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123
SPRINGER BRIEFS IN ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER
ENGINEERING  COMPUTATIONAL ELECTROMAGNETICS
Satyakesh Dubey
Naina Narang
Parmendra Singh Negi
Vijay Narain Ojha
LabVIEW Based
Automation
Guide for
Microwave
Measurements

SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer
Engineering
SpringerBriefs in Computational Electromagnetics
Series editors
K.J. Vinoy, Bangalore, India
Rakesh Mohan Jha (Late), Bangalore, India

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13885

Satyakesh Dubey • Naina Narang
Parmendra Singh Negi • Vijay Narain Ojha
LabVIEW Based Automation
Guide for Microwave
Measurements
123

Satyakesh Dubey
Microwave Standards, TFEEMD
CSIR-National Physical Laboratory of India
New Delhi
India
Naina Narang
New Delhi
India
New Delhi
India
Vijay Narain Ojha
Microwave Standards, TFEEMD
New Delhi
India
ISSN 2191-8112 ISSN 2191-8120 (electronic)
SpringerBriefs in Electrical and Computer Engineering
ISSN 2365-6239 ISSN 2365-6247 (electronic)
SpringerBriefs in Computational Electromagnetics
ISBN 978-981-10-6279-7 ISBN 978-981-10-6280-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6280-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017950254
© The Author(s) 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc., in this
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The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface
At times, the proper use of a synchronized set of instruments becomes indispens-
able for scientists and engineers in developing an accurate measurement or test
setup. Also, the need for automated execution is always felt in day-to-day work in
measurement laboratories for faster execution and reduced manual interference in
the measurement process. If we consider the microwave measurements, in partic-
ular, it involves the use of advanced electronics, embedded systems, and micro-
controllers. Proper use of such advanced devices in synchronization becomes
important for the development of measurement facilities in laboratories such as
NMIs and defense research institutes, where accuracy and precision play one of the
most crucial roles. This book guides the readers for developing a standalone
graphical user interface (GUI) and explains the software development process for
effective microwave measurements. An effort is made to develop such a software
application, which is independent of the measurement setup and measurand, i.e., the
quantities intended to be measured. The critical considerations for quality assurance
of the developed system are studied and illustrated in a way, which is suitable for
beginners and experts in measurement laboratories. A worked out example is used
throughout the book, which is used for various test procedures with different
sources, receivers, and devices under test (DUT). The measurement results are
illustrated for comparison of automated and manual execution of the measurement
process. The approaches required for optimizing the tests for time, reliability, and
throughput are formulated and used during the development process. All in all, the
book is an easy guide for scientists and engineers for development of automated
laboratory measurements with quality assurance, efﬁciency optimization, and
adherence to the quality standards for using the software in metrological
applications.
New Delhi, India Satyakesh Dubey
Naina Narang
Vijay Narain Ojha
v

Contents
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 LabVIEW Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1 Virtual Instruments (VI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.2 Front Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.3 Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 LabVIEW Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Virtual Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3.1 Virtual Instrumentation Foundation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3.2 General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3.3 Standard Commands for Programmable Instruments
(SCPI). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.4 Instrument Control in LabVIEW. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Advanced LabVIEW Programming Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3 Microwave Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1 Basic Microwave Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.1 Microwave Signal Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.2 Microwave Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Basic Microwave Measurement Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.1 Attenuation Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.2 Microwave Power Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.3 Scattering Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Uncertainty Evaluation in Attenuation Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3.1 Uncertainty in Power Ratio Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.2 Uncertainty in IF Substitution Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.3 Comparison of Measurement Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
vii

3.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.5 Precap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4 Software Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1 LabVIEW-Based Automatic Measurement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.1.1 Software Requirement Speciﬁcations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.2 Design of Graphical User Interface (GUI). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.3 Conﬁguring Transmitter, DUT, and Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.1.4 System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.1.5 System Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.1.6 System Features and Drivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 Software Validation and Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5 Measurement Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.1 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 Uncertainty Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.3 Comparison of Results with Manual Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.4 Report Generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
About the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
viii Contents

List of Figures
Fig. 2.1 Front panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Fig. 2.2 Block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fig. 2.3 Basic idea of virtual instrument (VI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Fig. 2.4 NI measurement and automation explorer (MAX) for
detecting GPIB instrument. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 2.5 GPIB functions a read and b write . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fig. 2.6 Simple GPIB read and write functions used to communicate
with the connected GPIB device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fig. 3.1 Commonly used microwave signal generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 3.2 Commonly used receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 3.3 Types of power sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 3.4 The essential microwave parameters and their measurement
discussed in this chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 3.5 Attenuation measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 3.6 Power ratio technique a Schematic Diagram. b Attenuation
measurement system controlled by the PC using LabVIEW
application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Fig. 3.7 30 MHz IF substitution technique a Schematic diagram.
b Attenuation measurement system controlled by the PC
using LabVIEW application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 3.8 Power measurement system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 3.9 An example of RF system that exploits the linearity advantage
of power sensors—Fluke 96270A 27 GHz low phase noise
reference source. Courtesy Fluke Calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 3.10 Two-port device in terms of S-parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 3.11 Generalized method for microwave measurement . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Fig. 3.12 Custom designed LabVIEW application for attenuation
measurement using power ratio or IF substitution
technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 4.1 An example of software requirement speciﬁcation of
attenuation measurement software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
ix

Fig. 4.2 Example GUI of the developed automated calibration
software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Fig. 4.3 Example of block diagram code for a turning on the source
and b reading attenuation from Tegam’s VM-7 (GPIB
address: 6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 4.4 A model of automated measurement system based on virtual
instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Fig. 4.5 Flow of GPIB functions in power ratio technique . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig. 4.6 Simple measurement settings ﬁle to be given by the user using
MS Excel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Fig. 4.7 VI for execution timeline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Fig. 5.1 Basic architecture for automated attenuation measurement setup 36
Fig. 5.2 Example LabVIEW VI block diagram for combined
uncertainty evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 5.3 Validation of results using En-ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Fig. 5.4 Comparison of Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Fig. 5.5 Example report generation VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Fig. 5.6 Block diagram demonstrating report generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
x List of Figures

List of Tables
Table 4.1 Conﬁguring instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Table 4.2 Main LabVIEW Functions used in given example. . . . . . . . . . . 31
Table 5.1 Sources of uncertainty in power ratio technique
up to 30 dB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 5.2 Sources of uncertainty in IF substitution technique
up to 60 dB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 5.3 Experimental results and comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
xi

