Learning style inventory (1)

Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process Module 5 – Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences 1
Activity
What type of learner are you? What’s your style? Answer the
Learning Style Inventory below and find out!
LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY
1. If I have to learn how to do something, I learn best when I:
(V) Watch someone show me how.
(A) Hear someone tell me how.
(K) Try to do it myself.
2. When I read, I often find that I:
(V) Visualize what I am reading in my mind's eye.
(A) Read out loud or hear the words inside my head.
(K) Fidget and try to "feel" the content.
3. When asked to give directions, I:
(V) See the actual places in my mind or prefer to draw the directions.
(A) Have no difficulty in giving directions verbally.
(K) Have to point or move my body as I give them.
4. If I am unsure how to spell a word, I:
(V) Write it in order to determine if it looks right.
(A) Spell it out loud in order to determine if it sounds right.
(K) Write it in order to determine if it feels right.
5. When I write, I:
(V) Concentrate on how neat and well spaced my letters and words
appear.
(A) Often say the letters and words to myself.
(K) Push hard on my pen or pencil and can feel the flow of the words or
letters as I form them.
6. If I had to remember a list of items, I would remember best if I:
(V) Wrote them down.
(A) Said them over and over to myself.
(K) Moved around and used my fingers to name each item.
7. I prefer teachers who:
(V) Use the board or overhead projector while they lecture.
(A) Talk with a lot of expression.
(K) Use hands-on activities.
8. When trying to concentrate, I have a difficult time when:
(V) There is a lot of clutter or movement in the room.
(A) There is a lot of noise in the room.
(K) I have to sit still for any length of time.
9. When solving a problem, I:
(V) Write or draw diagrams to see it.
(A) Talk myself through it.
(K) Use my entire body or move objects to help me think.

10. When given written instructions on how to build something, I:
(V) Read them silently and try to visualize how the parts will fit together.
(A) Read them out loud and talk to myself as I put the parts together.
(K) Try to put the parts together first and read later.
11. To keep occupied while waiting, I:
(V) Look around, stare, or read.
(A) Talk or listen to others.
(K) Walk around, manipulate things with my hands, or move/shake my
feet as I sit.
12. If I had to verbally describe something to another person, I would:
(V) Be brief because I do not like to talk at length.
(A) Go into great detail because I like to talk.
(K) Gesture and move around while talking.
13. If someone were verbally describing something to me, I would:
(V) Try to visualize what she was saying.
(A) Enjoy listening but want to interrupt and talk myself.
(K) Become bored if her description got too long and detailed.
14. When trying to recall names, I remember:
(V) Faces but forget names.
(A) Names, but forget faces.
(K) The situation that I met the person other than the person's name or
face.
Scoring Instructions: Add the number of responses for each letter and
enter the total below. The area with the highest number of responses is
your primary mode of learning.
Visual Auditory Kinesthetic
V = _____ A = ______ K = _____
Source: https://sslc.wikispaces.com/file/view/Learning+Style+Inventory.doc

Analysis
Share your answers with your group.
1. What do your scores tell you about your learning and thinking styles?
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2. Do you agree with your scores?
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3. Is it possible for one to score equally on the three styles? Explain.
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TEACHING LEARNING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES TO
STUDENTS
Many teachers who use learning styles and multiple intelligences in
their classrooms wonder how important it is for students to know about
these models. Experience has taught us that students who understand the
models are better able to understand their own learning profiles, to develop
flexibility and adaptability in their thinking, and to set realistic goals about
minimizing learning weaknesses and maximizing strengths. In fact,
research on the importance of metacognitive thinking supports the notion
that instructional approaches that help students reflect on their own
learning processes are highly beneficial to their overall learning and tend to
stimulate motivation to improve as learners (Brown, 1989; Marzano et al.,
1988).
When students engage in this kind of “thinking about thinking,” they
become more self-directed and are able to select appropriate strategies for
particular learning situations. In Libertyville, Illinois, where high schoolers
take a course in style-based metacognition, course instructor Sue Ulrey
explains, “We want students to understand what sorts of learning styles
there are and how to interpret their own behavior in learning. This leads to
greater self-awareness.” (Caccamo, 1998, Section 5, p. 3) Because
models of learning can be taught rather easily to children as young as 1st
grade (Armstrong, 1994), many teachers teach students about learning
style and multiple intelligences so they can better understand themselves
as students and as people. Of course, students—and teachers—must
understand that styles and intelligences are not simply categories of
identification; any description of a learner is an approximation. Both models
are useful ways of helping us to understand our own strengths and
weaknesses as learners so that we may grow and become more balanced.
This chapter will show you a compendium of methods some teachers use
to teach both models to their students..

