Land navigation part 2

PART 2
INTERMEDIATE
LAND NAVIGATION

PART 2 Intermediate Land Navigation

USING THE
MILITARY
LENSATIC
COMPASS


WARNING
This presentation is intended as a
quick summary, and not a
comprehensive resource. If you
want to learn Land Navigation in
detail, either buy a book; or get
someone, who has the knowledge
and skills, to teach you in person.


NOTE
To get the ideas across presented on
these slides, many figures, pictures,
and calculations may not be to scale
and may be exaggerated for clarity.


Note:
Prior to being issued any training *equipment, you will
be required to sign a “statement of liability” agreeing
to pay for anything you damage or lose.

All items will be inspected and inventoried prior to
your signature and at the end of the training day too.

If you do not intend to sign this statement, then you
may be denied training.
* You may use your own equipment.


Any Questions?


BREAK TIME


. . . and now on with the . . .

PRESENTATION


LAND NAVIGATION WITH MAP
AND LENSATIC COMPASS


LAND NAVIGATION
Why Learn Land Navigation? Training and practicing land navigation on foot
provides the following everyday navigation (how not to get lost) benefits;
- Tracking present location (Where am I ?)
- Determining Distance (How far is it and am I there yet ?)
- Sense of direction (Where do I want to go and where am I actually going ?)
- How to read a topographic map (Do I understand the map ?)
-Terrain and map association (What hill or river am I looking at ?)
- Spatial skills (Can I mentally visualize the landscape in 3D ?)
- Planning safe, practical routes (Take a long safe route or a short risky route ?)
- And more Navigational skills
The best way to learn LAND NAVIGATION is to get "dirt time", that is, get out there with a map and compass!
Navigation is not about finding yourself after you are lost (although that’s what happens sometimes); it’s about
keeping track of your position as you move away from a known point. As you move you have to remain
cognizant of the terrain you are leaving, of the terrain you are passing, and of the terrain that is ahead.
Navigation in the wilderness means knowing your starting point, your destination, and your route to get there.
These skills will allow you to venture farther off the beaten path than you ever thought before.


THIS PRESENTATION IS DIVIDED INTO FOUR PARTS
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PART 1 Basic Land Navigation
 The Lensatic Compass
 The Topographic Map
 The Land and Map Association
 Making Sense of Direction
 Tracking Present Location
Determining Travel Distance
PART 3 Advance Land Navigation
 Planning to Navigate
 Navigation Methods to Stay On Course
 Additional Skills of Land Navigation
PART 4 Expert Land Navigation
 Navigation in different types of Terrain
 Night Navigation
 Sustainment


PART 2
INTERMEDIATE LAND NAVIGATION
• Making Sense of Direction
– Description
– Current Azimuth

• Tracking Present Location
– Description
– Finding Your Location

• Determining Travel Distance
– Description
– Calculating


MAKING SENSE OF DIRECTION
DESCRIPTION
WHERE DO YOU WANT TO GO AND WHERE ARE YOU ACTUALLY GOING ?
A hiker’s path isn’t straight, small detours are made in following a general bearing – like around a big log in
the way, a boulder, or avoiding a small water pond, etc. – since the land has so many irregularities.
The idea is to be conscious of the detours, keep them short, and try to zig as often as you zag. If you must
make a sizeable detour, you are better off plotting a new travel bearing.

YOU WANT YOU END
TO BE HERE UP HERE

X
YOU STARTED HERE


TO SET A COURSE (Follow An Azimuth)
Three Methods
METHOD ONE
1. Select the desired azimuth you want to follow, example 120º azimuth. Then rotate the compass until the
Black Index Line is positioned over the 120º azimuth.
2. Rotate bezel until Luminous Bezel Line is aligned with the North Arrow. Once bezel is set leave it there.
3. Follow set azimuth.

STEP STEP
STEP ONE TWO
ONE B
A


Three Methods
METHOD TWO
1. Align the North Arrow and Luminous Bezel Line with the Black Index Line.
2. Subtract the desired azimuth (example 120º) from 360º . 360º – 120º = 240º
3. Rotate bezel until Luminous Bezel Line is aligned with 240º. Once bezel is set leave it there.
4. Then rotate the compass until Luminous Bezel Line is aligned with the North Arrow. The Black Index Line
will be aligned with 120º.

STEP
FOUR
STEP STEP
ONE THREE


METHOD THREE Three Methods
1. Align Luminous Bezel Line with the Black Index Line. It does not matter which direction compass is facing.
2. Divide desired azimuth (example 120º) by 3. 120º . 3 = 40 clicks left
.
* Above 180º is 360º- desired azimuth (example 285º) ; 360º – 285º = 75º 3 = 25 clicks right
* Desired AZIMUTHS below 180º go left, desired AZIMUTHS above 180º go right
3. Rotate bezel 40 clicks left. Once bezel is set leave it there.
4. Then rotate the compass until Luminous Bezel Line is aligned with the North Arrow. The Black Index Line
will be aligned with 120º.
New
Direction
120 º
STEP STEP STEP
ONE THREE FOUR


CURRENT BEARING
Where do you want to go and where are you actually going ? - COMPASS FOLLOWING

• Using the compass without a distant reference landmark is known as compass following.
 It results in a lateral error (drift) as shown here.
• The compass provides only the forward part of navigation. COMPASS FOLLOWING
( LATERAL ERROR )
 By itself it has no way of preventing lateral errors.