About the Authors
Dr. Satya Kesh Dubey dubeysk@nplindia.org, was born in 1984 in Madhuban,
Mau (U.P.), India. He completed his Ph.D. in Electronics from Allahabad
University, Allahabad, India, with eight international journal papers. He joined
National Institute of Technology Raipur (C.G.) as lecturer in 2009. He served
Institute for Plasma Research as postdoctoral fellow for a year during 2009–2010 in
microwave diagnostic group. Again he joined National Aerospace Laboratories,
Bangalore as scientist fellow in computational electromagnetic group founded by
the eminent scientist late Dr. R.M. Jha. He joined National Physical Laboratory,
New Delhi as Scientist in Microwave Activity. He has guided more than 15 M.
Tech. students with four enrolled Ph.D. scholars. He has published 35 papers in
different international journals and conference proceedings with h- index 8 and
i- index 6. His current area of research is biological effect of EM radiations,
electreomagnetic-induced transparency, E-ﬁeld probes and sensors, SAR probes,
microstrip antenna, millimeter wave, and computational modeling of biological
tissue in EM radiations.
Naina Narang nainanarang@nplindia.org, is a Computer Science Graduate from
Kurukshetra University, India and is working as Assistant Professor at Department
of Computer and Communication Engineering, School of Computing and
Information Technology Manipal University, Jaipur, India. She had worked with
Dr. Satya Kesh Dubey as Ph.D. research scholar for the establishment of Standards
of Speciﬁc Absorption Rate (SAR) at National Physical Laboratory. She has a keen
interest in instrument control, LabVIEW programming for automation, computa-
tional and numerical techniques for electromagnetics.
Parmendra Singh Negi psnegi@nplindia.org, Head Microwave Standards,
TFEEMD, CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi. He has an experience
of more than 30 years and expertise in attenuation and impedance measurement. He
has piloted/participated in several key/supplementary comparisons at international
level. He had developed mismatch standards, WBCO-based primary standard for
xiii

attenuation with high accuracy and is author of more than 100 journal and con-
ference papers.
Dr. Vijay Narain Ojha vnojha@nplnida.org, Head, TFEEM Division. He worked
as Scientist at CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi for more than 30
years and now leads the Electrical and Electronics Standards in India. He has keen
research interest in low-temperature microwave measurements, Josephson junction,
quantum Hall effect and Watt balance, and is author of more than 100 journal and
conference papers.
xiv About the Authors

Chapter 1
Introduction
In a very conventional approach, it can be stated that every microwave measure-
ment consists of a transmitter, a receiver and a device under test (DUT). The
transmitter can be an economical signal generator or a stable and precise radio
frequency (RF) source. Similarly, the receiver can be a spectrum analyzer, vector
network analyzer (VNA), power meter with RF power sensor, or a receiver specific
for particular measurement such as TEGAM VM-7 attenuation measurement sys-
tem. The DUT, on the other hand, is the instrument or device whose electrical
properties are intended to be measured. In a microwave metrology laboratory, a
DUT can be a fixed attenuator, step attenuator, airline, waveguide, or any other
component such as mixer, directional coupler, power divider or an amplifier.
For any microwave measurement process, these instruments can be configured for
automatic operation using the various commercially available application devel-
opment platforms such as MATLAB, Agilent VEE Pro, or National Instruments
(NI) LabVIEW. The automated software solution for a measurement process may
minimize the human involvement and thus reducing the errors and improving
efficiency.
In the automated measurement setup, the instruments are given a remote control;
therefore, an appropriate step by step approach is to be used for software devel-
opment for proper execution of the measurement process. The main considerations
for a developer that arise before the development process of automation software
are as follows:
• What is to be measured and what are the instruments to be controlled?
• How the control flows within the experimental setup?
• What development techniques are to be followed for producing quality results?
• Does the approach used benefit the end user as compared to a manual execution?
This book addresses these questions in detail with worked out examples of some
important microwave measurements for direct reference. The intended readers are
those who are responsible for regular measurements and calibrations mainly in the
S. Dubey et al., LabVIEW Based Automation Guide for Microwave Measurements,
SpringerBriefs in Computational Electromagnetics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-6280-3_1
1

metrology laboratories and wish for a faster execution of the experiment with the
use of customized automation software.
This book is divided into six chapters. Chapter 2 provides the basic knowledge
about the LabVIEW and its programming for instrument control. LabVIEW, i.e.,
Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench, is a graphical program-
ming language developed by NI for customized solution in test and measurement
laboratories. The chapter explains the control of the commonly used instruments
and devices in microwave measurements using LabVIEW. It will be seen that
LabVIEW provides an easy and fast way for automating measurements. It can be
used to control the instruments using bus level communications in a more
user-friendly way as compared to C, .NET, or MATLAB codes.
Chapter 3 introduces the readers with the common microwave measurements,
their execution, uncertainty evaluation, and applications.
Chapter 4 describes the detailed procedure of the software development process
and addresses the major considerations for ensuring the software validity and
compliance with the quality standards that are required to use the software in
metrological applications. The book guides the engineers and technicians for
implementing complete calibration software with enough details to start from
scratch.
Chapter 5 discusses the measured results and evaluation of uncertainty in the
measurement. Comparison of the results with manual execution is reported for
every example to ensure the beneﬁt of the end user. Data collection, analysis, and
report generation are explained in detail.
Chapter 6 concludes carried out study. A completely automated calibration
process for microwave measurements is created and concluded.
An ample number of examples, illustrations, flowcharts, measurement results,
and screen shots of a worked out automation software for microwave measurement
are incorporated to provide real-life experience to the readers.
2 1 Introduction

Chapter 2
LabVIEW Programming
This chapter provides the basic knowledge about the LabVIEW and its program-
ming for instrument control. LabVIEW, i.e., Laboratory Virtual Instrument
Engineering Workbench, is a graphical programming language used by test and
measurement researchers and engineers for building customized software solution
to their experiments [1–3]. It has an easy approach and can be used with ease. The
chapter provides sufficient information to the reader for starting basic programming
in LabVIEW for instrument control. This chapter can be used as a guide to connect
the instrument to the computer system and basic input/output instructions. The
programming in LabVIEW environment is based data-flow method and is mostly
graphical and easy to understand.
The chapter will provide the brief introduction to LabVIEW, LabVIEW pro-
gramming and its instrument control capabilities. It will cover the basic features to
give an understanding of the LabVIEW programming language and its environ-
ment. Examples for controlling the RF instruments explained in this chapter will
help to develop calibration suite for attenuation given in Chap. 4.
2.1 Basic Concepts
In this section, we will discuss the basic concepts about LabVIEW and its pro-
gramming technique. The section is self-contained and is sufficient to understand
the basics of instrument control using LabVIEW.
2.1.1 Virtual Instruments (VI)
Virtual Instrument (VI) is the file on which LabVIEW coding is done. It comprises
two components—front panel and block diagram. The front panel is used to provide
3

the control components such as a regulatory knob, string input, numerical input or
string display. The front panel serves as the graphical user interface and can be
easily designed. The block diagram, on the other hand, consists of the programming
functions such as algebraic operations, instrument input/output, signal processing,
data communication, and error handling. The programming logic is implemented on
the block diagram using the different functions available with it.
2.1.2 Front Panel
The front panel which also serves as the graphical user interface for LabVIEW
application is used to simulate the input and output mechanism. The input from the
user which is to be sent to the instruments can be entered through the numeric
controls, text controls, or Boolean input. Similarly, for the displaying the output
numeric, text, and Boolean indicators are used on the front panel. Figure 2.1 shows
the numeric and string controls and indicators that can be used to design the front
panel. The controls are driven by the user, and the indicators are used to display the
execution results. In the ﬁgure, Numeric 1 and Numeric 2 are the numeric controls,
String is the text control, Result is the numeric indicator, and String Length is the
text indicator.
Fig. 2.1 Front panel
4 2 LabVIEW Programming