Teaching Students About Learning Styles
Demonstration
Barb Heinzman of Geneva, New York, led her students through the
following hands-on “Apple” demonstration to teach them about perception
and judgment:
“Apple” Demo
Everyone uses four ways to learn. Today we will learn how we use our
four functions to learn about an apple. [Barb has apples in a bag, one for
each student in a group.]
One way to learn about something is through your five senses: your eyes,
ears, nose, touch, and taste. Your senses tell you what something looks
like, tastes like, feels like, and so forth. Select an apple and use your
senses to describe your apple.
Another way to learn about something is to use your sixth sense. This is
called intuition. It helps you to learn about things that you can't see, touch,
taste, or smell. It helps you to make guesses or to use your imagination.
Imagine what your apple might taste like or imagine where it comes from.
Intuition also helps you to symbolize things. What are some things your
apple might symbolize? Some examples might be good health or New York
City. Use your intuition to come up with a new idea of what an apple might
symbolize.
Still another way to learn about an apple is to use your thinking. Your
thinking helps you to understand the purpose for things. For example,
thinking helps you to understand the parts of an apple and what their
functions are. Identify some of the parts of your apple—stem, skin, seed,
pulp—and think about what each part does.
The last way to learn about something is to use your feelings. Feelings tell
you if you like or dislike something. Do you feel you will like your apple?
Discuss what you like or dislike about it.
Now, put your apple back in the bag. With your eyes closed, try to find your
apple using all of your senses.
Questioning in Style
Another way to teach students about the four learning styles is to
have them experience activities or questions in each of the four styles and
then ask them to reflect on the thinking they used to answer the question
or complete the activities.
For example, after reading a story, Barb Heinzman asks her
students questions about what they remember (Mastery), questions that
require explaining and proving (Understanding), questions that require the
use of their imagination (Self-Expressive), or questions that invite students
to reflect on and share their feelings (Interpersonal). Barb used the
questions in Figure 6.1 to help students comprehend and hook into the first
chapter of the historical novel My Brother Sam Is Dead.
Figure 6.1. Questions in Style—My Brother Sam Is Dead
What is happening in the story?
Who are the characters and
what are their traits?
Which character do you relate to the
most? The father, Sam, or Tim? Whom do
you agree with, Sam or his father?
What is the meaning of the What do you imagine Tim is thinking

story? Why are the characters
arguing?
during this argument? How is a colony like
a child?
Note: See Collier, J. L., & Collier, C. (1989). My brother Sam is dead. New
York: Scholastic Paperbacks.
Barb reinforced that the Mastery style focuses on remembering;
Understanding style, on reasoning or explaining; the Self-Expressive style,
on imagining or creating; and the Interpersonal style, on relating or
feelings. She then asked her students to stop after answering each
question and to think about which type of thinking they used. By the end of
the day the students understood the four learning styles. Next, she asked
her students to pay attention to which styles of thinking they enjoyed the
most; which they found difficult to do; and which they wanted to get better
at. Soon the students were able to analyze activities and diagnose their
own learning styles and profiles.
Of course, four-style questioning can be used at any grade level.
With primary students, it is important to use words that are easy to
understand. A 1st grade teacher made her presentation on styles
particularly memorable by using a visual organizer of a face and by using
simplified words, rather than abstract style categories (see Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2. Head Organizer
Similarly, four-style questioning is also effective with secondary
students. Figure 6.3 shows an activity a high school English teacher used
in conjunction with Robert Frost's poem “The Road Not Taken” to help her
students become more aware of style, as well as better readers of poetry.
Figure 6.3. Questions in Style—Secondary Level: Poem “The Road
Not Taken”
What is happening in the poem?
Who is speaking? Identify the rhyme
scheme.
Do you relate to this poem? Tell about
a hard decision you have made.
What is the meaning of the poem?
What is meant by “And that has
made all the difference?”
What do you imagine the poet was
thinking when he wrote this? How is a
decision like a fork in the road?
Or, rather than developing questions in style, you may assign students
tasks in style. This method asks students to complete four tasks while
simultaneously reflecting on their style preferences and dislikes. One
particularly effective way to use tasks in style is to assign tasks that have to
do with learning styles as content. This way, students are deepening their
own understanding of learning styles while they are becoming more aware
of who they are as learners. Figures 6.4 and 6.5 provide elementary and
secondary examples, respectively, of tasks in various learning styles.