Intended line of travel BEARING 58º GOAL
Actual line of travel
Compass “read” here to stay on 58º
C
• This is where the use of landmarks fits in.
 Known as intermediate landmarks. B
 Like trees, huge boulders, hill, saddle, or any
landmarks that will be visible when traveling
from START to “A” intermediate landmark, A
then to “B” intermediate landmark, then to
“C” intermediate landmark, then to GOAL.
 Intermediate landmarks should be short START
distances from landmark to landmark.


CURRENT BEARING
COMPASS FOLLOWING ( summarized )

• Is when you drift away from the given destination, but you remain on the same bearing.
• The compass alone, is not enough to eliminate lateral drift.
• Spot a landmark (tree, knoll) on the set bearing, walk to that landmark, then pick another. Continue until
destination is reached.


CURRENT BEARING
GIVEN THE NECESSITY OF OCCASIONAL DETOURS, you can come close to your destination by . . .
• Make careful, accurate sightings on both destination and intermediate landmarks.

• Recheck bearings often, to avoid accumulation of small errors.
(LATERAL DRIFT)
• Use bearings over short distances when possible.
• Continually relate your progress to the map.
• Aim for a line rather than a point ; for instance, a stream is easier to hit than a waterfall on that stream.
• Line up two distant objects on your bearing line that will always be in sight – example, a prominent tree
and a huge crag (boulder). When you have to detour off course, quickly correct for error by moving until
these two points are again aligned.
USING A BASELINE


CURRENT BEARING
OBSTACLES – getting around them

1. While on course you run into a lake. 1. While on course you run into a hill.
2. On the other side you clearly see a lone tree 2. You take a 90º left turn and pace count until you
directly on the same course bearing. clear the hill.
3. So you walk the lake shore until you get to 3. Then turn right 90º and walk till you clear the hill
the lone tree again.
4. and continue on your course bearing. 4. Then turn right 90º again and pace count the
same amount as the first pace count.
5. At the end of the pace count, turn left 90º and
continue on your course bearing.

54 STEPS

54 STEPS


CURRENT BEARING
BACK AZIMUTH – return trip
• A back azimuth is the reverse direction of an azimuth. It is comparable to doing an “about face”.
 Azimuth less than 180º ADD 180º.
 Azimuth more than 180º SUBTRACT 180º.
NOTE: the back azimuth of 180º may be stated as either 0º or 360º

15º + 180º = 195º back azimuth
277º - 180º = 97º back azimuth

HILL

LAKE

CAMP
TRAIL


CURRENT BEARING
DELIBERATE OFFSET – aiming off
1. You are at the lake and want to head back to camp at a 195º bearing.
• But when you reach the trail, which way to go, which way to turn; left or right?
2. At the lake; deliberately offset to a 165º bearing and follow the bearing to the trail.
• When you reach the trail, all you have to do is turn right and go to the campsite.

LAKE
NOTE
Deliberate Offset needs a LINE reference, like a
• Trail
• River
• Road
• Shoreline
• Etc.

CAMP TRAIL


TRACKING PRESENT LOCATION
DESCRIPTION
Navigation is not about finding yourself after you
are lost (although that’s what happens
sometimes); navigation is about keeping track of
your POSITION as you move away from a known
point. As you move you have to remain cognizant
of the terrain you are leaving, of the terrain you are
passing, and of the terrain that is ahead of you.

• Make it a habit of keeping your map and compass handy and refer to them every hour or so to locate
your position (more often in low visibility). Keep track of your starting time, rest breaks and general
hiking pace. This will also give you an idea of how far you have traveled.

• To find out where you are, you must relate your position to features you can see and identify on the map.

• There are several techniques to find your position on a map.
– RESECTION - With map only (no compass).
– MODIFIED RESECTION – With map or One compass bearing.
– DISTANCE RESECTION – With compass.
– INTERSECTION - Two compass bearings.
– TRIANGULATION - Three compass bearings.
• Plotting Location to record your position.


FINDING YOUR LOCATION – RESECTION (with map only)
• RESECTON has only one prerequisite - there must be at least two, but preferably three, identifiable
points on the landscape that also appear on the map.
• Orient the map with the landscape. And then using a straight edge object (example; ruler), lay flat on the
map and align with the landmark, then draw a line. Repeat for the second landmark.
• Where lines intersect,
you are there.
• You may also do this
visually to estimate
where you are.

Examples 1, 2, 3, and 4


FINDING YOUR LOCATION – RESECTION (with map only)
Example 5


FINDING YOUR LOCATION – MODIFIED RESECTION
( with map or compass )
• MODIFIED RESECTON has one prerequisite – you must be on a linear feature (trail, road, river, ridge
line, etc).
• Orient the map with the landscape (visually or with compass & map magnetic north).
– And then use a straight edge object (ruler) and align with an identifiable landmark, then draw a line.
– Or visualize the line on the map.
– Or take a compass magnetic bearing to the landmark and lay compass on the map landmark and
only rotate the compass to the bearing taken. (see INTERSECTION slides for more details)
• Where the line (or compass) crosses the linear feature (trail, road, river, ridge line), that is where you are.

Example 1 Example 2


• Example 3 - Where are you on the trail in the field?
• Example 4 - Where are you on the ridge line? ?
RIDGE LINE ?
• After orienting the map and taking a compass bearing ? X
or a visual lineup to a landmark, you find that you are
at the “X” position. ?

