). For larger network
coverage, MAN is a better choice for a higher speed connection compared to
a WAN.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
A LAN uses the cheapest transmission media
compared to MAN and WAN. Generally LAN only uses
communication media such as twisted-pair cables.
A MAN might have more than one transmission media since it involves a
combination of two or more LANs and the media used depends on the
network coverage. Here, a MAN might use the twisted-pair and fibre-optics
cables.

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A WAN might use costly
transmission medias such as
fibre-optics, radio waves and
satellites, depending on their
coverage.
CONNECTION LIMIT
The number of computers that can be attached to a single LAN is limited.
A MAN can have a large number of computers compared to a LAN but less
than a WAN.
A WAN can have up to billions of computers attached to it.
COMPARISON OF LAN, MAN AND WAN
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LESSON 75
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
TYPES OF NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
Network architecture is the
overall design of a computer
network that describes how a
computer network is configured
and what strategies are being
used.
Network architecture mainly
focuses on the functions of the
networks. Network architecture
is also known as network model
or network design.
There are two main network architectures:
client/server network
peer-to-peer network
CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK
A client/server network is a network
in which the shared files and
applications are stored in the server
but network users (clients) can still
store files on their individual PCs.
A server is a computer that shares
information and resources with other
computers on a network. A client is
a computer which requests services
or files from a server computer.

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PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK
Peer-to-peer or P2P network is a
network with all the nodes acting as
both servers and clients. A PC can
access files located on another PC and
can also provide files to other PCs.
All computers in the peer-to-peer
network have equal responsibilities
and capabilities to use the resources
available on the network.
With peer-to-peer network, no server
is needed; each computer in the
network is called a peer.
LESSON 76
CLIENT / SERVER
CLIENT / SERVER NETWORK
On a client/server network, shared files and
applications are stored in the server but network users
can still store files on their individual PCs.
A smaller client/server network uses twisted-pair or
coaxial cables for networking but a larger and
powerful network will use fibre optics. A client/server
network is suitable for connecting 10 or more
computers.
To set up a client/server network, you need to install
a server program for the server and a client program
for the clients. A network administrator needs to
configure access rights on the server side to allow
access for the clients to use the resources.
An email program is an example
of a client program, as it sends
email requests to a mail server.
IRC (Internet Relay Chat),
Internet browser and email
program are examples of
software applications for a
client/server network.
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SERVER
A server is sometimes called a
host computer. A server is a
computer that provides
services to other computers
called clients. A server controls
access to the hardware,
software and other resources
on the network.
It provides a centralised
storage area for programs,
data and information.
DEDICATED SERVER
Dedicated servers perform specific tasks and usually execute only one job.
For example, a file server stores and
manages files; a print server manages
printers and print jobs. A database server
stores and provides access to a database.
A network server manages network traffic.
A dedicated server helps save
time and storage space in one
computer. It will not put the
whole network at risk if it fails.

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CLIENT
The client computers are computers on the
network that rely on the server for its
resources and services.
Client computers send requests to a server
for resources or services to perform their
job. For example, a client computer can
send a request asking permission to use the
printer attached to the server, to print a
document.
Usually a client computer has to log onto
the network using a user name and
password to use the server’s resources and
services.
For example, you have to be a TMnet or
Jaring member to use the internet service.
You need to logon to TMnet or Jaring’s
server by sending your username and
password.
After your
successful
login process,
then you can
access the
internet
through TMnet
or Jaring’s
server.
LESSON 77
PEER-TO-PEER
PEER-TO-PEER FUNCTIONS
Peer-to-peer (P2P) network is a
network with all the nodes
acting as both servers and
clients. A PC can access files
located on another PC and can
also provide files to other PCs.
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A P2P network usually uses
twisted-pair or coaxial cable
because these cables are
cheaper and easier to work
with.
P2P network is the best choice
to set up a network with less
than 10 computers.
P2P network is easier to manage as
long as there are network cards
installed on the PCs and connection
can be done with a network cable.
To share the resources, each PC
must have the necessary program.
There is no central server or central
router managing a P2P network.
Wireless networking can be an
example of a P2P network as
you only need a wireless card,
connect it to an existing wireless
network and resources can be
shared
Limewire, Bearshare and Kazaa are
all examples of software applications
for peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing.

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THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLIENT/SERVER AND
PEER-TO-PEER
LESSON 78
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Now, imagine replacing the dinner table as your
network, and the chairs are your computers. How
would you like your network to be? How would
you arrange the computers?
In networking terms, the structure you are
planning to connect the computers to, is called
network topology.
Network topology is also
referred to as the configuration
of a network.
It usually refers to the physical
arrangement of the computers
and other networking devices
that are linked together.
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It defines how nodes are connected to one
another in a communication network. A network
topology must show the nodes and the links
between them. The nodes must be an active
device connected to the network, such as a
computer, printer, hub or a router.
To see a network topology clearly, always apply it on a Local Area Network
(LAN). According to the needs, there are three main types of network
topology. They are bus topology, star topology and ring topology.
Bus Topology
Star Topology
Ring Topology

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LESSON 79
BUS TOPOLOGY
In communications technology, you think of a
bus as a common “highway” on which data is
transmitted. A bus refers to the main physical
pathway or central cable where all other
devices are connected to it. Like a major motor
highway, all traffic flow will be affected if this
main “road” is broken.
A bus topology consists of a single central cable to which all computers and
other devices connect. A bus topology is also known as a bus network.
DESCRIPTION OF BUS TOPOLOGY
Bus networks are very common in Local
Area Networks (LAN). A bus network
must have a common backbone (the
central cable) to connect all devices.
All nodes share the backbone to
communicate with each other on the
network. Sometimes, a bus network
has more than one server. Sometimes,
a server is not needed on the network.
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DEPENDENCE OF A BUS TOPOLOGY
If one of the nodes fails, the bus network would still function as long as the
backbone is working. If the backbone fails, the network will fail to function.
ADVANTAGES OF BUS TOPOLOGY
Easy implementation. New devices can be added to the backbone or to
the existing nodes.
Failure of a node doesn't affect the entire LAN.
No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
Network can easily be extended, by adding new devices to the
backbone or existing nodes.

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DISADVANTAGES OF BUS TOPOLOGY
If the backbone fails, the entire bus network will be affected.
Network speed decreases when the number of nodes increases.
Troubleshooting is difficult when one of the nodes fails.
LESSON 80
RING TOPOLOGY
A ring topology consists of all computers and
other devices that are connected in a loop.
Ring topology is also known as a ring network.
A ring network can be found in Local Area
Networks. In a ring network each node
directly connect to two neighbouring nodes.
A server may exist in a ring network, but it will
not connect to all the nodes in the network.
The server, like other nodes,
will only communicate to its two
neighbouring nodes.
DEPENDENCE OF A RING TOPOLOGY
If one of the nodes fails, the network will fail to
function.
ADVANTAGES OF A RING TOPOLOGY
Troubleshooting is easy when one of the nodes fails.
Repair or remove the failing nodes and the network
will continue to function.
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DISADVANTAGES OF A RING TOPOLOGY
Implementation is difficult.
Network administrator has to
terminate the entire network to
install a new node between
existing nodes.
A failing node will affect the
entire LAN.
Connecting or removing devices
is difficult because network administrator needs to terminate the
network in order to do it.
Network speed decreases when the number of nodes increases.
LESSON 81
STAR TOPOLOGY
In the early days of computer
networking, all computers were
connected to a centralised mainframe
computer.
All resources and management of
information were centred in this main
computer.
The idea of a centralised mainframe
computer is where the basic concept of
a star topology comes from.
A star topology consists of a central host which acts as the centre, and all
nodes connect to the host. A star topology is also known as star network.
DESCRIPTION OF STAR TOPOLOGY
A star network is found in a Local Area Network setting.
A star network must have a host which acts as the centre.