2.1.3 Block Diagram
The front panel shown in Fig. 2.1 will automatically be accompanied by the block
diagram. Pressing Ctrl + E opens the block diagram. For the previous example, the
node used for the controls and indicators will automatically appear on the block
diagram. Figure 2.2 shows the corresponding nodes of the control and indicators
used in Fig. 2.1. There are various functions available on the block diagram, for
example, the arithmetic operation of addition is used to add Numeric 1 and Numeric
2. Also, programming operations on text can also be done, for example, string
length function is used on String Control to calculate the string length indicated on
the String Length indicator.
It can be realized by the LabVIEW user that LabVIEW provides an easy and
shortcut methods to basic programming problems. As in the given example, the
string length function is an easy way that takes off the burden from the programmer,
unlike the other programming languages, to write a detailed code for retrieving the
length of the string.
Fig. 2.2 Block diagram
2.1 Basic Concepts 5

2.2 LabVIEW Features
From the introduction above, it is evident that LabVIEW is an easy-to-learn pro-
gramming language based on data flow used for the implementation of the modern
measurement setup. There are some applications in which LabVIEW is the most
preferred choice, such as
• Instrument control
• Acquiring and analyzing measurement data
• Designing of embedded systems and ﬁeld-programmable gate array (FPGA)
• Automated test and validation systems.
In this book, only instrument control and automated test systems are imple-
mented and explained. You will see in Chap. 4, how an example of attenuation
measurement system is automated to provide reduced test time and efﬁcient result
analysis.
2.3 Virtual Instrumentation
2.3.1 Virtual Instrumentation Foundation
Virtual instrumentation is a modern technique used to emulate the manual execu-
tion of a measurement with the help of a computer system [4]. The basic idea of the
virtual instrument is shown in Fig. 2.3. The virtual instrument aims to provide
better accuracy and precision with minimum manual interference in the measure-
ment. LabVIEW is one the powerful languages which can be used to build virtual
instruments.
2.3.2 General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB)
The General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) is a parallel communication interface
generally used for instrument control. This bus when connected to the PC at one
Fig. 2.3 Basic idea of virtual instrument (VI)

end and GPIB compatible instrument(s) at the other end, then the PC can be used as
a system controller for the connected instrument(s). The main features of this bus
are the following:
• Standardized as IEEE 488
• 8-bit parallel communication using asynchronous handshaking protocol
• The bus has 24-pin configuration where eight are data lines, five are bus
management lines, three are handshake lines, and eight are ground lines
• One system controller and 14 instruments can be connected to a single GPIB
• The GPIB instruments on the bus are uniquely identified by 5-bit GPIB
(Primary) address ranging between 0 and 30.
Using the NI Measurement and Automation Explorer (MAX), one can detect
and configure the connected GPIB instruments on the PC. Figure 2.4 shows a GPIB
instrument detected by the NI MAX. This is possibly the first step toward the
learning of instrument control and virtual instrumentation.
Fig. 2.4 NI measurement and automation explorer (MAX) for detecting GPIB instrument
2.3 Virtual Instrumentation 7

2.3.3 Standard Commands for Programmable Instruments
(SCPI)
Fig. 2.4, the GPIB instrument with primary address 28 is connected to the PC.
Using the NI-488.2 Communicator, one can communicate with the instrument by
sending the query. For example, when string *IDN? is sent as a query, the detailed
identity of the connected instrument is returned. Here, *IDN? is an SCPI command.
2.3.4 Instrument Control in LabVIEW
To start instrument control using LabVIEW, one must be acquainted with the GPIB
or Virtual Instrument Software Architecture (VISA) functions. Figure 2.5 shows
the input and output wires of GPIB read and write functions. GPIB read function is
used to retrieve the information from the GPIB device to the controller, i.e., the PC
and GPIB write is used for sending the command from the controller to the con-
nected GPIB instrument.
The use of these two functions is shown in Fig. 2.6. The *IDN? command sent
to the source of GPIB address 28 using NI MAX is shown in Fig. 2.4. The same
operation may be programmed on LabVIEW, as given in Fig. 2.6, using simple
GPIB write and read functions. In the same manner, other SCPI commands can be
sent and bus data can be retrieved for the development of LabVIEW application for
instrument control. In Chap. 4, you will see that GPIB read and write functions are
used to develop the attenuation measurement suite on LabVIEW virtual instrument.
Fig. 2.5 GPIB functions
a read and b write

2.4 Advanced LabVIEW Programming Techniques
Although the programming capabilities of LabVIEW are large in number, only the
techniques used in the subsequent chapters are discussed in this section. The major
focus of this book is to provide the basic introduction to the programming tech-
niques required to automate the commonly used microwave tests and measure-
ments. Previously, the use of GPIB read and write function is demonstrated which
plays an important role in GPIB instrument control. Additionally, the advanced ﬁle
functions, dialogs, and user interface functions facilitate the development of
user-friendly virtual instrument. The use of these advanced LabVIEW features will
be demonstrated in Chap. 4.
References
1. R. Bitter, T. Mohiuddin, M. Nawrocki, LabVIEW: Advanced programming techniques, 2nd
edn. (CRC Press, Florida, 2006). ISBN: 0-8493-3325-3
2. G.W. Johnson, LabVIEW Graphical Programming, 4th edn. (Tata McGraw-Hill Education,
New York, 1997). ISBN: 0-07-145146-3
3. J. Travis, J. Kring, LabVIEW for Everyone: Graphical Programming Made Easy and Fun
(National instruments virtual instrumentation series), 3rd edn. (Prentice Hall PTR, New Jersey,
2006). ISBN: 0131856723
4. H. Goldberg, What is virtual instrumentation? IEEE Instrum. Measur. Mag. 3(4), 10–13 (2000)
Fig. 2.6 Simple GPIB read and write functions used to communicate with the connected GPIB
device
2.4 Advanced LabVIEW Programming Techniques 9