HILL

TRAIL

?
X
?
? HILL


• Example 5 - Where are you on the field trail?

• Example 6 - Where are you on the ridgeline trail?

TRAIL ridgeline
hill

TRAIL


FINDING YOUR LOCATION – DISTANCE RESECTION
( with compass )
• Example 1 - Where are you on the one azimuth line?
• After taking a compass bearing to a landmark (HILL), you can find yourself on the azimuth line by
determining the distance to the landmark. With this technique you will know where you are on the one
azimuth line ( X ).
* See PART 3 ADVANCED LAND NAVIGATION “DETERMING DISTANCE” for details on how to do it.

?
? ?
? X
X ?
?

HILL
HILL


FINDING YOUR LOCATION – INTERSECTION (two compass bearings)
• INTERSECTON has only one prerequisite - there must be two identifiable points on the landscape that
also appear on the map.
• Orient the map with MAGNETIC NORTH. And then take a lensatic compass bearing to the first landmark
and lay compass on the map landmark and only rotate the compass to the bearing taken, draw a line.
• Then take a lensatic compass bearing to the second landmark and lay compass on the map landmark
and only rotate the compass to the bearing taken, draw a line.
• Where lines cross each other, that is approximately where you are. (SEE NEXT SLIDES FOR DETAILS)

YOU ARE HERE YOU ARE HERE


STEP ONE. With compass & map:
1. Lay the map on a flat surface and lay the compass on the MN line on the map.
2. Rotate map and compass together until the compass bearing reads 0° degrees Magnetic North (compass
and MN line on the map are aligned / parallel). Put rocks on each corner of the map to prevent it from
moving again.
3. The map is oriented.


STEP TWO. With compass & map:
1. With lensatic compass take an azimuth (bearing) to both (two) landmarks.

TOWER AZIMUTH = 335º HILL AZIMUTH = 60º


STEP THREE. With compass & map:
1. Lay compass front left corner on first map landmark. Pivot point does not move
2. Rotate compass until the azimuth taken to the
landmark is on the index line.

1. Draw a line.

2. Repeat for second landmark.
AZIMUTH
3. Where the lines cross each other, that is
335º
approximately where you are.

YOU
ARE
HERE

AZIMUTH 60º


FINDING YOUR LOCATION – TRIANGULATION (three compass bearings)
• TRIANGULATION has only one prerequisite - there must be three identifiable points on the landscape
that also appear on the map.
• Orient the map with MAGNETIC NORTH. And then take a lensatic compass bearing to the first landmark
and lay compass on the map landmark and only rotate the compass to the bearing taken, draw a line.
Repeat for the other landmarks. (same procedures as INTERSECTION)
• Where the triangle is, that is where you are. The more accurate you are with the compass bearings, the
more accurate or smaller the triangle.


FINDING YOUR LOCATION - ALTERNATE TECHNIQUE
for Modified Resection, Intersection, Triangulation

MAKING YOUR MAP
SPEAK
“COMPASS LANGUAGE”
Instead of going to the trouble of converting map
GN to compass MN or vice versa each time you
take an azimuth direction from the map or
compass, with the possibility of making errors,
there is a much simpler way of compensating for
G-M Angle conversions.

MN Lines drawn on the map allow you to orient
a map so that the map landmarks are aligned
with the actual ground landmarks they represent.
You also can use the MN Lines to identify
landmarks, find your own location, and follow
compass bearings without orienting the map,
and that can save you lots of time and trouble.


STEP ONE. With compass & map:
TOP OF MAP
1. With the MN lines drawn on the
map, there is no need to orient
the map to find your position.
• This will be explained in
the following slides.

2. With a ruler or flat edged object,
draw MN lines on the map.
• Do this before going into
the wilderness.
• Make the lines as light or
heavy as you want.
• Draw as many lines as
you want.
• Space out the lines as
wide or close as you want.
Ensure the lines drawn are
accurately parallel with the
map MN line to eliminate
errors when used with the
compass


STEP TWO. With compass & map:
HILL AZIMUTH = 25º
1. Identify a landmark on the map.
2. Take an azimuth to the landmark.
• Example – you want to know
where you are on the dirt road,
in relation to the distant HILL.

TOP OF MAP
HILL

Dirt road


STEP THREE. With compass & map:
1. Lower the compass till you can see the whole compass dial. Example, to your chest or waist.
2. Keeping the compass dial and index line set to the landmark azimuth (HILL AZIMUTH 25º).
3. Rotate bezel until Luminous Bezel Line is aligned with compass needle. Once bezel is set leave it there.
(The Luminous Bezel Line now represents the North Needle Arrow).

STEP 2 STEP 3


STEP FOUR. With compass & map:
1. Map does not have to be oriented. Why?
Because you will be using the MN Lines and
Luminous Bezel Line as references.
2. Open flat the compass and put the compass

HILL
front left corner on the HILL landmark.
3. Then Rotate the whole compass until the
Luminous Bezel Line (which represents the
Magnetic North Needle in STEP THREE) is

TOP OF MAP
aligned / parallel with the MN Lines.
• The luminous bezel line will always
point to Magnetic North (Top of map).
• Ignore the compass dial needle.

Dirt road
NOTE
a transparent square has been drawn to show
that the Luminous Bezel Line and MN Lines
are aligned / parallel.