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The host can be a server, hub or router.
In a star network, every node will not connect to the neighbouring
nodes.
Every node must connect to the host in order to communicate.
The host will control the flow of communication in the network.
DEPENDENCE OF A STAR TOPOLOGY
If one of the nodes fails, the star network can still
function as long as the host is working.
If the host fails, the network will
fail to function.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STAR
TOPOLOGY
Advantages
It is easy to implement. You only add nodes to
the host.
The failure of a node does not affect the entire
LAN.
There are no disruptions to the network when
connecting or removing devices.
The network can be extended by adding new
devices to the host or nodes.
Troubleshooting is easy when the host fails. Simply repair or replace
the host and the network will continue to function.
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Disadvantages
If the host fails, the entire LAN will be
affected.
Network speed decreases when the number
of nodes increases.
Troubleshooting is difficult when one of the
nodes fails.
A host must be installed to control the
network.
LESSON 82
DIFFERENCES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
UNDERSTANDING DIFFERENT TOPOLOGIES
Understanding differences in network topologies helps us to see what each
topology is able to do.
Each topology has an influence on:
the type of equipment we will use
the potential of the network in accommodating more computers
the way we manage our network
the capabilities of the hardware to manage the flow of information
THE STRUCTURE NETWORK TOPOLOGY
The following table compares the structures of the three main types of the
network topologies:
Bus
Topology
Ring
Topology
Star
Topology
Structure there is a single
central cable
(backbone) and all
computers and other
devices connect to it
all computers and
other devices are
connected in a
circle
there is a central
host and all nodes
connect to it

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Host existence depends on network
needs
depends on
network needs
yes
Connection
between nodes
It has no connection
between the nodes.
yes no
Host failure network can still run network will fail network will fail
Node failure network can still run network will fail network can still
run
Ease of
troubleshooting
Difficult. Need to
search for the
problematic node one
by one
Depends on
backbone. If there
is a backbone,
troubleshooting is
difficult. If there is
no backbone, the
focus is on the
two nodes not
communicating
Depends on the
host. It
is easier to repair
the problematic
host. However, if
the nodes fail,
then each node
has to be searched
Ease of adding
or removing
nodes
easy difficult average
Number of
nodes when
extending
network
many limited limited
LESSON 83
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK STANDARDS
Network architectures are defined by exact and
detailed specifications regarding the physical layout,
cabling and methods used to access and maintain
communications in and between network media.
The Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) is one
international organisation responsible for developing and
providing networking technology specifications for
worldwide usage.
We call these networking technology specifications as
network standards.
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COMMON NETWORK STANDARDS
Network communications use a variety of standards
to ensure that data travels correctly to its
destination. Network standards define guidelines that
specify the way computers access the medium
to which they are attached. The guidelines also
describe the type of medium used, the speeds used
on different types of networks and the type of
physical cable or wireless technology used.
The well-known standards adopted by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) are the 802
standards. These are the standards that define the
requirements for physical cabling and specify the way data is
transmitted.
The ones we will get to know here are:
802.3
802.7
802.8
802.11
802.3 ETHERNET LAN
The 802.3 standard is the standard for an Ethernet
LAN. In 802.3, Ethernet refers to the physical
cabling, while the way data is transmitted through
the cable is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access/
Collision Detection (CSMA/ CD).
This method of transmission requires that only one
device on the network can be transmitted at a time. If another device can
sense that a transmission is already in the cable, it will have to wait. All the
other devices on the network will also sense and wait until the line is clear
before one of them can transmit data along the cable.

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802.7 BROADBAND LAN
802.7 are the standard specifications for a Broadband LAN. This 802.7
standard provides specifications for the design, installation and testing
needed for broadband transmissions. Broadband transmissions allow
simultaneous multiple transmissions or signals using different
communications channels at the same time.
802.8 FIBRE-OPTIC LAN AND MAN
Specifications for a Fibre-Optic LAN and MAN are given
under the 802.8 standard. This standard gives the
recommendations for the configuration and testing of
fibre-optic Local Area Networks and Metropolitan Area
Networks.
802.8 WIRELESS LAN
This standard defines communication between a wireless computer or client
and an access point or between two wireless computers or clients.
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The 802.11 standard uses the 2.4GHz frequency band to transmit data up to
2Mbps.
LESSON 84
PROTOCOLS
PROTOCOLS
Protocols provide the rules on how computers
communicate. They define how devices
intercommunicate in a network environment.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PROTOCOLS
Before protocols were developed, intercommunication
between devices was not possible. Protocols are
important as they define how devices, applications or
computers communicate in a network.
When two computers on a network perform a single
exchange of data or information, they will be busy
looking for the best communication process between
them.
For example, there will be a protocol to specify
the format that the information bits or packets
must contain when travelling across this
connection.
There are also protocols that are responsible for
ensuring that the information bits or data
packets are sent or received in a proper
sequence.
All these protocols work
together as a group to
prepare and process
data for an exchange of
information over a
network. We call such a
group a protocol stack
or a protocol suite.

184
SOME TYPES OF PROTOCOLS
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – This protocol is used to access,
send and receive Hypertext Markup Language files (HTML) files on the
Internet.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) – This protocol is used for
transferring e-mail between computers.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – FTP is
responsible for allowing files to be copied
between devices.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – This protocol ensures the
delivery of information packets across network.
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Internet Protocol (IP) – This important protocol is responsible for
providing logical addressing called IP address to route information between
networks.
LESSON 85
INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
For communications across the Internet, we need to have protocols to
demonstrate how data should be packaged and sent. TCP/IP is the
communication protocol suite on the internet. It has a number of protocols
controlling and handling data communication on the internet.
TCP/IP stands for Transmission
Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol.
TRANSMISSION
CONTROL PROTOCOL /
INTERNET PROTOCOL
TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet Protocol) is the
internet communication protocol. It

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is a standard that sets the rules computers must follow in communicating
with each other on a network. Some refer TCP/IP as the Internet Protocol
Suite.
When you use any applications or programs to access the Internet, these
application will use TCP/IP to achieve the task. For example, when you want
to surf a network, you will use the internet browser. Your browser then uses
TCP/IP to request services from Internet servers. These servers will use
TCP/IP to send the web pages you requested back to your browser.
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is the protocol that sets the
communication rules between computers. Here, TCP establishes connection
between two computers, protects against data loss and data corruption.
TCP is responsible for breaking the data into packets before they are sent.
TCP then assembles the packets when they reach a destination.
INTERNET PROTOCOL
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IP (Internet Protocol) is the protocol that transfers data from node to node.
Here, IP takes care of delivering data packets between two computers. IP is
responsible for sending the packets from sender to receiver.
LESSON 86
THE WAY TCP AND IP WORK
Each computer must have an IP address
assigned by the network administrator to
access the internet. Let say yours is
192.168.0.1.
When you access a web page, for
example the Yahoo main page, the
TCP/IP will make the communication
work between your computer and the
Yahoo server.
First, you type the URL address
“www.yahoo.com”on the browser. The
TCP will send a request for the web page
on Yahoo server according to the address
you typed in.
TCP will establish a connection between
two computers which is yours and Yahoo
server and it will prepare the full-duplex
communication.

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A full-duplex system allows communication in both directions, and unlike half-duplex, allows
this to happen simultaneously. Land-line telephone networks are full-duplex since they
allow both callers to speak and be heard at the same time. A good analogy for a full-duplex
system would be a two lane road with one lane for each direction
The IP will begin sending the data
request from 192.168.0.1 to
‘www.yahoo.com’ or 209.131.36.158.
The Internet is a huge collection of
networks. There are many routes from
your computer to the server. IP will
send the data packets through these
routes as fast as possible. It will
constantly use several different routes
to deliver the packets to the
destination.
Meanwhile, TCP will continue to
maintain the link between the two
computers. TCP will close the
communication link once the web page
has reached your computer.
LESSON 87
PRIVATE COMPUTER NETWORK SETTING
Similar to mobile phones, computers connected to a network have:
A phone number (an IP address on a
network).
Service provider identification, for
example Maxis 012, Digi 016 and
Celcom 019 (a subnet mask on a
network).
Antennas (a network gateway on a
network).
A phone book function to help user put
names to telephone numbers (a DNS
server on a network).
STEPS TO SETTING UP PRIVATE NETWORK
When you want to set up a private network for the school, you will need to
install the network card, IP address, Subnet mask and Default gateway.
1. Right click on the My Network Places icon on
the desktop and click the properties command.
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2. In the Network Connections window, right click
on the network interface and click the
properties command.
3. In the network interface’s Properties dialog
box, click the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) entry
and then click the Properties button.
In the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties dialog
box, select the Use the following IP address option.
4. Type in the IP address in the IP address text
box, for example 172.28.11.100.
5. Type in the Subnet mask in the subnet mask
text box with 255.255.255.0

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6. Enter a default gateway with your server’s IP address. Let’s say your
server IP address is 171.28.11.1.
7. Make sure Obtain DNS server address
automatically is chosen.
8. Click OK in the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Properties dialog box.
9. Click OK in the external interface’s Properties
dialog box.
LESSON 88
TYPES OF NETWORK COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
The Internet has become one of the
necessary things in our daily lives. A lot can
be done via the Internet.
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We use the Internet to communicate with each other, deal with money
transaction, surfing for entertainment and education.
For example, we can pay our utility bills using the
e-banking services as shown in the video.
The Internet is one of the types of network
communications technology besides intranet and
extranet.
INTERNET
The Internet, or the Net, is the worldwide, publicly
accessible system of interconnected computer
networks that transmit data by packet switching
using the standard Internet Protocol (IP).
It consists of millions of smaller business,
academic, domestic and government networks,
which together carry various information and
services, such as electronic mail, online chat, and
the interlinked Web pages and other documents of
the World Wide Web.