Chapter 3
Microwave Measurement Systems
In this chapter, the measurement of common microwave parameters such as RF
power, attenuation, and scattering (S-) parameters are explained. An example of
automated attenuation measurement is taken in detail in the next chapter based on
the understanding acquired through this chapter about the nature of microwave
measurements. A brief description of each parameter, instrumentation, its mea-
surement setup, and uncertainty evaluation is given in the chapter. The first section
introduces the reader to the basic measurement equipment used in modern micro-
wave measurements. The next section enlists the common microwave measure-
ments. The microwave measurement methods are chosen and explained in order of
increasing complexity. For example, the power ratio technique uses a simple and
generally available power meter and sensor, whereas there are also systems avail-
able that are specific to a single parameter, for instance, TEGAM’s VM-7 for
microwave attenuation measurement. But some systems are even more versatile,
such as spectrum analyzer and vector network analyzer (VNA), which are used in
almost all microwave measurements.
Attenuation is one the most important properties of the device under test (DUT),
explained in the subsequent text. It is hence chosen for the worked out example of
automation in next chapter. The RF power measurement is also used for attenuation
measurement, which is based on Power Ratio principle. Subsequently, the under-
standing of microwave measurements will ensure readers’ ability to understand the
automation process.
3.1 Basic Microwave Instruments
Depending on the type of the measurement, generator and receivers vary from one
setup to another. For example, if attenuation is being measured for a fixed or step
attenuator, then the source can be a signal generator which may or may not be a
synthesized source. Similarly, the receiver varies. For attenuation measurement,
11

spectrum analyzer or VM-7 is used as a receiver. On the other hand, for
S-parameter measurement VNA is used as a source as well as the receiver.
Generally, software support for VNA is provided by the instrument manufacturers
itself for data acquisition. However, customized solutions can be developed as
explained in the subsequent chapters.
3.1.1 Microwave Signal Generators
Microwave signal generator is an electronic device that is used to generate the
microwave signal in the analog or digital domain. It is used as the source for
microwave measurements. Figure 3.1 enlists the various type of signal generators
commonly used in testing and measurements.
Function generators are suitable when different waveforms are to be studied. In
today’s scenario, free running signal generators have become obsolete due to the
better performance of synthesized sources. On the other hand, vector network
analyzer is a complete package. The source in VNA may be an oscillator or syn-
thesized source.
3.1.2 Microwave Receivers
The detection of a signal at the receiver end is important for any measurement. The
detection techniques are evolving day by day. Some of the commonly used
receivers in microwave tests and measurements are shown in Fig. 3.2.
(a) Power Sensor and Meter:
There are different techniques to measure microwave power. Based on the user
requirements, the techniques are adopted. The three main methods are given in
Fig. 3.3. Thermocouple- and thermistor-based power sensors are usually used for
higher accuracy, linearity, and stability. Diode detectors are widely used otherwise
where high accuracy is not essential.
Fig. 3.1 Commonly used microwave signal generators
12 3 Microwave Measurement Systems

(b) Tuned Receivers:
A tuned receiver is used for high sensitivity and dynamic range. For example,
commercially available TEGAM’s VM-7 is a 30 MHz tuned receiver which is used
with a mixer to down-convert the input RF signal to generate a 30 MHz interme-
diate frequency (IF). A local oscillator is present in VM-7 which is locked with the
generated 30 MHz signal for higher sensitivity.
These receivers tuned to a single frequency may play an important role in the
precise measurements of various parameters such as insertion loss, attenuation,
characteristics of microwave ampliﬁers or mixers, antenna measurement and RF
leakage.
(c) Spectrum Analyzer:
A spectrum analyzer is a measuring device used to display the signal in fre-
quency domain. It is used for various applications such as measuring modulation,
noise, harmonic and inter-modulation distortion. Apart from studying the properties
of the signal, electromagnetic compatibility diagnosis can also be made using
spectrum analyzers. In a way, the display of the spectrum analyzer gives the
physical realization of the signal and hence is widely used in microwave
measurements.
(d) Vector Network Analyzers:
Vector network analyzers (VNAs) are capable of providing magnitude as well as
the phase information for the measured S-parameter. The receiver in the VNA is now
generally a tuned receiver. However, in some cases, diode detection is also used at
the receiver end of the VNA, but drift in diode detector limits its performance
Fig. 3.2 Commonly used receivers
Fig. 3.3 Types of power
sensors
3.1 Basic Microwave Instruments 13

against the tuned receiver which has the better dynamic range and sensitivity. For
further details on the microwave devices, one may refer to Carvalho and
Schreurs [1].
3.2 Basic Microwave Measurement Methods
Once the reader is acquainted with the microwave measurement devices, it may get
easier to understand the measurement of different microwave parameters (Fig. 3.4).
3.2.1 Attenuation Measurement
Basic Concepts: Attenuation is a pure property of the device. It can be understood
as an insertion loss generated when a device is inserted in a perfectly matched
condition between the generator and load. It can be measured as the change in the
indicated power when RF power from an impedance matched source is passed ﬁrst
directly and secondly through the DUT into a matched power sensor. The power
from the sensor is measured by a power meter. Attenuation is then expressed as
AðdBÞ ¼ 10 log10
P1
P2

; ð3:1Þ
where P1 is the power indication without the attenuator in line, and P2 is the power
indication with the attenuator in line. The basic measurement setup is shown in
Fig. 3.5.
Fig. 3.4 The essential microwave parameters and their measurement discussed in this chapter

The main techniques used for microwave attenuation measurement are power
ratio technique and IF substitution technique.
(a) Power Ratio Technique:
In Fig. 3.5, the receiver can be a power meter, VM-7 or a spectrum analyzer
depending on the measurement principle being implemented. If power ratio tech-
nique is being used to measure attenuation, then the receiver will be a power meter,
shown in Fig. 3.6. It is perhaps one of the easiest to conﬁgure. In power ratio
technique, the power sensor is preceded by a matching attenuator pad to an RF
source followed by a power sensor and the power meter indication is noted as P1.
Next, the device under test is inserted between the matching pad and power sensor.
Again the power meter indication is noted say, P2. The insertion loss is then
calculated using Eq. (3.1). Note that, unless the reflection coefﬁcient of the
Fig. 3.5 Attenuation measurement
Fig. 3.6 Power ratio technique a Schematic Diagram. b Attenuation measurement system
controlled by the PC using LabVIEW application
3.2 Basic Microwave Measurement Methods 15