Figure 6.4. Tasks in Style—Elementary
Mastery Make a List Relating The Helping Hand
1. Write your name on four
pieces of paper.
2. Write the name of one
learning style on the top of
each page.
3. Trace the correct icon on
the bottom of each page.
4. List three facts about each
learning style on the four
pages.
Trace your hand. In each finger, write or
draw something that tells a friend about
yourself as a learner.
Understanding Explain Self-Expressive Picture This
Compare your learning style to
that of a classmate or relative.
Include the strengths and
weaknesses of the two styles you
are comparing.
Pick four animals to represent each of
the learning styles. On separate pieces
of drawing paper, draw and color each
animal. Then explain why you picked it
to represent a particular learning style.
Figure 6.5. Tasks in Style—Secondary
Mastery Relating
Write the name of each learning
style. Under the name, write three
facts about that learning style. Then,
Develop a lesson plan for teaching
learning styles to an elementary
school student.
pick a character who represents that
style.
Understanding Self-Expressive
Write a brief essay that compares
your learning style to that of a
classmate or relative. Include the
strengths and weaknesses of the two
styles you are comparing.
Pick four symbols to represent each
of the learning styles. On separate
pieces of drawing paper, draw each
symbol. Then explain why you picked
it to represent a particular learning
style.
Reflecting in Style
Similar to questioning in style, reflecting in style asks students to think back
on work they have done and to use the four styles to develop a deep
awareness of how they think and work (see Figure 6.6). The goal of this
task is to determine how the lessons learned about the self might be
applied to the next project.
Figure 6.6. Reflecting in Style
What did you do to complete the
project? Describe the steps you
took.
What did you like about doing this
project?
What didn't you like?
How has carrying out this project
changed the way you view yourself as a
learner?
Which steps worked best for you? In doing this project, what did you learn

Why do you think so?
As you did the project, what didn't
work so well for you?
How do you know you did a good
job?
How do you know the project was
done well? List at least three
reasons.
that you might apply in doing another
project?
In doing the project, what did you learn?
If you were to do this project again, what
might you do differently?
Descriptions and Case Studies
Another method is to have students read descriptions about the four
styles and to think about which style sounds most like them and which
sounds least like them. Stacey Gerhardt of Geneva, New York, gives her
students case studies that sound like the one shown in Figure 6.7.
Figure 6.7. 5th and 6th Grade Case Studies
The following four passages were written by four different 5th and 6th
grade students about their experiences at school. Each student represents
one of the four learning styles: Each is either a Mastery, Interpersonal,
Understanding, or Self-Expressive learner. Read the passages and decide
which one sounds the most like you. Underline any words or phrases that
describe behaviors you can identify with.
The Cast of Characters
Samuel T.: Mastery Learner
I will often make a list of my next day's activities so I can be ready. Then
I can check them off when I get them done, which usually happens. I don't
mind class projects, as long as the teacher gives us an exact set of
directions as to what is due and when. Usually I turn in those projects a few
days early to make sure I have them done. Teachers like my work, although
they say that I need to be more flexible and realize that there isn't always a
right and a wrong answer. I am not exactly sure what they mean by that. I
come to school to learn, and so I like it when the teacher shows me exactly
what to do and what the answers are. I know I have mastered the material
when I get a test or project back and everything on it is 100 percent right.
Nina F.: Self-Expressive Learner
Other kids usually like to have me on their project team because I always
have lots of ideas. I like it best when the teacher says, “You pick a project
and create what you want.” Don't you think that's what school should be
for? I mean, it should be a place where they let you come and explore ideas
instead of page after page of stuff! I really like thinking of things to do,
although all of my “brainy ideas” don't always come off. Of course, the more
ideas we can come up with, and the crazier they are, the better for me. I
sometimes get into trouble because I finish assignments at the last minute.
I don't really forget them, it's just that some of the routine junk really bores
me. Sometimes I'll get so involved in an idea that's not necessarily the one
we're working on, I forget about the one I have to turn in!
Nancy T.: Understanding Learner
I like learning about ideas and their history and the reasons that
people believe in them. The part of a class that I like best is when we get a