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Internet is one of the uses of
communication. Through the
Internet, society has access to
global information and instant
communication.
INTRANET
An Intranet (intra means within) is an internal network that uses Internet
technologies and it is a small version of the Internet that exists within an
organisation.
An intranet is a private computer network that uses
Internet protocols, network connectivity and
possibly the public telecommunication system to
securely share part of an organisation’s information
or operation with its employees.
Intranet generally makes company information accessible to employees and
facilitates working in groups.
Simple intranet applications include electronic publishing of organisational
materials such as telephone directories, event calendars and job postings.
EXTRANET
An extranet is a private network that
uses Internet protocols, network
connectivity, and possibly the public
telecommunication system to securely
share part of a business’s information
or operations with suppliers, vendors,
partners, customers or other
businesses.
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Package shipping companies, for example, allow customers to access their
network to print air bills, schedule pickups, and even track shipped packages
as the packages travel to their destinations.
LESSON 89
INTERNET
The Internet was created in the 1960s by people with great vision. They saw
the great potential value in allowing computers to
share information on research and development in
scientific and military fields.
Nowadays, when Internet is mentioned, it means
convenience, speed and economical. Many tasks can
be accomplished without having to travel far, spend
too much money or even wait for responses.
INTERNET
The Internet is the world’s
largest computer network
which connects millions of
computers all over the world.
Many organisations including
private as well as government
agencies, educational
institutions and individuals are
connected to the Internet.
Some of the many usages of the Internet are:
Information; research & exchange
Commerce
real time communication
banking
shopping
entertainment
education
gaming
Internet transmits data by using Internet Protocol (IP).

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Some of the many usages of the
Internet are:
Information; research &
exchange
Commerce
real time communication
banking
shopping
entertainment
education
gaming
Internet transmits data by using Internet Protocol (IP).
INTERNET ACCESS
To access the Internet, users need to
subscribe services to an Internet Service
Provider (ISP). An ISP can either be a
telecommunication company or any
other organisation specialising in
providing access to Internet services.
Our Ministry of Energy, Water and Communications has licensed 6
telecommunication companies to provide telephony services in Malaysia.
Currently, only four of them are providing Internet services, they are Jaring
by MIMOS, TMnet by Telekom Malaysia Berhad, Maxisnet by Maxis
Communications Bhd and Time.net by Time dotcom Berhad.
Internet connection is divided into two categories; dial-up or broadband.
For dial-up connections, a phone line and modem are needed to access the
Internet while broadband connections use cable modem or router.
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INTERNET SERVICES
Internet users can access services like:
Web browsing
Email
File transfer
Newsgroup & Message boards
Mailing lists
Chat rooms
Instant messaging.
LESSON 90
INTRANET
INTRANET
With new technologies many of our tasks can
be performed with a click of a few buttons.
Company operations are now not just limited
within very tall buildings or between two
buildings located within the city. They are also
available between cities, states and even
countries.
The intranet technology allows sharing of valuable information and lets
business activities carry on even without a key personnel present at the
business premises.
USES OF INTRANET
An Intranet is an internal network that uses
Internet technologies. It is a small version of
the Internet that exists within an organisation.
Intranet generally makes company information
accessible to employees and facilitates working
in groups.

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To access intranet, employees need to be online. To let the
employees access the intranet fro everywhere around the world,
every employee will be given the intranet address, user name and
password.
Intranet usually includes electronic publishing
of materials related to an organisation such
as:
Telephone directories
Event calendars
Employee handbook
Job posting
Email services
News bulletin
Company forms
Staff information
Intranets too are used to conduct more
sophisticated tasks such as:
Groupware applications in project
management.
Remote discussion rooms (chat rooms)
Group scheduling
Video conferencing
COMPARISON BETWEEN INTRANET AND INTERNET
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LESSON 91
EXTRANET
In the late 1990’s and early 2000,
several industries started to use the
term “extranet”.
It describes central repositories of
shared data made accessible via the
web only to authorised members of
particular work groups.
Currently extranet’s usages has
expanded to even allowing customers
and affiliates to access the web site of
a company.
WHAT IS EXTRANET
An extranet is a private network that
uses Internet technology and public
telecommunications system to
securely share relevant information
with authorised parties.
Only registered or authorised users
can navigate or access the extranet.
USES OF EXTRANET
Extranet can be used to:
Share product catalogues with
wholesalers.
Jointly develop programs with
other companies.
Provide access services given by
one company to a group of
other companies.
Share news of common interest
exclusively with partner
companies.

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INTERNET AND EXTRANET
LESSON 92
COMMUNICATION DEVICES : HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
Communication devices are hardware
components that enable a computer to send
or receive data, instructions and
information to and from one or more
computers.
Examples of communication devices are:
Network Interface Card (NIC)
Wireless Network Interface Card
(WNIC)
internal and external modem
hub or switch
router
wireless access point
NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
A network card, sometimes pronounced as NICK, is an adapter card or PC
card that enables the computer to access the network.
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WIRELESS NETWORK
INTERFACE CARD
Wireless Network Interface Card is a network card
that provides wireless data transmission.
NETWORK COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
There are two types of modem, internal modem and external modem. An
internal modem only works in stand-alone computers. It is built into the
computer.
An external modem is separated from the computer and is also mobile.
HUB/SWITCH
Hub or switch is a common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs
are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN.

200
ROUTER
A router is a communications device that connects multiple computers or
other routers together and transmits data to the correct destination.
WIRELESS ACCESS POINT
A wireless access point is a central communications device that allow
computers to transfer data. This device can help information to be
transferred wirelessly to other wireless devices or to a wired network.
Wireless access point has high quality antennas for optimal signals.
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LESSON 93
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION DEVICES
A Network Interface Card is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow
computers to communicate over a computer network. The card implements
the electronic circuitry required to communicate using a specific physical
layer and data link layer standard such as ethernet or token ring.

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WIRELESS NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
A Wireless Network Interface Card or WNIC is a
network card which connects to a radio-based
computer network.
WNIC is an essential
component for wireless
desktop computer. This card
uses an antenna to
communicate through
microwaves.
WNICs are designed around the IEEE 802.11 standard
which sets out low-level specifications on how all
wireless networks operate and can operate in two
modes known as infrastructure mode and ad hoc mode.
INFRASTRUCTURE MODE
In an infrastructure mode network the WNIC
needs an access point: all data is transferred
using the access point as the central hub. All
wireless nodes in an infrastructure mode
network connect to an access point. All nodes
connecting to the access point must have the
same service set identifier as the access point.
AD HOC MODE
In an ad hoc mode network the WNIC does not
require an access point, but can directly
interface with all other wireless nodes directly.
All the peer nodes in an ad hoc network must
have the same channel and service set
identifier.
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MODEM
A modem is a device that enables a
computer to transmit data over
telephone or cable lines.
Computer information is stored digitally,
whereas information transmitted over
telephone lines is transmitted in the form
of analog waves. A modem converts
between these two forms.
HUB / SWITCH
Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains
multiple ports.
When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to
the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can
see all the packets.
A hub connects all the devices on its ports
together. A switch understands when two
devices want to talk to each other, and
gives them a switched connection.
ROUTER
A router is a computer
networking device that
forwards data packets
across a network toward
their destinations,
through a process
known as routing.
A router acts as a junction between two or more networks to transfer data
packets among them. In order to route packets, a router communicates with
other routers using routing protocols.