generator (CG) and load (CL) at the insertion point is known to be zero, in Fig. 3.5,
or that the mismatch factor has been calculated and taken into consideration,
measured insertion loss and no attenuation is quoted. It is because the attenuation is
the property of the two-port network, whereas it is insertion loss which considers
the mismatch losses of signal generator and load (CG and CL).
(b) IF Substitution Technique:
If Intermediate Frequency (IF) substitution technique is implemented, then the
basic measurement system shown in Fig. 3.5 modiﬁes as shown in Fig. 3.7. In the
IF substitution technique, the system compares the attenuation through the device
under calibration with an IF attenuation standard. A mixer along with an IF receiver
is introduced into the measurement system to generate the desired IF frequency. To
perform this substitution method, two different RF sources are required. A mixer
with calculated nonlinearity is deployed between the RF source and Local oscil-
lator. The mixer is a three-port device, two RF source will act as an input of the
mixer, and the difference between these frequencies will generate an intermediate
frequency on the output port. In the measurement, 30-MHz substitution technique is
deployed because of the 30-MHz tuned receiver (VM7), shown in Fig. 3.7. Here,
VM7 is a 30-MHz tuned receiver with the in-built local oscillator.
Fig. 3.7 30 MHz IF substitution technique a Schematic diagram. b Attenuation measurement
system controlled by the PC using LabVIEW application

3.2.2 Microwave Power Measurement
In the RF or microwave frequency range, the power is the measure of signal
strength. It is given in Watts or dBm. The power in dBm denotes the logarithmic
value of 1 mW power, i.e., given as
PdBm ¼ log10
P
1 mW

: ð3:2Þ
Microwave power is measured using power sensors. The source is connected to
the load via power sensor, shown in Fig. 3.8. Power sensors are basically used for
converting the microwave power into measurable DC signal. There are mainly three
types of sensors—thermistor based, thermocouple based, and diode detector based.
Power measurement is of great importance in different fields such as telecommu-
nication and testing of equipments.
With recent introduction of systems, such as Fluke 96270A 27 GHz Low Phase
Noise Reference Source (Fig. 3.9), it is observed that performance of the power
sensors are improving. With the advent of technology, newer and improved power
sensors are making their place in the market due to their lower mismatch error,
higher linearity, and wider range as compared to RF mixers. Wideband power
sensors based on RF MEMS technology have been realized [2], and thus it is
expected that RF systems will be using power sensors soon to replace the present
market of resistive attenuators.
3.2.3 Scattering Parameter
Scattering parameters define the forward and reverse wave propagation through a
network. Abundant literature is available on the theoretical elucidation of
S-parameters [3]. A brief description here will help in understanding the basic
concept of S-parameter and its measurement. Considering the example of a
two-port network, shown in Fig. 3.10, S-parameters should define input and output
from the network. In general, the S-parameters for a two-port network can be
given as
Fig. 3.8 Power measurement system
3.2 Basic Microwave Measurement Methods 17

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content

at Palo Alto, 164, 168, 466;
at Resaca de la Palma, 174;
at Monterey, 246, 492, 496, 501;
advance to Saltillo, 264;
in Scott’s army, 2. 77;
at Churubusco, 112, 115, 116, 384;
at Chapultepec, 157;
at siege of Vera Cruz, 343;
at Molino del Rey, 402.
Eighth Line Infantry, Mexican, at Monterey, 1. 494.
El Carmen Island. See Carmen.
El Paso,
aspect and people, 1. 300, 302;
force against Doniphan Brazito affair, 300–2, 518;
Doniphan occupies, 302–3.
El Telégrafo. See Telégrafo.
Elections. See President.
Eleventh Infantry,
in Scott’s army, 2. 77, 363, 422, 432;
at Chapultepec, 154, 410;
at Churubusco, 385;
Eleventh Line Infantry, Mexican,
at Cerro Gordo, 2. 52, 347;
at San Cosme garita, 162;
and Vera Cruz, 334.
Elkins, Samuel, claim, 1. 426.
Elliot, Charles, British minister in Texas,
on chances of expected war, 1. 105, 107;
on Texas as theatre of war, 107;
on policy of expansion, 123.

Ellis, Powhatan,
American representative at Mexico, 1. 63;
and claims, 76–7;
and California, 324;
on Tornel, 484;
Ellis, T. H., American chargé at Mexico, reports cited passim.
Empire of Itúrbide, 1. 35.
Encarnación,
Santa Anna’s army at, 1. 381;
map of district, 382.
See also next title.
Encarnación prisoners,
capture, 1. 370–1;
sent south, 562;
at Huejutla, attempt to release, 2. 418.
Engineers, military,
Mexican, 1. 156, 461, 2. 312;
American corps, 1. 451;
in the war, 2. 320, 513;
under Scott, 349, 356, 366.
England.
See Great Britain.
Erie, in Pacific squadron, 2. 189, 447.
Escudero, J. A. de, and Farías, 2. 5, 9.
Espectador, on the war, 1. 442.
Esperanza, on Americans, 1. 484.
Esteva, J. W., on Mexican character, 1. 410.
Estrada, Gutiérrez de. See Gutiérrez de Estrada.
Europe, expected to aid Mexico, 1. 112–5, 442.

See also Foreign relations; Interposition; nations by
name, especially France; Great Britain; Spain.
Eutaw Indians, subdued, 1. 298.
Evacuation of Mexican territory, 2. 251–2, 475–6.
Evans, George, and war bill, 1. 183.
Eventualists, and secession and peace, 2. 234, 239, 465.
See also Puros.
Execution of American citizens, 1. 70.
Expansion,
spirit and attitude toward Mexico, 1. 123, 444;
London Times on, 2. 294;
justice, 322–3.
See also Annexations.
Expulsion of American citizens, 1. 71, 73, 423, 424.
Fairfield, John,
on Scott, 1. 197;
on speeches in Congress, 2. 284.
Falcon,
at siege of Vera Cruz, 2. 338;
in Home Squadron, 445, 446.
Falmouth,
scurvy, 2. 195;
Farías, Valentín Gómez, Vice President,
character, 1. 45;
as acting President, attempted reforms, 45;
flees, 47;
as Federalist leader, 48;
and the war, 201;
combination with Santa Anna, 216;

imprisoned, 216;
and revolt for Santa Anna (1846), 217, 221–3;
and Salas and Santa Anna, 2. 1, 327;
as leader of radicals (Puros), 2;
shelved, 4;
election as Vice President and actual Executive (1846),
5;
war policy, 6;
financial problem and church property, 6, 9–14;
and Beach, 12;
superseded by Santa Anna, 14;
office abolished, unpopularity, 15, 332;
hostility to Santa Anna, 82;
and Olaguíbel, 86;
opposes peace negotiations (1847), 136.
Farragut, D. G., and Ulúa, 2. 201.
Federal Union, and war, 1. 473.
Federalism and Federalists,
in first Mexican constitution, 1. 36–7;
oligarchical plots and revolt against, 37–8;
party resentment, 38–9;
overthrow, 47;
pre-war factions, 48;
Bustamante’s attempt to restore, 51;
and Herrera’s rule, 55–6;
party and Poinsett, 59;
restoration (1846), 217, 222, 488;
war-time factions, 2. 2–5;
in election of 1846, 5;
split on demands on church property, 11;
and Santa Anna as Executive, 15;
states defy Santa Anna, plan for new republic, 86–7,
234, 369;
state discussion on peace, 236, 464;