4. Draw a line from the HILL to the dirt road.
That is where you are.


Here is a closer look at STEP FOUR.
You can see that the Luminous Bezel Line and the MN Lines are aligned / parallel.
NOTE - Depending on how accurate you align the lines, your location can be off by as much as 200 yds.
This method is only an estimation. If you want to be very accurate, orient the map to MN and align the
Magnetic North Needle with the Luminous Bezel Line.


To improve the accuracy of aligning the Luminous Bezel Line with the MN lines on the map.
1. Get a superfine permanent marker
2. Draw three lines parallel with the Luminous Bezel Line.
3. This will visually improve your accuracy of alignment.
However this will also add clutter to the face of the Lensatic Compass. This is a personal preference, if you
want to add this to your compass face.


Which one is easier to align?
You can clearly see the difference.

NOTE
However this will also add clutter to the face
of the Lensatic Compass. This is a personal
preference, if you want to add this to your
compass face.
If you decide that you DO NOT want the
lines on the face of the compass, you
can remove them by getting an erasable
marker and go over the permanent
marker lines with it. This will moisten the
lines so you can wipe them off with a
towel. DO NOT use isopropyl alcohol or
other liquids like nail polish remover –
these liquids will discolor or fog up the
compass face of the Lensatic Compass.
You can actually use the oils on the tips of
your fingers to wipe of the lines; if you
rub hard enough.


FINDING YOUR LOCATION – ALTITUDE (altimeter)
An altimeter can help you determine your location by adding an elevation reading to other things you know.
Think of this altitude as corresponding to a particular contour line on your map.
It can also tell you when you have reached a contour line on a map and guide you along that line, minimizing
unnecessary uphill and downhill climbs.
This method works best if you are on a trail, ridgeline, or valley that contains a large section that is all uphill or
all downhill. It can also be used in conjunction with the triangulation method to determine your position more
accurately. First, be sure that you altimeter has been calibrated. Next, find the point on your map where the
trail, ridgeline, or valley intersects the contour line that most closely corresponds to your altimeter reading.
Calibrating the altimeter:
The most accurate and first method is to set the altimeter at a location where the elevation is known, such as
a trailhead. The second method is to adjust the altimeter to the current barometric pressure. This usually
requires access to weather information on a radio designed to receive such broadcasts.

Your altimeter reads 5840 FEET
You are at contour line “X”.
X
X

ANALOG DIGITAL WATCH


UTM GRID or GRID NORTH COORDINATES
Below is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid.


HERE IS A BETTER WAY OF LOOKING AT THE UTM GRID LAYOUT
The world is divided into 60 zones.
Here you can see ZONES 1 thru 60 at the top of the world map.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

EQUATOR LINE


Close-up of UTM ZONES. Here we see zones 10 thru 19.



On the bottom left corner of the map
is the Universal Transverse
Mercator information.

It will list the square area size
covered and the ZONE the map
represents.

The ZONE number is represented in
the front of a UTM coordinate.

example

Z12 559000m 4281000m

UTM Coordinates are explained in
the next slides.


UTM uses two coordinates – EASTING and NORTHING – to determine a location. Locations within a ZONE are measured in
meters east and west from the central meridian (center of the zone), and north and south from the equator.
North Pole

EASTING coordinate

The central meridian is an arbitrary line drawn down the center of
each zone, and given a false easting value of 500,000 meters so that
only positive eastings are measured anywhere in the zone.

Eastings increase eastward and decrease westward from the central
meridian.

0m N Equator
NORTHING coordinate
500,000 m E

10,000,000m N
Northing is the distance in meters north and south of the equator
Zone (measured along a line within the zone).

If the point lies north (Northern Hemisphere) of the equator,
coordinates always increase from south to north (bottom of map to the
top) of the equator, with the equator given a value of 0 meters in the
Northern Hemisphere..

For locations south (Southern Hemisphere) of the equator, the
equator is given a false value of 10,000,000 meters in the Southern
South Pole Hemisphere and values decrease from north to south (top of map to
the bottom) of the equator.


UTM Z19 0297480E 4834360N UTM Z19 0297480E 4834360N (with a Northern Hemisphere map)
will be used for an example in a
Northern Hemisphere map 1. Coordinate 0297480E represents an east-west measurement and is the
and a easting. This coordinate is located 202,520 meters west of zone central
Southern Hemisphere map. meridian line.

2. The 202,520 meters was calculated by observing that 297,480E is smaller
than 500,000mE. Therefore, 500,000mE – 0297480E = 202,520. The
coordinate is 202 thousand, 520 meters west of zone central meridian line.

NOTE:
If the Easting number is greater than 500,000mE, for example 574620E.
The coordinate is located 74,620 meters east of zone central meridian line.
This number 74,620 meters was calculated by observing that 574620E is
bigger than 500,000mE. 574620 E– 500000mE = 74,620. Therefore it
is 74,620 meters east from the central meridian.

3. Coordinate 4834360N represents a north-south measurement and is the
northing. The location of this coordinate is 4,834,360 meters North of the
equator in the zone, which starts at 0 meters.

Z19 0297480E 4834360N (with a Southern Hemisphere map)

1. The coordinate 0297480E is the same as above.

2. The coordinate 4834360N represents a north-south measurement and is
the northing. The location of this coordinate is 5,165,640 meters South of
the equator in the zone. The number 5,165,640 was calculated by
Subtracting 4,834,360 from 10,000,000 m N.