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WIRELESS ACCESS POINT
A wireless access point is a device that connects wireless communication
devices together to form a wireless network.
Wireless access point (or Wireless AP) usually connects to a wired network
and can relay data between wireless devices and wired devices.
Several Wireless APs can link together to form a larger network that allows
"roaming". Wireless access points have IP addresses for configuration.
LESSON 94
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
In communications, transmission is the sending of electrical messages in the
form of wave or energy. Transmission medium means any material
substance which can propagate waves or energy.
Computers and other telecommunication devices use signals in a form of
wave or energy to represent data which are sent through a transmission
media.
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TYPES OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Transmission media can be divided into two broad categories. The physical
transmission media, or guided medium and the wireless transmission media.
The twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable and fibre
optic cable are examples of physical transmission
media.
Wireless transmission medium or unguided
medium is through air.
PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
In physical transmission medium,
waves are guided along a solid
transmission medium. Wireless
transmission medium waves are
unguided and the transmission
and reception are by means of
antennas.
In our daily activities we probably use both media consciously or
unconsciously.
For example, we use physical transmission medium when we:
connect a PC to a printer using parallel port or USB port
connect a PC to the same phone line for Internet communication
such as TMNET Streamyx.
PCs are connected using twisted-pair cables to wall sockets in the
office

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We use wireless transmission medium when we:
listen to the radio
talk over the telephone
use hotspots that have wireless Internet access with WiFi technology
at restaurants and airports.
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Wireless data transmission means data communication between network
devices without using cables or cords, but by using radio frequency or
infrared waves.Wireless data transmission is categorised into short, medium
and long range data transmission.
An example for short range is Bluetooth or Infrared. Medium range data
transmission is WiFi or wireless LAN and for long range it is 3G.
3G is a so-called "third-generation” broadband packet-based transmission of
text, digitised voice, video, and multimedia at data rates up to and possibly
higher than 2 megabits per second (Mbps), offering a consistent set of
services to mobile computer and phone users no matter where they are
located in the world. 3G works over wireless air interfaces.
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TRANSMISSION ENVIRONMENT
In our daily activities, such as talking over the phone, sending short
messages, sending email or uploading files to remote users, will likely
involve a combination of transmission mediums along the way.
The sender and the receiver will also involve many communication devices
especially switches and routers. These devices are interconnected by
transmission mediums that can be from any of the physical or wireless
transmission mediums stated earlier.
In network communications, it is common to represent the interconnection
between devices as network clouds.
LESSON 95
PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Physical transmission media refers to material substances that can
propagate waves or energy. It is used to guide electrical messages from
one end to the other.
Ethernet and token ring LANs
often use physical
transmission media.

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CABLES AS A PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
Cables are used as a physical transmission medium. There are three types of
cables used in transmitting electrical messages. They are:
Twisted-Pair Cable - Two insulated copper
wires that are twisted around each other.
Each connection on twisted-pair requires
both wires.
Coaxial Cable - A cable consisting of a
conducting outer metal tube that encloses
and is insulated from a central conducting
core, used primarily for the transmission of
high-frequency signals.
Fibre Optic Cable - Glass fibre used for
laser transmission of video, audio and/or
data.
TWISTED-PAIR CABLE
The twisted-pair cable is generally a common
form of transmission medium. It consists of
two wires or conductors twisted together, each
with its own plastic insulation. The twisted
wires cancel out electromagnetic interference
that can cause crosstalk , the noise generated
by adjacent pairs.
The most common connector used for twisted-pair cable is RJ-45.
Electromagnetic
A wave produced by the interaction of time-varying electric and
magnetic fields.
Crosstalk
Undesired coupling of a signal from one circuit, part of a circuit, or channel,
to another.
RJ-45
Registered Jack-45 (RJ-45) is an eight-wire connector used commonly to
connect computers onto Local Area Networks (LAN), especially Ethernets.
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TYPES OF TWISTED PAIR CABLE
The Unshielded Twisted-Pair or UTP is the most
common twisted-pair cable used in communications.
It has four pairs of colour-coded twisted-pair cables
that are covered with a plastic outer jacket.
UTP Cable
Cables that consist of pairs of unshielded wire twisted together. It is the
most common kind of copper telephone wiring.
The Shielded Twisted-Pair or STP is another form of
twisted-pair cable.
Its four pairs of colour-coded wires are each
wrapped in metallic foil, and all four are then
collectively wrapped in a layer of metallic braid or
foil. Finally, this layer is wrapped with a plastic outer
jacket.
STP Cable
Twisted-pair cable wires that consist of an outer covering or shield.
COAXIAL CABLE
The coaxial cable, often referred to as ‘coax’, consists
of a single copper wire surrounded by at least three
layers.They are an insulating material, a woven or
braided metal and a plastic outer coating.
This cable is often used as cable television
(CATV) network wiring because it can be
cabled over longer distances in comparison
to the twisted-pair cable.
PART OF COAXIAL CABLE

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The coaxial cable consists of a centre
inner conductor of solid or stranded
wire enclosed in an insulating sheath.
The sheath is enclosed in an outer
conductor of metal foil or a woven
copper braid.
This outer conductor is also enclosed in another insulating sheath, and the
whole cable is protected by a plastic cover. The outer conductor acts as the
second wire in the cable. It also acts as a shield for the inner conductor and
helps reduce outside interference.
CONNECTORS FOR THE COAXIAL CABLE
The connector most commonly used in
connecting a coaxial cable to a device is
the BNC connector. BNC is short for
British Naval Connector or Bayonet-Neill-
Concelman.
There are three popular BNC connectors. They are:
BNC connector: used to connect devices such as the TV set
BNC T connector: used in Ethernet networks
BNC terminator: connected at the end of a cable to prevent the
reflection of signals
FIBRE OPTIC CABLE
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The fibre optic cable is a networking medium that uses light for data
transmission.
The intensity of light is increased and decreased to represent binary one and
zero.
Its core consists of dozens or hundreds of
thin strands of glass or plastic which uses
light to transmit signals.
Each strand, called an optical fibre, is as thin
as a human hair.
Transmission
The act of sending electrical messages (and also radiant energy that passes
through media.)
Binary
The binary system is a way of counting using just the two numbers 0 and 1.
Optical Fibre
A flexible optically transparent fibre, usually made of glass or plastic,
through which light can be transmitted by successive internal reflections.
PARTS OF A FIBRE OPTIC CABLE
Inside a fibre optic cable, each optical fibre is clad
with an insulating glass and a protective coating.
Typically, a fibre optic cable has five parts.
The core is the light transmission element. It is
typically made of glass or plastic.
Cladding surrounds the core.It is also made of
glass or plastic but is less dense than the core.
Buffer surrounds cladding. It is usually made of
plastic and helps shields the core and cladding from
being damaged.
A strengthening material surrounds the buffer to prevent the fibre cable
from being stretched when installers pull it.
Outer jacket surrounds the cable to protect the fibre against abrasion,
solvents and other contaminants.
CONNECTORS OF A FIBRE OPTIC CABLE
The most commonly used fibre optic connectors are SC, ST, FC and MT-RJ
connectors.

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SC
A fibre optic cable connector that uses a push-pull
latching mechanism similar to common audio and
video cables.
ST
A fibre optic cable connector that uses a bayonet
plug and socket.
FC
A fibre optic cable connector that uses a threaded
plug and socket.
MT-RJ
Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack (MT-RJ), a
fibre optics connector popular for small form factor
devices due to its small size.
LESSON 96
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Wireless is a method of communication that uses electromagnetic waves
rather than wire conductors to transmit data between devices.Wireless
networks are telephone or computer networks that use radio frequencies
and infrared waves as their carrier.
The mediums used in wireless communications are air,
vacuum and even water. Air is the most commonly used
medium. Signals are normally
broadcasted through air and are available to anyone who
has a device capable of receiving them.
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WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY
The use of wireless technology as a
method of data transport appears very
similar to a wired technology.
In a wireless media however, signal
transmission is unguided and the device
communicates without using wires
between nodes, usually by relying on
radio frequencies instead.
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
Wireless transmission can be categorised into three broad groups:
Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared
RADIO WAVES
There is no clear difference between radio waves and microwaves.
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are
normally called radio waves. Waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and
300 GHz are normally called microwaves.
It is actually the behaviour of the waves rather than the frequencies that
determines the classification of wireless transmission.

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RADIO WAVES SIGNALS
Radio waves are normally omnidirectional.
When an antenna transmits radio waves,
they are propagated in all directions. This
means that the sending and receiving
antennas do not have to be aligned.
The omnidirectional characteristics of radio
waves make them useful for multicasting, in
which there is one sender but many
receivers.
Our AM and FM radio stations, cordless phones and televisions are examples
of multicasting.
DISADVANTAGES OF USING RADIO WAVES
Radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by
another antenna that is sending signals of the same frequency or band.
MICROWAVES
Electronic waves with frequencies between 1 GHz to 300 GHz are normally
called microwaves.
Unlike radio waves, microwaves are unidirectional, in which the sending and
receiving antennas need to be aligned. Microwaves propagation is
line-of-sight therefore towers with mounted antennas need to be in direct
sight of each other.
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Due to the unidirectional property of microwaves, a pair of antennas can be
placed aligned together without interfering with another pair of antennas
using the same frequency.
Two types of antenna are used for
microwave communications. They are
the parabolic dish antenna and the
horn antenna.
The parabolic dish antenna receives ingoing
transmissions by reflecting the signal to a common
point called the focus.
Outgoing transmissions are broadcasted
through a horn antenna by deflecting
signals outward in a series of narrow
parallel beams.
High-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This
is why receiving antennas cannot be placed inside
buildings.
INFRARED
Infrared is used in devices such as the mouse,
wireless keyboard and printers. Some manufacturers
provide a special port called the IrDA port that
allows a wireless keyboard to communicate with a
PC.
Infrared signals have frequencies between
300 GHz to 400 THz. They are used for
short-range communication.