antagonistic state groups, 510.
See also Constitutions; Government; Moderados; Puros.
Federation Ridge at Monterey, 1. 239, 497;
capture, 244, 498.
Fernández del Castillo, Pedro.
See Castillo.
Ferry, Gabriel,
on battle of Monterey, 1. 503;
and interposition, 2. 304;
on American army, 321.
Fifteenth Infantry,
in Scott’s army, 2. 78, 363, 422, 432;
at Contreras, 105;
at Chapultepec, 154, 155, 157;
garrisons it, 159;
at Churubusco, 384;
advance after armistice, 400.
Fifth Cavalry, Mexican, at Cerro Gordo, 2. 347.
Fifth Infantry,
in Texas, 1. 143;
at Palo Alto, 164, 167;
at Resaca de la Palma, 174;
at Monterey, 245, 247, 259, 492, 496;
advance to Saltillo, 264;
in Scott’s army, 2. 77, 422;
at Churubusco, 112, 115, 116, 384;
at Molino del Rey, 402, 403.
Fifth Line Infantry, Mexican, at Cerro Gordo, 2. 347.
Filisola, Vicente,
and Doniphan’s expedition, 1. 521;
and plans against Taylor, 2. 165, 419;

and later command, 182, 430.
Finances, American,
naval appropriations, 1. 190, 2. 189;
unfavorable pre-war conditions, 255, 306;
problem of war loans, lack of credit abroad, 256, 478;
need of more income, 258, 260, 481;
tariff of 1846, warehouse system, and sub-treasury, 257,
478–9;
treasury notes, 258, 479, 480;
first loan, 259, 479, 481;
second loan, 260, 481;
proposed impost on tea and coffee, 261, 285, 482;
and gradation of public lands, 261;
tariff for Mexican ports, 261–3, 303, 484, 500, 505;
effect of prosperity due to European conditions, 263,
484;
third loan, 264, 485;
levies on Mexicans, 264–6, 485–8;
funds and expenditures in Mexico, 266, 488;
cost of the war, 266–7, 488;
political effects of Polk’s policy, 273, 281;
money market during the war, 489;
other war-time Acts, 489.
Finances, Mexican,
Itúrbide’s troubles, 1. 34–5;
and expulsion of Gachupines, 39;
early republican difficulties, 39;
crisis (1837), 48;
under Santa Anna’s dictatorship, 52;
Herrera’s predicament, 55;
war preparations, 213–4, 223, 488;
Santa Anna’s preparations at San Luis Potosí, 377;
forced loans, 410, 431, 2. 254, 477;
general war-time character, 6, 327;
problems, 7;

demands on Church, law of Jan. 11, opposition, 8–11,
329;
Beach’s intrigue and clerical revolt, 11–4, 330–2;
Santa Anna and Church property, 15, 329;
effect of war on normal income, 253;
taxation projects, 253;
state donations, 254;
clerical donations, 254, 477;
loans, 254, 477;
seizures and requisitions, 255;
state of treasury (1846), 328.
First Artillery,
at Cerro Gordo, 2. 52, 54, 352;
in Scott’s army, 77;
at Churubusco, 114, 382;
garrison at Jalapa, 361;
at Belén garita, 413;
in Taylor’s later force, 417.
First Cavalry, Mexican, at Monterey, 1. 494.
First Dragoons,
in Kearny’s expedition, 1. 286, 288, 515;
leave for California, 297;
in Wool’s march, 509;
at Buena Vista, 554, 555;
in Scott’s army, 2. 77;
at Churubusco, 119;
in California, 219;
in Taylor’s later force, 417.
First Infantry,
at Burrita, 1. 177;
at Monterey, 250, 252, 492, 496;
in Smith’s brigade, 541;

garrisons Vera Cruz, 2. 37;
at siege of Vera Cruz, 343.
First Ligero, at Cerro Gordo, 2. 347.
First Line Infantry, Mexican, at Monterey, 1. 494.
Fischer, Waldemar, company in Kearny’s expedition, 1. 288, 515.
Flagg, A. C., and Polk’s Cabinet, 2. 269, 271.
Flirt, in Home Squadron, 2. 197, 442.
Flores, J. M.,
rising in California, 1. 339, 533;
as provisional governor, 340;
and battle of San Pascual, 342;
and American advance on Los Angeles, 343–4, 535;
retires to Sonora, 345;
and Larkin, 536.
Florida troops,
calls, 1. 537, 2. 364;
in Taylor’s later force, 417;
at Puebla, 433.
Food and drink, Mexican, 1. 2, 20–1.
Forbes, Alexander, British consul at Tepic, effect of his book on
California, 1. 323.
Forbes, J. A., British vice consul in California,
on California and independence, 1. 321;
on expected American annexation, 325;
and British control, 328, 329, 332.
Forced loans in Mexico, 1. 410, 2. 254, 477;
to pay claims, 1. 431.
Ford, Lemuel,
at siege of Puebla, 2. 424;
in Lane’s guerilla operations, 426.

Foreign relations, American,
European attitude toward United States, 2. 294–6, 502;
and toward Mexico, 296, 502;
Buchanan’s circular on origin and purpose of war, 297;
Spanish America and the war, 298;
attitude of Spain, 298;
of Prussia, 298;
England and outbreak of war, 299–300;
France and outbreak, 300, 503;
British offer of mediation, 301, 503–4;
question of British interposition, 301–4, 504–6;
and British-French relations, 304, 506;
France and interposition, 304;
effect of victories, 305;
foreign help of Mexico, 306;
criticism of war operations, 306–8, 507;
and treaty of peace, 308–9;
influence of war on, 323.
See also Diplomatic intercourse; Preparation; nations by
name, especially France; Great Britain; Spain.
Foreigners. See Aliens.
Forsyth, John,
and Gaines’s expedition, 1. 64, 66, 422;
and claims commission, 80, 429.
Forward,
in attack on Alvarado, 2. 199;
in Tabasco expedition, 200.
Foster, J. G.,
at Molino del Rey, wounded, 2. 142, 144, 403;
at Cerro Gordo, 349;
engineer with Scott, 366.
Fourteenth Infantry,
in Scott’s army, 2. 77, 363, 432;