1. A UTM coordinate includes the zone, easting coordinate, and northing coordinate; this coordinate describes a specific
location using meters. There are different ways that UTM coordinates are written, for example:

Z19 0297480E 4834360N
19 0297480E 4834360N
0297480mE 4834360mN (zone number is not used, because the hiking groups are all using the same maps and know
297480mE 4834360mN what zone they are in for communicating their location to each other via radios.)

2. Coordinates are also abbreviated to the extent of location accuracy desired; for example, UTM Z19 0297480E 4834360N :

19 297 4834 (1000 m by 1000 m square)
19 2974 48343 (100 m by 100 m square)
19 29748 483436 (10 m by 10 m square)
19 297480 4834360 (1 m by 1 m square)

NOTE:
The more digits you include,
the closer you get
to the exact location.

NOTE:
More detail given in the following slides.


• UTM refers to the system grid that divides the world into sixty zones, at 6º degree intervals.
• The UTM grid is based on the METER SYSTEM, and grid lines are always one kilometer apart (1,000
meters), making it much easier to estimate distance on a map.
• UTM numbers indicate east/west and north/south positions. The numbers along the left/right of margin
are called Northing, numbers along the top/bottom are called Easting. Increasing numbers indicate you
are traveling either north or east, decreasing numbers south or west.
• A full UTM tick number along the margin of the map is as follows: tick 4281000mN and tick 4282000mN, the
principle (large) digits 81 and 82 indicates thousands of meters, and since a thousand meters equals one
kilometer, the two ticks are one thousand meters or one kilometer apart ( 82 – 81 = 1 ).

• The last three smaller numbers 000m 42 82
indicates hundreds of meters. If the ticks
read 4281000mN and 4281500mN this would 1000
indicate the ticks were five hundred meters
or ½ kilometer apart. north
• GN refers to the UTM grid.
• The more digits you include, the closer south
you get to the exact location.

559000m 4281000m (4digit) 1000m x 1000m area.
559700m 4281100m (6 digit) 100m x 100m area. 42 81000mN
559750m 4281170m (8 digit) 10m x 10m area.
559753m 4281175m (10 digit) 1m x 1m area.
5 59 west east 5 60 000m E


This is good to use when navigators have the same maps
and need to communicate their location via walkie-talkies,
when they are separated for any reason.
1. Note which 1000 meter grid square your position is in
(read from the left bottom corner).
• Example ( ) is in 559000 and 4082000.
2. Note that the Easting number (vertical grid line) is
always read first, then the Northing (horizontal).
Also note that two digits are large (principle digits)
and the rest are small. This makes it easier to read.
3. Align the protractor within the grid square and see
what small square your position ( ) is in.
4. Then include vertical and horizontal square numbers
to get 559700 and 4082100 GRID COORDINATE.
• You can read the six digits as 597 821, 100
meter by 100 meter area (328FT x 328FT).
You are somewhere
in this square area.


This protractor is more accurate in your location.
1. Note which 1000 meter grid square your position is
in (read from the left bottom corner).
• Example ( ) is in 559000 and 4082000.
2. Note that the Easting number (vertical grid line) is
always read first, then Northing (horizontal). Also
note that two digits are large (principle digits) and
the rest are small. This makes it easier to read.
3. Align protractor horizontal scale with 82 horizontal
grid line square and shift left or right till the vertical
scale is aligned over your position ( ). 5975 8217
4. Then include the vertical and horizontal tick
numbers to get 559750 and 4082170 GRID
COORDINATE numbers.
• You can read the eight digits as 5975 8217,
10 meter by 10 meter area (33FT x 33FT).
You are exactly here.


On this type of protractor you have a general location
where you are.
100m x 100m area / 10,000 sq meters
110y x 110y area / 12,100 sq yards
At which location are you? On this type of protractor you have a more exact
A. South west side of road, west side of hill? location where you are.
B. North east side of road, north west side of hill?
10m x 10m area / 100 sq meters
C. Due north side of hill?
3.3y x 3.3y area / 11 sq yards
D. On top of hill?
E. Due south side of hill? You know you are exactly at location B.

C B
B
D
A E


DETERMINING TRAVEL DISTANCE
DESCRIPTION
Determining travel distance is the most common error encountered
while moving. There may be circumstances where you are unable to
determine travel distance using your map. It is therefore essential
to learn methods by which you can accurately measure, pace, or
estimate distances on the ground.
How far is that mountain? An ability to judge distances accurately
is not a natural gift, but it is a skill worth developing. Judging
distances accurately can help to identify features and avoid wrong
assumptions that could lead to trouble; (“We should have reached
camp by now… that’s got to be Eagle Mountain, I think?”)
• There are several techniques to measure distance on a map.
– STRAIGHT LINE DISTANCE – measuring from point A to point B on a map (horizontal distance).
– CURVATURE DISTANCE – measuring a trail or other curved line on a map (horizontal distance).
– SLOPE DISTANCE – measuring the planned route terrain slope on a map (vertical distance).
• There are several techniques to determine distance on the ground.
– SPEED – estimating your travel speed, how many miles per hour.
– PACE COUNT – count the number of steps you have taken and translate to ground distance.
– ESTIMATION – visualizing a set ground distance.
– TIME – Make it a habit of keeping your map and compass handy and refer to them every hour or so
to locate your position (more often in low visibility). Keep track of your starting time, rest breaks and
hiking pace. This will also give you an idea of how far you have traveled over a period of time.