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INFRARED SIGNALS
Infrared signals have high frequencies and cannot penetrate walls. Due to its
short-range communication system, the use of an infrared communication
system in one room will not be affected by the use of another system in the
next room.
This is why using an infrared TV remote control in our home will not
interfere with the use of our neighbour’s infrared TV remote control.
DISADVANTAGES OF USING INFRARED
Infrared signals cannot be used for long distance communication. In
addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because sun's rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with communication.
LESSON 97
SERVER SOFTWARE
Software such as Windows Server 2003, Windows NT and Red Hat Linux are
some of the examples of server software. All of these software fall under the
Network Operating System.
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DEFINITION OF NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
An operating system is the program that first
loads when a computer boots and manages any
other software or hardware on the computer.
A Network Operating System or known as NOS,
has additional functionality that allows it to
connect computers and peripherals to a network.
A Network Operating System is most frequently
used with Local Area Networks and Wide Area
Networks, but could also have application to
larger network systems.
A NOS is not the same as the
networking tools provided by
some existing operating systems,
Windows XP for instance.
NOS is an operating system that
has been specifically written to
keep networks running at optimal
performance.
EXAMPLES OF NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
Some popular Network Operating
Systems include:
Windows NT
Windows 2000 Server
Windows Server 2003
Red Hat Linux
Windows NT is a family of operating
systems produced by Microsoft, the first
version of which was released in July 2003.
It was the first 23-bit version of Windows.
Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 are
the latest versions of Windows NT.
Windows 2000 (also referred to as Win2K
or W2K) is graphical and business-oriented
operating system. It is part of the Microsoft

218
NT line of operating systems and was released on February 17, 2000.
Windows 2000 comes in four versions which
are Professional, Server, Advanced Server
and Datacenter Server.
Additionally, Microsoft offers Windows 2000
Advanced Server-Limited edition, which was
released in 2001 and runs on 64-bit Intel
Itanium Microprocessor.
Windows Server 2003 is the name of
Microsoft’s line of server operating systems.
It was introduced in April 2003 as the
successor to Windows 2000 Server.
It is considered by Microsoft to be the
cornerstone of their Windows Server System
line of business server products.
Red Hat Linux was one of the most popular
Linux distributions, assembled by Red Hat. It
is one of the “middle-aged” Linux
distributions; 1.0 was released in November
3rd
, 1994.
Since 2003, Red Hat has discontinued the
Red Hat Linux line in favour of its new Red
Hat Enterprise Linux.
Red Hat Linux 9, the final release, ended on April 30th
,
2004, although the Fedora Legacy project continues
to publish updates.
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PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
Peer-to-peer Network Operating Systems allow
users to share resources and files located on their
computers. It is also for users to access shared
resources found on other computers.
However, they do not have a file server or a
centralised management source.
AppleShare and Windows for Workgroups are
examples of programs that can function as peer-to-
peer Network Operating System.
CLIENT/SERVER NETWORKING OPERATING
SYSTEM
Client/server Network Operating Systems allow
the network to centralise functions and
applications in one or more dedicated file
servers. The file servers become the heart of
the system, providing access to resources and
providing security.
Individual workstations or clients
have access to the resources
available on the file servers.
The Network Operating System provides the
mechanism to integrate all the components of
the network and allow multiple users to
simultaneously share the same resources
irrespective of physical location.

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Novell Netware and Windows 2000 Server are
examples of client or server Network Operating
Systems.
LESSON 98
CLIENT SOFTWARE
FUNCTIONS OF WEB BROWSER
A web browser is a software application that
enables a user to display and interact with
HTML documents hosted by web servers or
held in a file system. Text and images on a
web page can contain hyperlinks to other
web pages at the same or to different
websites.
Web browser allow a user to quickly and easily access information provided
on many web pages at many websites by surfing these links.
Web browsers available for personal computer include Microsoft Internet
Explorer, Safari, Netscape and Opera.Web browsers are the most commonly
used type of Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) user agent.
Although browsers are typically used to access the World Wide Web, they
can also be used to access information provided by web servers in private
networks or content in file systems.
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FUNCTIONS OF EMAIL CLIENT
An email client is a computer program that is
used to read and send email.
FUNCTIONS OF FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used to
connect two computers over the Internet
so that the user of one computer can
transfer files and perform file commands
on the other computer.
LESSON 99
SETTING NETWORK FACILITIES
A computer, or any computing devices, needs a
network interface to connect to a network and
communicate with other devices on the network.
A Network Interface Card or NIC is an expansion
card that allows the transmission of data over a
cable network.
Also known as a network adapter card, it is an
electronic circuit card that is inserted inside the
computer.
Installing NIC into computers enables the user to connect with other
computers and share not only data but also other devices such as the server
and printer.
Once it is installed, you can connect the network cable from the computer to
the switch or hub. Then, with some software configuration, your computer is
ready for communication on the network.

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Inserting or installing a Network
Interface card is not difficult. If you
have installed a modem, a sound
card, or a video controller card on
your computer before, you will
probably find it a simple task to
install a Network Interface Card.
CHECKING FOR A NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
Check whether your PC already has a Network
Interface Card by inspecting the back of the PC for
a network socket.
IDENTIFYING THE LOCATION OF THE NETWORK
INTERFACE CARD
If your PC does not have a Network Interface Card,
then you need to insert one. First you have to
disconnect the power from your PC.
You should remember the dangers of static
electricity. Once the main power supply has been
turned off, touch any
metal part on your computer casing before starting
your work.
Second, carefully remove the casing or side panel of
your PC. Select either the ISA (black) or PCI (white)
slot, depending on the Network Interface Card you
are using.
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Third, remove the back blank plate from behind the
slot you have selected for the Network Interface
Card.
INSERTING THE NETWORK INTERFACE CARD
Insert the Network Interface Card into the slot you
have selected by firmly pressing the card down.
Secure the card in place with the screw from the
blanking plate.
Replace the casing or side panel of your PC.
Finally, boot the PC and install the driver.

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LESSON 100
INSTALLING NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)
INSTALLING THE NIC DRIVER FOR WINDOWS 98
AND WINDOWS ME.
Step 1: After inserting the Network Interface Card
into its slot, the “Add New Hardware Wizard” should
now appear. Click “Next” to continue.
Step 2: Select Search for the better driver and click
“Next” to continue.
Step 3: Select “Specify a location” and browse to
the location where your CD-ROM drive is located.
Select “Next” to continue.
Step 4: Windows will locate the correct driver for
your device on the CD supplied by the library.
Windows will also indicate that it is now ready to
install the driver. Select “Next” to continue.
The NIC driver is now properly installed.
Restart the computer to complete the installation.
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INSTALLING THE NIC DRIVER FOR WINDOWS 2000
Windows will indicate that it has found a new
hardware after the NIC has been inserted into its
slot. The “Found New Hardware Wizard” will then
appear. Click “Next” to continue.
Step 1: Select "Search for a suitable driver for my
device (recommended)” and click “Next” to
continue.
Step 2: Select “CD-ROM Drives” and click “Next” to
continue. Windows will now search for a suitable
driver for your device.
your device and indicate that it is now ready to
install the driver. Click “Next” to continue.

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INSTALLING THE NIC DRIVER FOR WINDOWS XP
Windows will indicate that it has found a new
hardware after the NIC has been inserted into its
slot. The “Found New Hardware Wizard” will then
appear. Click “Next” to continue.
Step 1: Select “Search for the best driver for my
device (recommended)” and click “Next” to
continue.
your device and indicate that it is now ready to
install the driver. Click “Next” to continue.
INSTALLING A WIRELESS NETWORK INTERFACE
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CARD DRIVER
Step 1: Place your client adapter in the PCI of your
computer.
Windows will indicate that it has found new
hardware.
The "Found New Hardware Wizard" will then appear.
Click "Next" to continue.