at Churubusco, 385;
Fourth Artillery,
at Buena Vista, 1. 555;
at Cerro Gordo, 2. 53;
at Molino del Rey, 143;
left at Contreras, 382;
in Taylor’s later force, 417, 418.
Fourth Infantry,
at Fort Jesup, 1. 140;
goes to Texas, 141–2, 452;
at Palo Alto 164, 167, 168;
at Monterey, 252, 256, 492, 496, 500–2, 506;
in Scott’s army, 2. 77, 422;
at San Cosme garita, 414.
Fourth Ligero,
at Monterey, 1. 494;
at Cerro Gordo, 2. 347.
Fourth Line Infantry, Mexican,
at Palo Alto, 1. 165, 168;
at Resaca de la Palma, 171, 174, 175;
at Monterey, 494;
at Cerro Gordo, 2. 52, 53, 347.
Fourth of July, claim, 1. 424.
France,
attack on Mexico, 1. 49, 74;
and Texas, 55, 67, 90, 432;
and expected war, 112;
and annexation of Texas, 113, 2. 295, 501, 502;

and support of Mexico, interposition, 1. 112–5, 2. 304;
supposed manipulation of Mexico, 1. 121;
and California, 324, 326, 327, 523, 2. 505;
and Mexican privateering, 193;
and American tariff for Mexican ports, 262, 484;
attitude toward United States, 295;
attitude toward Mexico, 296–7;
and outbreak of war, 300, 503;
attitude and British relations, 304, 506;
and American victories, 305.
Franklin, W. B., reconnaissance in Wool’s march, 1. 271.
Freaner, J. L.,
and recall of Trist, 2. 465;
takes treaty to Washington, 467.
Frederick William of Prussia, and the war, 2. 299.
Frémont, J. C.,
expedition canceled (1845), 1. 131, 447;
and Castro, retirement, 331, 528;
Gillespie and return, Bear Flag war, 331–3, 528–9, 531;
and Sloat, 335, 531;
joins Stockton, force and appearance, 336;
influences address, 336;
in first southern campaign, 336, 337;
command in north, 338;
and second southern campaign, 342, 345, 535–6;
treaty with insurgents, 345–6, 2. 218;
as governor, 217;
and Kearny, 454.
French, S. G., on Taylor as fighter, 1. 238.
French in Mexico, merchants, 1. 5.
French revolution, influence in Mexico, 1. 30.
Frontera,

blockade, 2. 194;
importance, 443.
Fugitive slaves, rendition in American-Mexican negotiations, 1.
419.
Furber, G. C., work as source, 1. 404.
Furlong, C., and Americans at Puebla, 2. 225.
Gachupines,
characteristics, 1. 3;
expulsion, 39, 42, 413.
See also Oligarchy.
Gahagan, Dennis, claim, 1. 427.
Gaines, E. P.,
Nacogdoches expedition, 1. 64–6, 420–2;
requisition for six-months men, 196, 205, 452, 476, 2.
272, 511;
and Scott, 1. 197;
Taylor’s letter, 347, 507;
and command of Vera Cruz expedition, 353;
relieved, court of inquiry, 476.
Gaines, J. P.,
carelessness and capture, 1. 370–1;
at Saltillo, 541;
of Scott’s staff, 2. 366.
See also Encarnación prisoners.
Gallatin, Albert,
on annexation of Texas, 1. 83;
pessimism on peace prospects, 2. 235;
on treasury notes, 258;
and the war, 314.
Gambling,
American, 1. 144, 207, 2. 214;

at Mexico City, 2. 460.
Gamboa, Ramón,
and Santa Anna, 2. 134;
on evacuation of Mexico City, 415, 416.
Gaona, General,
in preparations below Perote, 2. 40;
abandons Perote, 61.
Garay, F. de, and De Russey’s expedition, 2. 418.
Garay, J. G. Perdigón. See Perdigón Garay.
García, General, at Matamoros, character, 1. 158, 462.
García Conde, Pedro, and battle of Sacramento, 1. 306, 309,
312, 519, 520.
Gardner, J. L., command at Point Isabel, 1. 493.
Garland, John,
at Palo Alto, 1. 164;
at Monterey, 250, 251, 253, 492, 496, 499, 500;
brigade in advance of Perote, 2. 61;
before San Antonio, Mex., 102;
at Churubusco, 113, 116;
at Molino del Rey, 143, 145;
at San Cosme garita, 162;
wounded in uprising, 167;
and Contreras, 381.
Garro, Máximo, Mexican chargé at Paris, reports cited passim.
Gates, William, at Tampico, 1. 281, 282, 486, 512, 546, 2. 484;
discipline, 215;
and prisoners at Huejutla, 418.
Gateways of Mexico City, 2. 147.
See also Belén; San Cosme.

Georgia troops,
in Victoria march, 1. 357;
at siege of Vera Cruz, 2. 343;
in Alvarado expedition, 344;
leave Scott, 356;
calls (1847), 364, 365, 430;
for Scott, 423;
cavalry at Huamantla, 426.
“Germanicus,” on volunteers, 1. 474.
Germans in Mexico,
merchants, 1. 5;
mining companies, 15.
Germantown,
in attack on Tuxpán, 2. 444;
Germany. See Prussia.
Gerolt, Baron, Prussian minister at Washington, and the war, 2.
503.
Gibson, George,
commissary general of subsistence, 1. 475;
and Graham, 500.
Giddings, J. R.,
and secession, 2. 272;
position in House, 496.
Giffard, F. L., British consul at Matamoros, on conduct of
volunteers, 2. 211.
Giffard, T., British consul at Vera Cruz,
on Vera Cruz expedition, 2. 22, 32, 33, 337, 341;
on American rule, 221;
on Scott and Jalapa, 362.
Gillespie, A. H.,

mission to California, 1. 326, 329, 526, 530;
and return of Frémont, 331, 332, 528;
and Bear Flag war, 332, 529;
in southern campaign, 336;
rule at Los Angeles, 338;
rising against, surrender, 339, 533–4;
joins Kearny, 341;
in battle of San Pascual, 342;
in expedition to Los Angeles, 342.
Gillespie, R. A.,
at Monterey, 1. 245;
march to Mier, 483.
Glass, J. W., British consul at Tampico, reports cited passim.
Glasson, J. J., at siege of Vera Cruz, 2. 338.
Goliad massacre, American indignation, 1. 117.
Gómez, Gregorio,
Jefferson and Natchez incidents, 1. 424–5;
in preparations below Perote, 2. 40;
flight from La Hoya, 58.
Gómez Farías. See Farías.
Gómez Pedraza. See Pedraza.
González, ——, and Armijo, 1. 293.
Gore, J. H., at San Cosme garita, 2. 414.
Gorman, W. A.,
at Buena Vista, 1. 386, 556;
at Huamantla, 2. 426.
Gorostiza, M. E. de,
as minister at Washington, 1. 64;
and Gaines’s expedition, 65–6, 420–2;
pamphlet, Mexican disavowal, 77–9;
and Texas, 432;