MEASURE STRAIGHT LINE DISTANCE
1. To determine straight-line distance between two points on a map, lay a straight-edged piece of paper on
the map so that the edge of the paper touches both points and extends past them. Make a tick mark on the
edge of the paper at each point.

2. To convert the map distance to ground distance,
move the paper down to the graphic bar scale, and
align the right tick mark with a printed number in the
primary scale so that the left tick mark is in the B
extension scale.

3. Measure (add) the bar scale miles or kilometers.

1 ½ 0 1
MILE
1½ MILES
1 ½ 0 1 KILOMETER
A


MEASURE CURVATURE DISTANCE
Measuring distance along map features that are not straight is a little more difficult. One technique that can
be employed for this task is to use a number of straight-line segments. The accuracy of this method is
dependent on the number of straight-line segments used.

B

Another method for measuring
curvature map distances is to use a
device called a map wheel. This
device uses a small rotating wheel that
records the distance traveled. The A
distance is measured by placing the
device wheel directly on the map and
tracing the trail or planned route with
the wheel, it measures either in
centimeters or inches.


MEASURE CURVATURE DISTANCE
To measure distance along a road, stream, or other curved line, the straight edge of a piece of paper is used.
Place a tick mark on the paper and map at the beginning point from which the curved line is to be measured.
Align the edge of the paper along a straight portion and make a tick mark on both map and paper where the
edge of the paper leaves the straight portion of the line being measured. Repeat for each straight segment of
the road, stream, or other curved line. When completed, measure distance from first tick mark to last tick
mark on map scale.
NOTE – you can also use a string laid out on the planned route to measure distance.

B

B
2 1½ 1 ½ 0 1 2
MILE
3 ½ MILES A
STRING
STRING
2 1½ 1 ½ 0 1 2
KILOMETER A


MEASURE SLOPE DISTANCE (percentage or degree)
1. Determine elevation of point (A) (3240 feet) and (B) (2800 feet).
2. Vertical Distance (VD) is subtracting the lowest slope point (B) from the highest point (A), (440 feet) is VD.
3. Measure Horizontal Distance (HD) between points (A) and (B).
4. Compute the slope percentage by using the formula below. (HD) + (Slope%) = total distance
Example 5280ft (1mile) + 25% slope = 5280ft + 1320ft (25% of 5280) = 6600ft (1¼ mile )
* * 25% slope (14º )= every 100ft traveled forward is 25ft traveled up (4ft forward is 1ft up) * *
NOTE: the higher the percentage % or degreeº, the steeper the slope and the longer the distance.
Slope % percent = V D x 100 = % percent
HD

Slope degreeº = V D x 57.3 = slope degreeº
HD B

Slopes above 12% is a concern for a hiker.
Slopes above 25% and a hiker is climbing.

CURVATURE DISTANCE IS 3½ MILES = 18480 FEET
Slope % = 440 ft x 100 = 2 % ( + 370 ft ) [1º slope]
18480
Total distance 18480 + 370 =18850 feet
A
STRAIGHT LINE DISTANCE IS ¾ MILE = 3960 FEET
Slope%= 440 ft x 100 = 12 % ( + 443 ft ) [6º slope]
3960 Total distance 3960 + 443 = 4403 feet CONTOUR INTERVAL = 40 feet


MEASURE SLOPE DISTANCE ( slope profile)
Curvature Trail route vs. Straight Line route.
The (long distance) The straight (short distance)
trail slope profile is line slope is very steep,
B gentle and easy to up and down hill,
walk. difficult to walk.

A
3240 3240
3200 3200
3160 3160
3120 3120
3080 3080
3040 3040
3000 3000
2960 2960
2920 2920
2880 2880
2840 2840
2800 2800
2760 B 2760


SLOPE DISTANCE ( slope profile)

Curvature Trail A
route and B
slope steepness.

Even though this
route is longer, it
is obvious that
this is a gentle
and easy route to
walk.

A
B

3240 A 3240
3200 3200
3160 3160
3120 3120
3080 3080
3040 3040
3000 3000
2960 2960
2920 2920
2880 2880
2840 2840
2800 2800
2760 2760 B


DETERMINE DISTANCE BY SPEED
• Estimating your rate of travel is essential when calculating the amount of time it will take to traverse a
route. Especially when a group is hiking at the pace of the slowest group member.
• This data is needed when planning your own trip or a group trip.
• According to the U.S. Army, the following way is a good method to estimate hiking speed.

FEMALE MALE
TIME STEPS SPEED TIME STEPS SPEED
10 SEC 20 - 21 3 MPH 10 SEC 16- 17 3 MPH
10 SEC 27 - 28 4 MPH 10 SEC 20 - 21 4 MPH

You also need to factor in elevation gain and loss
ADD ONE HOUR FOR EVERY 1,000 FEET OF ELEVATION CHANGE

Example you hike 4 MPH, on a 4 mile route, with a 2,000 feet elevation gain, takes you 3 hours.
1hr (4miles / 4mph) + 2hrs (1hr per 1,000ft [2,000ft]) = 1 + 2 = 3 hours


DETERMINE DISTANCE BY PACE COUNT
Why count paces?

While pace counting is an old distance determination technique that is seldom used by trail-bound hikers, it is
an essential technique used by off-trail navigators (with other techniques) who travel cross-country through
challenging wilderness. In certain situations, a map and compass alone just aren't enough.
More mistakes are made in orienteering by wrongly estimating distance than from any other reason. While
most of us can quickly learn to travel in the right direction, few of us have any idea of how far we have
traveled.
Think about it for a moment. Have you ever cut an azimuth through the bush and wondered if you had missed
your target, or perhaps not gone far enough, when it did not materialize? Did you continue on another 10
minutes, then 20 minutes, hoping it would appear? Or did you backtrack? You could have eliminated much of
the guesswork in this situation by using a technique known as “pace-counting."