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LESSON 101
CRIMPING STRAIGHT CABLE
STRAIGHT CABLE
A network cable acts as an
extension enabling a device with a
Network Interface Card to be
attached to a network.
A common form of network media
is the UTP CAT 5 known as
Unshielded Twisted-Pair Category
5 cable.
ITEMS FOR MAKING STRAIGHT CABLE
CAT 5 CABLE
CAT 5 cable has four twisted pairs of wire for a
total of eight individually insulated wires.
Each pair is colour coded with one wire having a
solid colour:
Blue
Orange
Green
Brown
Twisted around a second wire with a white background and a stripe of the
same colour.
RJ-45
The straight cable is terminated with CAT 5 RJ-45 (Jack)
modular plug (RJ means Registered Jack).
RJ-45 plug are similar to those you'll see on the end of
your telephone cable except they have eight contacts on
the end of the plug and they are about twice as big.
Make sure they are rated for CAT 5 wiring.
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CRIMP TOOL
Crimp tool - to crimp RJ-45 connectors.
CABLE STRIPPER
Cable stripper – to cut and strip
cables.
CUTTERS
Cutters - to cut the cable off at the reel and to fine
tune the cable ends during assembly.
CABLE CRIMPING PROCESS
The total length of wire segments between a PC
and a hub or between two PCs cannot exceed 100
Meters.
Strip one end of the cable with the stripper or a
cutter.
If you are using the stripper, place the cable in
the groove on the blade (left) side of the
stripper and align the end of the cable with the
right side of the stripper.
Spread and arrange the pairs roughly:
White/Green, Blue
White/Blue, Green
White/Brown, Brown
White/Orange, Orange

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Trim the ends of the wires so they are even with
one another.
It is very important that the unstripped or
untwisted end be slightly less than half-inch long.
If it is longer than half-inch it will be out of its
specifications and will cause crosstalk.
If it is slightly less than half-inch long, it will not be
properly clinched when RJ-45 plug is crimped on.
There should be little or no space between the
wires.
Hold the RJ-45 plug with the clip facing down or
away from you.
Push the wire firmly into the plug.
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Inspect it carefully.
Looking through the bottom of the plug, the wire
on the far left side will have a white background
The wires should all end evenly at the front of the
plug.
Hold the wire near the RJ-45 plug with the clip
down and firmly push it into the front-left of the
crimper.
Hold the wire in place and squeeze the crimper
handles quite firmly.
Crimp it once.
Finally test the crimping result.
Test the crimp strength.
If it is done properly, an average person will not be
able to pull the plug off the cable with his or her
bare hands.
LESSON 102
CRIMPING CROSSOVER CABLE
This cable can be used to
directly connect two computers
to each other without the use of
a hub or switch.

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TOOLS FOR CABLE CRIMPING
What you need are some tools such as a cable, connectors, crimper,
stripper and cutter.
Be sure the cable you are using is properly rated for CAT 5.
Crossover cables are terminated with CAT 5 RJ-45.
STRIPPING CATEGORY 5 CABLE
Start by stripping off about two inches (5cm) of the
plastic jacket off the end of the cable.
CATEGORY 5 CABLE
Category 5 cable must only have half of an inch (1.3
cm) at the end.
CUTTING CATEGORY 5 CABLE
Begin to untwist the twisted exposed wires on your
cable, be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket
with your other hand.
Once you have all the wires untwisted begin to
arrange them in the proper order:
White/Green, Green
White/Orange, Blue
White/Blue, Orange
White/Brown, Brown
Once you get all the wired arranged in the proper
order, make sure your wire cutters are within reach
then grasp at the point where they enter the jacket.
Grab your cutters now. Line them up along your
prepared wires about half an inch or 1.3 cm above
the jacket.
Be sure at this point that you are both half an inch or 1.3 cm above the
jacket, and that your cutters are aligned straight across the wires.
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FITTING RJ-45 PLUG
Take RJ-45 plugs and begin to slide the wires into
the RJ-45 plugs.
You might face some difficulties at this point, but
have some patience and hold onto those wires.
It will fit in there just fine. Once it is in as far as it
will go the wires should extend almost to the front
of the RJ-45 plugs, and about 3/8 of an inch or 2 cm
of the jacket will be inside the RJ-45 plugs.
CRIMPING CATEGORY 5 CABLE
Be sure to keep a good grip on the RJ-45 plug
and the cable.
Insert the RJ-45 plug into the crimper.
It should only go in one way, so you don't
have to worry about inserting it.
Begin to compress those crimpers.
You will hear a clicking sound. Keep
squeezing.
If you try to let go too early, nothing will
happen. They will not release.
Keep compressing until they stop clicking or
stop moving all together.
At this point, you should be able to let go of
the RJ-45 plug and the crimpers.
EXAMINING THE CRIMPED CATEGORY 5 CABLE
If you look at the end of the RJ-45 plug, you
should see that the copper connectors should not
be pressed down into the wires.
Toward the back of the RJ-45 plug it should be
crimped securely holding the jacket or cable in the
RJ-45 plug.

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LESSON 103
CONFIGURATION OF NETWORK
Step 1
The first step is to open the Control Panel window.
Step 2
Select Network and Internet Connections.
Step 3
Click on the Network Connections icon.
Step 4
Inside the Network Connections window, right
click on Local Area Connection icon.
Then click on Properties in the drop down menu.
Step 5 (A)
Make sure the TCP/IP is one of the items in the
list of connection items.
If TCP/IP is available, proceed to Step 6
If TCP/IP is not available, click on the Install
button.
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Step 5 (B)
In the next dialog box, Select Protocol and click
Add… button.
Once inside the Protocol dialog box, install the
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Then, proceed to step 6.
Step 6
In the next dialogue box, click on Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) icon.
Then click on the properties button.
Step 7
After the properties button is clicked, the Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) Properties window will appear.
You will see details like IP address, Subnet mask
and Default gateway.
Subnet mask specifies the size of the network.
Here, we usually use 255.255.255.0 for small
networks.
Gateways are used to connect to other networks
and the Internet.

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Step 8
Select Use the following IP address .
Fill in the network information given by your
teacher for the following.
IP address
Subnet Mask
Default Gateway (optional)
Preferred DNS Server (optional)
Click the OK button when done.
Finally, close all windows. You must restart your
computer before the setting take effect.
LESSON 104
TESTING OF NETWORK
Once you have installed the network card, cables and software, you can test
the new TCP/IP protocol. Ping is the best utility for a TCP/IP connection test.
TESTING OF NETWORK
To use ping, open the Command Prompt window.
Enter the name or IP address you want to test
after the ping command.
The ping utility then sends and receives packets
of information.
If you successfully sent and received packets, all
is well with the TCP/IP connection.
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If ping displays error messages such as:
• request timed out
• unknown host
• could not send, receive packets over the
network
You should verify that the IP is valid.
If the problem still persists, you have to check your network adapter or
protocol.
LESSON 105
SHARED FOLDER
In Windows, Macintosh and other operating systems, a
folder is a named collection of a related files that can be
retrieved as on entity.
Folders can contain many different types of file, such as
documents, music, pictures, videos and programs.
These files can be copied or moved to other folders,
computers and even to the Internet.
You can also create folders within folders.
You can share the files and folders stored on
your computer, and on your network.