chance to really think through a topic, usually on paper but sometimes out
loud in discussion. I remember my mom saying that as a little kid I was
always asking “Why?” I guess that hasn't changed much. If people give me
a chance to compare choices and make my own decisions, I usually make
the right one. I think school is a great place to find out all sorts of things. If,
after a long discussion or an assignment, I have been able to look at all the
different viewpoints and start to understand them, then I feel like I haven't
wasted my time. For this reason, I guess I like essay tests the best because
they give me some time to really express my opinions and prove my ideas.
Shamir F.: Interpersonal Learner
You might call me a “people person.” It always makes me feel good to
know that I have helped someone, even if it's just talking something over.
Now that I think about it, I have always been the one moved by the teacher
because I talk so much in class. That never bothered me so much because
then I got to meet new people! I wasn't trying to go against the teacher. It's
just that I find it more interesting doing work with a friend or a group than by
myself. That's the best thing about school—lots of action among friends.
People have told me that I get too “emotionally involved” with everything,
but I really like finding out how others feel about things and what they are
doing about them. I am happiest when the teacher divides us into groups to
develop some project together, and I really get into an assignment when it
relates somehow to me.
Rank the four characters according to their similarity to you:
1. Not at all like me; 2. A little like me; 3. Somewhat like me; or 4. A lot
like me.
Samuel T. Nina F. Nancy T. Shamir F.
How can you explain this order? Does it tell you anything about yourself?
Descriptions at the high school level look different from those in
Figure 6.7. For example, Figure 6.8 provides a sample description a high
school teacher developed for both styles and intelligences. Students then
had to identify and explain how they knew what style (and intelligences)
they exemplified.
Figure 6.8. High School Case Study
Brad: I really liked my American Literature class. It wasn't really
formal, and the teacher didn't lecture for hours about stuff that no one was
interested in. He encouraged discussions of the books, letting us form little
work groups within the classroom. We got a chance to talk to other kids and
see what they thought about the reading instead of just hearing the
teacher's point of view. And when we finished talking in small groups, we
were allowed to report to the whole class what we had discussed. Even the
regular discussions were good because our teacher really cared about what
everyone had to say. We could speak without raising our hands or
anything, and he didn't even get mad! That was good because lots of times
I wanted to talk. There were a lot of things in the books which I really
understood—characters that were like me—and my teacher encouraged
me to speak up and share my feelings with the class. He also encouraged
good communication between him and the students by having personal
writing conferences with individual students on a regular basis. That way,

Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process Module 5 – Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences
10
we got to see what he thought about how we were doing in class.
Checklists and Inventories
Checklists and inventories are valuable tools that help students
reflect on their preferred behaviors. Simple checklists are sufficient for
primary and lower elementary students. For example, 3rd grade teacher
Joanne Curran of Ladue Schools, Missouri, introduces and uses the
checklist shown in Figure 6.9, with the following directions:
We are all able to learn in different ways. But just like you have a favorite
toy or TV show, you also have a favorite style of learning. Because of your
learning style, there are things that you really enjoy. There are other things
that you may not like at all. No style is better than another. They are just
different. Sometimes, we need to be able to work in a style that is not our
favorite because it's the best way to get a job done.
Finding out your favorite learning style is as simple as 1–2–3:
1. Color in the circle next to any sentences that seem to fit you.
2. Count the number of circles you colored in each square.
3. Circle the box with the most colored-in circles. It is probably
your favorite learning style.
Figure 6.9. Elementary Checklist
Mastery
• ___ I enjoy doing things I
know about.
• ___ I'm good at getting
things done.
Interpersonal
• ___ I like games that everyone
can play and nobody loses.
• ___ I enjoy working with friends.
• ___ I like copying or
making things.
• ___ I follow a routine every
morning.
• ___ I work out problems
step-by-step.
• ___ I'm good at helping others.
• ___ I like group projects.
• ___ I like it when everyone is
happy.
• ___ I am good at understanding
other people's feelings.
Understanding
• ___ I enjoy reading about
things that interest me.
• ___ I'm good at organizing
things.
• ___ I like to figure out how
things work.
• ___ I learn mostly from
reading.
• ___ I like assignments that
make me think.
• ___ I like to take my time
on projects that interest
me.
Self-Expressive
• ___ I enjoy doing things I've never
done before.
• ___ I'm good at discovering
things.
• ___ I think of lots of new ideas.
• ___ I like to use my imagination.
• ___ I like art and music.
• ___ I like “What if . . .” questions
better than “yes-and-no”
questions.
At upper elementary through secondary levels, the best means for
identifying and helping students reflect on their strengths and weaknesses
as learners is to use the Hanson-Silver Learning Preference Inventory
(LPI) (1991), currently used in hundreds of schools across the United
States. The LPI contains 36 multiple-choice questions whose answers are
keyed to each of the four learning styles (as well as to tendencies for

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introversion and extroversion). Figure 6.10 shows some examples of LPI
items.
Figure 6.10. Sample Learning Preference Inventory Items
Not available for electronic dissemination.
Source: From the Hanson-Silver Learning Preference Inventory. Copyright
© 1991 by Silver Strong & Associates' Thoughtful Education Press
The LPI provides teachers with a comprehensive picture of each student's
learning profile, including a visual overview (see Figure 6.11), learning
strengths, learning weaknesses, preferred environment, and motivating
activities.
Figure 6.11. Sample Visualization of a Student's Profile

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Having this information at their disposal, teachers can make
informed decisions about how to address student styles so that students
are effectively accommodated, challenged, and motivated to grow as
learners. Use of the LPI has proven especially beneficial in addressing the
needs of underachievers, low achievers, and gifted and talented students.
“Style Amoeba”
A fun and effective method for teaching style to elementary students
is to use a “style amoeba” (see Figure 6.12). Used by Janice Rugg-Davis
(1994), a style amoeba is a grid with four style descriptions. The students
draw an amoeba in the middle, placing most of the body in the quadrant
they feel most expresses their style; they place proportional amounts in
each of the remaining quadrants. They then color the sections of the
amoeba according to its quadrant.
Figure 6.12. Style Amoeba
(ST) Brown
Brown is an earthy color. It signifies
“down-to-earth” ideas that usually are
accepted as simple, factual, and
without variance in the answers. It
gives a straightforward type of feeling
without deviating from the standard.
(SF) Red
Red often is used to show feelings.
It gives an impression of emotion.
Red is the significant color for the
nation's most “feeling” holiday,
Valentine's Day. The SF likes
everything to be personalized or
The ST likes things to be “down-to-
earth.”
have feeling.
(NT) Green
Green is the color of the grass. The
grass comes and goes each year and
always promotes growth and wonder.
Green has come to symbolize this
“wonder.” It represents a desire to
know more and understand why things
work. It also means “GO.” The NT's
thoughts are always on the “go”!
(NF) Purple
Purple is a creative color. It is not a
basic color, nor is it a very common
one. It gives the impression of
uniqueness and individuality in
creation or design when applied to
art or drawing. Purple is also a color
chosen often for its beauty. An NF
is constantly striving to make
beauty.
Note: ST = Sensing-Thinking learner; SF = Sensing-Feeling learner; NT =
Intuitive- Thinking learner; NF = Intuitive-Feeling learner.
Source: Rugg-Davis, J. K. (1994). Number the stars: A literature resource
guide. St. Louis: Milliken Publishing. Reproduced by permission.
Other Methods
Another method is to discuss characters students have read or
learned about that reflect a particular style. What style is Hamlet? How
about Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn? What style is Holden Caulfield from
The Catcher in the Rye? Do Ralph, Piggy, Jack, and Simon from Lord of