Pace counting with Ranger Pacing Beads is well suited for the complicated navigational challenges faced by
today's wilderness navigator. For example, pace counting is essential for dead reckoning, where azimuth
(or direction of travel) data is combined with pacing (or distance traveled) data. With this technique, one can
establish his or her position in nondescript terrain, foul weather, or even in complete darkness.
The hardest thing to get a "feel" for is how to adjust your pace-count for weaving back and forth on a route
covered with trees, shrubs, and boulders.
The "dead" in dead reckoning is derived from "ded.," an abbreviation of "deduced.“ It's navigation by logical
deduction. It does not necessarily mean it's a deadly form of navigation.


• In thick jungle, where landmarks can not always be seen to track your position, PACE COUNT is the best
way of measuring distance. It is the only method which lets a navigator know how far he has traveled. With
this information, he can estimate where he is at any given time.
• To be accurate, the navigator must practice pacing over different types of terrain. First you have to do some
calculations. Measure out exactly 100 meters on three types of ground. Flat easy terrain, rougher terrain
with some slope and then steep hill terrain. Then on each measured course count your paces (every time
your left foot touches the ground or every 2 steps = 1 pace). You will have 3 different pace counts for
different types of terrain. If you wear a pack when in the woods then do your pace testing with the pack and
boots on. Once finished MEMORIZE your pace count of all 3 types.
• When using a map and you have a destination that's 3 km's away you have an idea how many paces it will
take you to travel that distance as an estimate.
• A navigator could make a PERSONAL PACE TABLE like one of these three examples:
TERRAIN METERS PACES TERRAIN METERS PACES Flat easy 100 65
terrain meters paces
Swamp 100 85 Sand 100 115
Rougher 100 75
Forest 100 70 Gravel 100 100
terrain with meters paces
Desert 100 115 Snow 100 120 some slope
Snow 100 115 Flat 100 65 Steep hill 100 95
terrain meters paces
Jungle 100 125 Thick brush 100 80
Prairie 100 65 Up hill 100 95
Hills 100 95 Down hill 100 90


0 100 200 900 1000 meters 1100 meters 4000 meters 4900 meters 5000 meters
meters meters meters meters (1 kilometer) (1km 100m) (4 kilometer) (4km 900m) (5 kilometers)

4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4km 4 km
1 1 1 1 1
3 3
2 2
1km 1 km 1 1

9 9 9 9 9 9 9
8 8 8 8 8 8 8
7 7 7 900m 7 7 7 900m 7
6 6 6 8 6 6 6 8 6
5 5 5 7 5 5 5 7 5
4 4 4 6 4 4 4 6 4
3 3 3 5 3 3 3 5 3
2 2 4 2 2 2 4 2
1 3 1 1 3 1
200m 2 2
100m 1 1 100m 1


DETERMINE DISTANCE BY ESTIMATION
At times, because of land navigation situation, it may be necessary to estimate range. There are methods that
may be used to estimate range or distance.

Proficiency of Methods. The methods discussed are used only to estimate range. Proficiency in these
methods requires constant practice. The best training technique is to require the navigator to pace the range
after he has estimated the distance. In this way, the navigator discovers the actual range for himself, which
makes a greater impression than if he is simply told the correct range.

100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. The navigator visualizes a distance of 100 meters on the ground.

Rule-of-Thumb-Measure Method. The navigator uses his thumb, arm and eyes.

Time-Measure Method. Keep track of your starting time and hiking pace.


100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. There are factors that affect range estimation.

Factors Affecting Factors Causing Under-estimation of Factors Causing Over-estimation of
Range Estimation Range Range
The clearness of When most of the object is visible and When only a small part of the object
outline and details of offers a clear outline can be seen or the object is small in
the object relation to its surroundings
Nature of terrain or When looking across a depression that is When looking across a depression that
position of the mostly hidden from view is totally visible
observer
When looking downward from high ground When vision is confined, as in streets,
When looking down a straight, open road draws, or forest trails
or along a railroad When looking from low ground toward
high ground
When looking over uniform surfaces like
water, snow, desert, grain fields When poor light, such as dawn and
In bright light or when the sun is shining dusk; in rain, snow, fog; or when the
from behind the observer sun is in the observer’s eyes
Light and atmosphere When the object is in sharp contrast with When object blends into the
the background or is silhouetted because background or terrain
of its size, shape, or color

When seen in clear air of high altitudes


100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. To use this method, the navigator must be able to visualize a distance of
100 meters on the ground. For ranges up to 500 meters, determine the number of 100-meter increments
between the two objects he wishes to measure. Beyond 500 meters, the navigator must select a point
halfway to the object and determine the number of 100-meter increments to the halfway point, then double it to
find the range to the object.

Example 1


100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. 200 meters to the road from the starting point (200 meters).
400 meters to the barn from the starting point, or 200 meters from the road.
800 meters to the silo from the starting point, or 400 meters from the barn.
1200 meters to the tree line from the starting point, or 400 meters from the silo.