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LESSON 106
WIRELESS AND MOBILE
Wireless and mobile technology allows you to
access the Internet from wherever you are. You no
longer have to be at home or in the office to check
your email or browse the net.
With wireless technology, you can get connected
with anyone from anywhere.
WIRELESS AND MOBILE COMMUNICATION
Wireless is a term used to describe
telecommunications that use electromagnetic
waves rather than some form of wire to carry
signal over part or the entire communication path.
It refers to communication without cables or cords,
but which chiefly uses radio frequency and infrared
waves. This method of communication relies on
low-powered radio waves to transmit data between
devices.
Wireless and mobile communications rely on IrDA
and the wireless networking of computers.
Wireless
Wireless is a term used to describe telecommunications that use
electromagnetic waves rather than some form of wire to carry signal over
part or the entire communication path.
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Telecommunication
The science of information transport using wire, radio, optical, or
electromagnetic channels to transmit and receive signals for voice or data
communications.
Electromagnetic Waves
A wave produced by the interaction of time-varying electric and magnetic
fields.
Radio Frequency
Frequency of electromagnetic waves used for radio and television
broadcasting.
Infrared Wave
Electromagnetic waves in the frequency range just below visible light
corresponding to radiated heat. IR waves are often used for remote controls.
IrDA
Infrared Data Association (IrDA) is an organisation that defines the infrared
communications protocol. A protocol used by many laptops and mobile
cellular phones to exchange data at short ranges.
WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY
Wireless technology is rapidly evolving, and is playing an increasingly
important role in the lives of people throughout the world. An ever-larger
number of people are relying on this technology both directly and indirectly.
Specialised and exotic examples of wireless communications and control
include:
Global System for Mobile Communication
General Packet Radio Service
Enhanced Data GSM Environment
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
Wireless Application Protocol
i-Mode
GSM
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a globally accepted
standard for digital cellular communications system
i-Mode
The Packet-based service for mobile phones offered by Japan's leader in
wireless technology, NTT DoCoMo

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GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION
(GSM)
Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) is
a digital mobile telephone system used in Europe
and other parts of the world. It is the de facto
(widely recognised) wireless telephone standard in
Europe.
de facto
A specification that hasn't been officially established by an accrediting
agency but that is accepted and used as a standard by a majority of
practitioners.
GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE (GPRS)
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet-
based wireless communication service that
provides continuous connection to the Internet for
mobile phone and computer users.
GPRS
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a standard for wireless
communications which runs at speeds up to 115 kilobits per second.
Packet
The unit of data that is routed between an origin and a destination on the
Internet or any other packet-switched network.
ENHANCED DATA GSM ENVIRONMENT (EDGE)
Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE) is a
faster version of the Global System for Mobile
(GSM) wireless service.
EDGE
Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution(EDGE) is a faster version to the
Global System for Mobile (GSM) wireless service designed to deliver data
at rates up to 384 Kbps.
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UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATIONS
SYSTEM (UMTS)
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS) is a broadband, packet-based system.
It offers a consistent set of services to mobile
computer and phone users no matter where they
are located in the world.
UMTS
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a third-generation
(3G) broadband, packet-based transmission of text, digitised voice, video
and multimedia at data rates up to 2 megabits per second (Mbps) and offers
global roaming.
Broadband
Transmission over a network in which more than one signal is carried at a
time. Broadband technology can transmit data, audio and video all at once
over long distances.
WIRELESS APPLICATION PROTOCOL (WAP)
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a set of
communication protocols to
standardise the way that wireless devices, such as
cellular telephones and radio transceivers can be
used for Internet access.
Internet
An international network first used to connect education and research
networks, begun by the US government. The Internet now provides
communication and application services to international-based businesses,
consumers, educational institutions, governments, and research
organisations.
Transceiver
A device that performs both transmitting and receiving functions.
WAP
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a specification for a set of
communication protocols to standardise the way wireless devices, such as
cellular telephones and radio transceivers, can be used for Internet access.

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i-MODE
i-Mode, the world's first "smart phone service" was
first introduced in Japan.
It not only provides colour and video over
telephone sets but can also be used for Web
browsing.
Smart Phone
A cellular telephone that provides digital voice service as well as any
combination of e-mail, text messaging, pager, Web access, voice recognition
as well as picture taking (camera phone).
TYPES OF WIRELESS
Wireless can be divided into four categories. They are:
fixed wireless
mobile wireless
portable wireless
IR wireless
FIXED WIRELESS
Fixed wireless is the operation of wireless devices
or systems in homes and offices. Devices of fixed
wireless are connected to the Internet via
specialised modems.
MOBILE WIRELESS
Mobile wireless is the use of wireless devices or
systems aboard motorised, moving vehicles.
Examples of mobile wireless are the automotive
cell phone.
PORTABLE WIRELESS
Portable wireless is the operation of autonomous,
battery-powered wireless devices or systems
outside the office, home or vehicle. An examples
of portable wireless are cell phones.
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IR WIRELESS
IR wireless is the use of devices that convey data
via IR (infrared) radiation and is employed in
certain limited-range communications and control
systems.
LESSON 107
MOBILE COMPUTING
Mobile computing is a generic term used
to describe the ability to use technology
to wirelessly connect to and use centrally
located information and/or application
software via small portable and wireless
computing and communication devices.
Nomadic computing is another name for
mobile computing. Here, users can
access the Internet and retrieve data
from anywhere in the world, using
portable computing devices (such as
laptop and handheld computers) in
conjunction with mobile communication technologies.
People using such a system are sometimes referred to as technomads, and
their ability to use that system is referred to as nomadicity.
Nomadic Computing
A computing environment which offers its user access to data or information
from any device and network while he or she is in on the move.
Nomadicity
The tendency of a person, or group of people, to move with relative
frequency.
DEFINING MOBILE COMPUTING
Mobile computing is about the new strategies of
computing that utilise portable or mobile devices
and wireless communication networks. There
are various types of mobile computing devices.
They include the notebook computer, tablet PC,
handheld computer, PDA and smartphone.

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Tablet PC
A wireless personal computer (PC) that allows a user to
take notes in his/her natural handwriting using a stylus or
digital pen on a touch screen.
PDA
Handheld computer device used to organise personal
information such as contacts and schedules. Data can
usually be transferred to a desktop computer by cable or
wirelesstransmission.
Smartphone
A cellular telephone that provides digital voice service as
well as any combination of e-mail, text messaging, pager,
Web access, voice recognition as well as picture taking
(camera phone).
Wireless communication technologies commonly used for mobile computing
include the wireless LAN technology, WWAN technology, Bluetooth and IrDA
interfaces.
Mobile computing can be :
Wireless and mobile access to the Internet.
Wireless and mobile access to private intranets.
Wireless and ad hoc mobile access between mobile
computers.
LAN
A group of personal computers and/or other devices, such as printers or
servers, that are located in a relatively limited area, such as an office, and
can communicate and share information with each other.
WWAN
Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN) is a form of wireless network that uses
cellular network technologies such as GPRS,CDMA2000, GSM, CDPD and
Mobitex to transfer data.
Bluetooth
A wireless networking technology using radio waves that enables users to
send data and voice signals between electronic devices over short distances.
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TYPES OF MOBILE COMPUTING DEVICES
NOTEBOOK COMPUTER
A notebook computer or notebook is a small mobile
personal computer, usually weighing from one to
three kilograms. Using the technology from
Symbionics Networks Ltd., a wireless LAN adapter
can be made to fit on a PCMCIA card in a laptop or
notebook computer to provide mobile computing.
PCMCIA stands for Personal Computer Memory Card
Industry Association.
PCMCIA
Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association (PMCIA) is an industry group organised
in 1989 to promote standards for a credit card-size
memory or I/O device that would fit into a personal
computer, usually a notebook or a laptop
computer.
TABLET PC
A tablet PC is a notebook or slate-
shaped mobile computer.
Its digitising tablet technology
allows the user to operate the
computer using a stylus or digital
pen and a touch screen instead of
the usual keyboard and mouse.
Most Tablet PCs offer built-in support for wireless networks.
Stylus
A writing device similar to a modern ballpoint pen to write text or draw
lines on a surface as input to a computer or point to menus.
Touch Screen
Display overlays which are typically either pressure-sensitive (resistive),
electrically-sensitive (capacitive), acoustically-sensitive (SAW - surface
acoustic wave) or photo-sensitive (infra-red). The user selects, moves and
draws by pointing to, and touching, the relevant part of the screen.
PDA
Personal digital assistants or PDAs are handheld devices
that were originally designed as personal organisers but
became much more versatile over the years.

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Many PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via Wi-Fi or
Wireless Wide-Area Networks or WWANs.
SMART PHONE
A smart phone is an electronic handheld device
that integrates the functionality of a mobile phone
and a personal digital assistant or PDA or
other information appliance.
This is often achieved by adding telephone
functions to an existing PDA or PDA Phone or
putting “smart” capabilities such as PDA functions
into a mobile phone.
TECHNOLOGIES FOR MOBILE COMPUTING
WIRELESS LAN
A wireless LAN is a technology that allow
notebook users to connect to a Local Area
Network (LAN) through a wireless (radio)
connection.
The IEEE 802.11 group of standards specifies
technologies to be used for wireless LANs.
WWAN
WWAN, which stands for Wireless Wide Area
Network, is a form of wireless network.
Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN) is a
form of wireless network that uses cellular
network technologies such as GPRS,
CDMA2000, GSM, CDPD and Mobitex to
transfer data.
BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth, also known as IEEE 802.15.1, is
a telecommunication industry specification
for wireless Personal Area Networks or
PANs. Bluetooth devices operate on a radio
communication system.
For two Bluetooth devices to communicate,
they do not have to be in line-of-sight. In
fact, they can even be in separate rooms,
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as long as the received power is high enough.
Bluetooth transmits and receives data in a frequency band of 2.45 GHz.
THE INFRARED DATA ASSOCIATION
The Infrared Data Association or IrDA
defines physical specifications of
communication protocol standards for short
range exchange of data over infrared light.
This is used in Personal Area Networks
(PANs).
Among existing uses of IrDA and possible
uses are:
sending a document from a notebook
computer to a printer
exchanging business cards between handheld PCs
coordinating schedules and telephone books between a desktop and
network computers.
PAN
Personal Area Network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication
among computer devices (including telephones and personal digital
assistants) close to one person.
COMMON SERVICES FOR MOBILE COMPUTING
To cater to the needs of mobile computing, Wireless
Service Providers would seek to provide wireless access
points for as many wireless network devices as possible
in specified service zones.
Services include:
Services include:
email capabilities
A variety of software applications for secured communications.
Print stations
Tracking and navigation systems
Instant mobile messaging
Mobile secutity services
Mobile data, voive and video systems.
Access to satellitte radio and TV.
Remote home premise video monitor.