and Santa Anna, 2. 92.
Government, Mexican,
results of colonial system, 1. 29–30;
causes of failure, 56–7, 416–7, 438, 2. 310, 312;
difficulties in tracing political development, 1. 411;
extempore, after loss of capital, 2. 179–81, 427, 428;
results to, of the war, 514.
See also Centralists; Congress, Mexican; Conquered
territory; Constitutions; Dictatorship; Federalism;
Independence; Local government; Monarchy;
Oligarchy; President of Mexico; Revolutions; Roman
Catholic church.
Graham, G. M.,
and Garland at Monterey, 1. 500;
messenger to Mexico, 2. 473.
Graham, James, and Oregon, 1. 200.
Grande, Rio. See Rio Grande.
Grant, U. S.,
at Monterey, 1. 252, 256, 501;
on Worth, 498;
on magnifying of Taylor’s victories, 549;
at Cerro Gordo, 2. 49;
at San Cosme garita, 162, 414;
on departure from Mexico, 252;
on Cerro Gordo, 354;
on Churubusco, 383;
on battles before Mexico City, 408;
on Mexican soldiers, 509.
Gray, A. F. V., at San Pascual, 1. 535.
Grayson, J. B., Scott’s chief of subsistence, 2. 366.
Great Britain,
British loans to Mexico, 1. 37;

and Texas, 55, 67, 86, 90, 419, 432, 449, 2. 295, 303,
502, 506;
commercial treaty with Mexico, 1. 61;
and California, 69, 319, 323–6, 328, 334, 336, 524, 527,
531, 2. 302, 308, 505;
Mexican relations and claims, 1. 74, 135, 425, 2. 296–7,
502;
and restoration of American-Mexican intercourse, 1. 91,
435;
Oregon controversy, 90, 94, 114–5, 200, 478, 2. 295,
299, 504;
question of interposition, 1. 112–5, 442, 2. 238, 301–4,
504–6;
supposed manipulation of Mexico, 1. 121, 443;
and Mexican privateering, 2. 192;
and blockade, 193, 303, 440;
and peace negotiations, 238, 465;
attitude toward United States, 294–5, 501;
and outbreak of the war, defeat of her policy, 299–300;
offer of mediation, 301, 368;
influence of French relations, 304, 506;
and American victories, 305;
volunteer officers for Mexico, 306;
and treaty of peace, 308–9, 508.
See also Bankhead; Doyle; Pakenham; Thornton.
Green, B. E.,
and Mexican negotiations, 1. 84–5, 433, 436;
on Tornel, 484.
Green, Duff, on Mexican finances, 2. 8.
Green, P. C., claim, 1. 426.
Greenhow, Robert, and claims on Mexico, 1. 78, 429.
Grievances, American, 1. 70–3, 423, 424.
See also Claims; Diplomatic intercourse.

Griffin, W. P., at siege of Vera Cruz, 2. 338.
Grijalva River.
See Tabasco.
Grone, Karl von,
on Scott, 2. 316;
on American soldiers, 321.
Guadalajara, situation, 1. 3.
Guadalupe, escape, 2. 195.
Guadalupe Hidalgo,
shrine, 1. 223, 488, 2. 141;
Valencia at, 2. 88;
treaty signed at, 240, 467.
Guadalupe Hidalgo, treaty of. See Peace.
Guanajuato, powder-mill, 2. 87.
Guanajuato cavalry battalion, at Monterey, 1. 494.
Guanajuato state, in discussion on peace, 2. 464.
Guatemala, and the war, 2. 298.
Guaymas,
as port, 1. 3;
bombarded, 2. 205, 446;
map, 206;
blockade, 206;
occupied, 206, 208, 447.
Guerilla warfare,
in revolt against Spain, 1. 31–2;
threat (1846), 153, 154;
Canales’ force, 158, 226, 236, 479, 495;
Blanco’s force, 273, 274, 283, 510;
in north after Buena Vista, suppression, 399–400, 562, 2.
169–71, 421, 422;
during battle of Buena Vista, 1. 559;

operations on Scott’s line, 2. 77, 171, 365, 422, 423;
and Scott’s advance, 98;
Mexican addiction to, 168;
adoption and sanction, 168–9, 421;
Vera Cruz state as chief home, leaders, 171, 421;
Scott’s operations against, 172, 423;
lack of morale, attacks on Mexicans, 172–3;
operations and siege of Puebla, 173–4, 178, 424;
Lane’s operations against, 178–9, 426–7;
British encouragement, 306;
Scott’s warning on, 358;
failure, 423.
Guerillas of Vengeance, 2. 169.
Guerrero, Vicente,
as partisan leader, 1. 32;
in Itúrbide’s revolt, 33;
revolt against Itúrbide, 35;
and Montaño’s revolt, 38;
Presidential candidacy, 40–1;
proclaimed President, 41;
character, as President, 42;
overthrow, killed, 43;
warned by United States, 59, 418;
and Poinsett, 62.
Guexocingo, Lane at, 2. 426.
Guizot, F. P. G.,
policy of balance of power in America, 1. 90, 2. 304;
and expected war, 1. 108, 112, 115;
and Texas, 295;
policy of neutrality, 2. 300;
and United States, 301;
and Palmerston, 304.
Gutiérrez, Captain, at Monterey, 1. 254.

Gutiérrez de Estrada, J. M.,
and monarchy, 1. 90;
on conduct of American army, 2. 232.
Gwynn, T. P., at siege of Puebla, 2. 174.
Hacienda, 1. 19.
Hacienda department. See Finances, Mexican.
Haddon, W. R., on Buena Vista, 1. 557.
Hagner, P. V.,
at Chapultepec, 2. 152;
ordnance officer with Scott, 366.
Haile, ——, on losses at Monterey, 1. 505.
Hamer, T. L.,
as volunteer officer, 1. 207, 481;
at Monterey, 253, 254, 492.
Hamilton, C. S.,
on mistakes at Monterey, 1. 503;
on army life in Mexico, 2. 321.
Hamilton, Schuyler, of Scott’s staff, 2. 366.
Hamley, E. B., on military strategy, 2. 317.
Hammond, J. H., on war spirit, 1. 127.
Hamtramck, John, command at Saltillo, 2. 418.
Hancock, W. S., at Churubusco, 2. 385.
Hannah Elizabeth, claim, 1. 424.
Hannegan, E. A.,
and expansion, 1. 188;
and absorption of Mexico, 2. 243;
on Polk and Oregon, 271;
position in Senate, 496;

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