Example 2

1200m
400m tree line
800m
400m silo
400m
200m barn
200m
200m road

Total Distance Estimated
1200 meters (1.2 kilometers)


100-Meter Unit-of-Measure Method. 200 meters to the dirt road from the starting point (200 meters).
600 meters to the first tree patch from the starting point, or 400 meters from the dirt road.
1400 meters to the second tree patch from the starting point, or 800 meters from the first tree patch.
2400 meters to the mid point from the starting point, or 1000 meters from the second tree patch.
4400 meters to the hill top from the starting point, or 2000 meters from the mid point.

Example 3
4400m 2000m hill top

2400m 1000m mid point
1400m 800m tree patch
600m 400m tree patch

200m 200m dirt road

Total Distance Estimated
4400 meters (4.4 kilometers)


Rule-of-Thumb Method

YOUR ARM IS ten times longer than the distance between your eyes. With that fact, you
can estimate the distance between you and any object of approximate known size.
Example, you're standing on the side of a hill, trying to decide how far it is to the top of a
low hill on the other side of the valley. Just below the hilltop is a barn, about 100 feet wide
on the side facing you.
1. Hold one arm straight out in front of you, elbow straight, thumb pointing up.
2. Close one eye, and align one edge of your thumb with one edge of the barn.
3. Without moving your head or arm, switch eyes, now sighting with the eye that was
closed and closing the other.
4. Your thumb will appear to jump sideways as a result of the change in perspective.
5. How far did it move? (Sight the same edge of your thumb when you switch eyes).
• Let's say it jumped about five times the width of the barn, or about 500 feet.
• Now multiply that figure by the handy constant 10 (the ratio of the length of your
arm to the distance between your eyes), and you get the distance between you
and the barn -- 5,000 feet, or about one mile.
With practice, you can perform a quick thumb-jump estimate in just a few seconds, and the
result will usually be more accurate than an out-and-out guess.


1. You estimate that the small barn is 20 meters wide.
2. You stretch your arm out, put your thumb up and close one eye.

3. You switch closed Example 1
eye with open eye.
20m
4. And find that your
400m
thumb moved the
distance of two barn
lengths.

5. 20 x 2 x 10 = 400m


1. You estimate that the small barn in the far distance is 20 meters wide.
2. You stretch your arm out, put your thumb up and close one eye close.

3. You switch closed Example 2 20m
eye with open eye.
4. And find that your 800m
thumb moved the
distance of four
barn lengths.

5. 20 x 4 x 10 = 800m


Time Method
• Make it a habit of keeping your map and compass handy and refer to them every hour or so to locate your
position (more often in low visibility). Keep track of your starting time, rest breaks and hiking pace. This
will also give you an idea of how far you have traveled over a period of time.
• This is based on knowing the speed at which you are walking and keeping a note of when you left your
last known point. Walking speed varies and is dependent on a range of factors including fitness, weight of
rucksack, length of journey, wind, conditions underfoot, slope angle.
• The simplest formula combines the horizontal distance with the height gained. Allow 5 km per hour on the
flat plus 10 minutes for every 100 meters height gain. But remember that it doesn't allow for rests or
stops. SEE TIMING CHART (next slide)
• Working out timing calculations mentally becomes straightforward with practice - Measure the distance
and allow 1.2 minutes for every 100 meters, at a pace of 5kph (see chart next slide).
 An easy way to work this out is to use the 12 times table and move the decimal point forward.
TWO EXAMPLES –
300 meters
3 x 12 = 36 = 3.6 minutes = 3½ minutes (Round off to the nearest half minute)
650 meters
6 x 12 = 72 = 7.2 minutes = 7 minutes (Round off to the nearest half minute)
Add ½ minute for the extra 50 meters = 7½ minutes
NOTE:
None of this is of any use if you don't have a watch. It is useful to have a
stopwatch so you don't have to remember the time at the start of each leg.


Time Method
Using a Timing Chart for the horizontal component makes the calculations easy.
Although many people prefer to do it mentally.
The timings have been rounded
Timing Chart
to the nearest ½ minute.
For short navigation legs, break it down
to 1.2 minutes per 100 meters horizontal Distance traveled Speed in kilometers per hour
distance and 1 minute for every 10 meters in meters 5kph 4kph 3kph 2kph
of ascent.
1000 m 12 min 15 min 20 min 30 min
You can only travel at the speed of the 900 m 11 min 13½ min 18 min 27 min
slowest person and so you may need to
use a slower formula such as 4 kph which 800 m 9½ min 12 min 16 min 24 min
is calculated at 1.5 minutes per 100 meters. 700 m 8½ min 10½ min 14 min 21 min
600 m 7 min 9 min 12 min 18 min
When going gently downhill, it is best to
ignore the height loss and just use the 500 m 6 min 7½ min 10 min 15 min
horizontal component of the formula. 400 m 5 min 6 min 8 min 12 min
When descending steep ground which 300 m 3½ min 4½ min 6 min 9 min
will slow your rate of travel a rough estimate 200 m 2½ min 3 min 4 min 6 min
can be used – allow 1 minute for every 30
meters of descent, although this is only an 100 m 1min 1½ min 2 min 3 min
approximation. 50 m ½ min ¾ min 1 min 1½ min
Remember to add 1 minute for every 10 meters of ascent.


TESTING

Now it is time for the following . . .

• Written exam

• Hands-on / Outdoors exam


THE END OF
LAND NAVIGATION
PRESENTATION
PART 2

Land navigation part 2

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Land navigation part 2