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LESSON 108
INTERNET TECHNOLOGY
The Internet works wonders to those who are in touch with the technology.
Communication is made easy, economical and fast with the development in
the Internet technology.
Now, we do not have to suffer high telephone bills because of our oversea
calls. The Internet allow us to make voice calls for free, like those services
provided by Skype and Yahoo Messenger.
DEFINITION OF INTERNET TECHNOLOGY
Internet Technology is a broad range of technologies for web development,
web production, design, networking, telecommunication and e-commerce.
VOICE OVER INTERNET PROTOCOL (VoIP)
Protocols used to carry voice signals over the IP
network are commonly referred to as Voice over
IP or VoIP. VoIP is one of the Internet
technologies that allows a user to make telephone
calls using a broadband Internet connection
instead of a regular (or analog) phone line.
VoIP is a method for taking analog audio signals
and turning them into digital data that can be
transmitted over the Internet.
VoIP SERVICES
There are three different VoIP services in common use today. They are
Analog Telephone Adapter (ATA), IP Phones and computer-to-computer.
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ANALOG TELEPHONE ADAPTER (ATA)
The simplest and most common way is
through the use of a device called an
Analog Telephone Adapter (ATA). The ATA
allows you to connect a standard phone to
your computer or your Internet connection
for use with VoIP.
The ATA is an analog-to-digital converter. It
takes the analog signal from your traditional
phone and converts it into digital data for
transmission over the Internet.
Skype, one VoIP provider, offers free calling locally and between members,
and inexpensive long-distance calls to other numbers.
IP PHONES
IP Phones look just like normal phones with
a handset, a cradle and buttons. IP Phones
have an RJ-45 Ethernet connector instead
of the standard RJ-11 phone connectors.
IP Phones connect directly to your router
and have all the necessary hardware and
software onboard to handle the IP Call.
Soon, WiFi IP phones will be available,
allowing subscribing callers to make VoIP
calls from any WiFi hot spot.
COMPUTER-TO-COMPUTER
Computer-to-computer is certainly the
easiest way to use VoIP. Devices needed to
place a computer-to-computer Internet
telephone call:

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Software, a microphone, speakers or headphones, a sound card and an
Internet connection preferably a fast one like you would get through a cable
or DSL modem.
Except for your normal monthly ISP fee, there is usually no charge for
computer-to-computer calls, no matter what the distance.
ADVANTAGES OF VoIP
As VoIP is digital, it may offer features and
services that are not available with a traditional
phone. If you have a broadband Internet
connection, you need not maintain and pay the
additional cost for a line just to make telephone
calls.
With many VoIP plans you can talk for as long
as you want with any person in the world. You
can also talk with many people at the same time
without any additional cost.
DISADVANTAGES OF VoIP
Some VoIP services do not work during
power failures and the service provider
may not offer backup power.
Not all VoIP services connect directly to
emergency services. VoIP providers may
or may not offer directory assistance or
white page listings.
As VoIP uses an Internet connection, it is
susceptible to all the problems normally
associated with home broadband
services.
Phone conversations can become distorted, garbled or lost because of
transmission errors. Some kind of stability in Internet data transfer needs to
be guaranteed before VoIP could truly replace traditional phones.
VoIP is susceptible to worms, viruses and hacking, although this is very rare
and VoIP developers are working on VoIP encryption to counter this.
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LESSON 109
INTERNET SERVICES
BLOGGING
A blog (web log or weblog) is one of the popular
activities on the Internet. Most of these blogs are
publicly shared and the authors frequently update
the content on a regular basis.
A blog is usually referred to the text produced by the
author about his or her thoughts, experiences or
interests.
A blog is usually referred to the text produced by the
author about his or her thoughts, experiences or
interests.
The world of blogging is referred as blogosphere.
Another new term is the blogonomics, which refers to
people using the blogosphere to generate money.
The posts to a blog are usually arranged in this order, the most recent
entries will always be on top of the journal.
To write a good blog, you need to remember these principles:
use a consistent writing style and appropriate tone for your subject
post often, though your posts are short
allow your readers to eave you comments on your posts
If you would like to search some blogs, you can visit blogarama.com
(www.blogarama.com), which categorises blogs into directories. Following
are several top blogging resources you should check out:
Blogger (www.blogger.com) - owned by Google, one of the free and
easiest to maintain blogging tool.
TypePad (www.typepad.com) - the blog tool that provides more
functionality for a minimal fee.
Movable Type (www.movabletype.org) - if you have your own
domain site and want to put several blogs together, this is the best
choice
Wordpress (wordpress.org) - an open source blogging tool that
needs a bit of coding to make your blogs more interesting
WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)
The World Wide Web or the Web consists of a
worldwide collection of electronic documents.
Each electronic document on the Web is called a web
page which can contain text, graphics, audio and
video.

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These pages are written in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
Every website has an address or Uniform Resource Locator (URL). The URL
is formed by the protocol, domain, directory and the document name.
EMAIL
An electronic mail or email is the transmission of
messages and files via a computer network.
A user utilises an email program to create, send,
receive, forward, store, print and delete email
messages.
Some emails are called web-based email like
Yahoo Mail and Hotmail.
THE INTERNET RELAY CHAT (IRC)
The Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a system for
chatting that involves a set of rules and
conventions, and client/server software.
A chat is a real-time typed conversation that
takes place on a computer. A chat room is a
location on an Internet server that permits users
to chat with each other.
Anyone in the chat room can participate in the
conversation, which usually is specific to a
particular topic.
SEARCH ENGINES
Search engines are special websites on the Internet to help you find
information you need. Different search engines will serve different purposes,
for example:
Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com/) is for searching
authoritative and scholarly sites.
Google (http://www.google.com/) is for searching valuable or relevant
sites with rankings.
Yahoo News (http://dailynews.yahoo.com) is for searching opinions on
current issues.
Wikipedia (http://www.wikipedia.org/) it is an open source for
encyclopedia
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LESSON 110
ADVANCED NETWORKING
PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)
A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a computer network used for
communication among computer devices including PCs, laptops, printers,
telephones, digital cameras, mobile phones, video game consoles and
personal digital assistants, close to one person.
Personal Area Networks may be wired with USB port, Firewire port, Infrared
(IrDA) and Bluetooth technologies. Bluetooth is the popular wireless PAN
used by most people, especially the mobile phone technologies, and it
applies the IEEE 802.15.1 standards.
VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK (VPN)

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A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a network that uses a public telecommunication
infrastructure, such as the Internet, to remote offices or individuals with secure access to
their organisation's private network.
VPN uses tunnelling mechanism to maintain privacy and security of the
data. Tunnelling means transmitting data packets across a public network. VPN is often used
by companies to provide access from their internal
network resources to their home or mobile workers.
WIRELESS LAN (WLAN)
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a type of LAN that uses high-frequency radio waves
to communicate between nodes. WLAN improves user mobility, speed and scalability to
move around within a broad coverage area and still be connected to the network.
The IEEE standard for Wireless LANs is 802.11
WORLDWIDE INTEROPERABILITY FOR MICROWAVE
ACCESS (WiMAX)
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is the industry term for
broadband wireless access network that is developed based on the IEEE 802.16 standard.
WiMAX is a Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) technology that will
connect WiFi hotspots to the Internet and provides a wireless extension to
cable and DSL for larger broadband access.WiMAX would operate similar to WiFi but at
higher speeds, over greater
distances and for a greater number of users.
A WiMAX system will have two major parts:
a WiMAX base station, similar in concept to a mobile phone tower
a WiMAX receiver installed at home

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