13
the Flies each embody a particular learning style? What are the strengths
and weaknesses of each character? Or you could talk about any other
sources that have characters showing a particular learning style. For
example, the characters in the Peanuts comic strip represent all four styles.
Charlie Brown is a strong Sensing-Feeling (Interpersonal) thinker. He takes
things to heart; he is always concerned about how his friends feel; he goes
out of his way to help others. Lucy is a dominant Sensing-Thinking learner
(Mastery). She believes in following procedures and she knows there is
always a “right” way to do things. Linus is a true Intuitive-Thinking learner
(Understanding). He loves to know how things work and explain them to
his friends. There is nothing he likes better than a good discussion, and he
learns by questioning. Schroeder is a creative Intuitive-Feeling thinker
(Self-Expressive). Much of his time is devoted to his music, and he is often
in a creative fog.
Another teacher used four symbols to represent each style (see Figures
6.13-6.16).
Figure 6.13–6.16. “Style Symbols” Demo
One style uses the five senses and
thinking. The symbol of this style is
the hand. We use the hand to
symbolize these students because
they like to learn through hands-on
activities, and they like following
A second style likes to learn with the
five senses and feelings. The symbol
for this style is the heart. We use the
heart to represent this style because
these students like to learn with their
friends. They like to learn about people
directions one step at a time. These
learners like to be told or shown
what to do; also, they like activities
that have right or wrong answers.
and how they feel. They like questions
that ask about their feelings. They also
like to be shown what to do, but like to
talk and work with others as they learn.
A third style likes to learn through
the sixth sense—intuition—and
thinking. The symbol for this style is
the head. We use the head to
represent this style because these
students like to learn by thinking
about things. These students like to
solve problems and explain things.
They enjoy questions that ask them
to explain how and why things
work.
The last style uses the sixth sense—
intuition—along with feeling. The
symbol for this style is the eye. We use
the eye because these students love to
use their imagination to see things that
can't be seen by the senses. They like
activities that allow them to pretend
and to create their own ideas. They
also like to choose their own projects
and to make things that are new and
different.

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Reflection Charts
Once your students understand the four styles, they can begin to reflect on
how they use each style and what skills they need to develop in order to
improve their learning in that style. For example, one way to get students
to reflect is to ask them to pay attention to how they went about the task, to
decide what styles they used, and to give themselves advice for the next
time they complete a task [see Figure 6.17].
Figure 6.17. Style Reflection Chart
Noticed Styles Advice
I came up with a lot
of ideas.
I had a hard time
selecting which ideas
to use.
I worked well with my
team.
I am a little
disorganized.
I work well in the Self-
Expressive style, but I
could do better in Mastery
style.
I need to concentrate
more on what I'm doing.
I need to pay attention to
the details.
I need to learn how to
decide what to do when I
have a lot of ideas.
Teaching Students About Intelligences
Many of the methods for teaching students about style will also
serve as ways to teach them about multiple intelligences. For example, you
can assign students tasks that ask them to use different intelligences
(rather than styles) and ask them to reflect on their learning process
afterward. You can also use student descriptions and case studies that
emphasize intelligences rather than styles. Simple intelligence checklists
and inventories (like the Multiple Intelligences Indicator in Appendix A) can
also be developed, and methods like analyzing characters in literature and
history can work well for learning both styles and intelligences. Certainly,
examining the accomplishments of famous people (as you did in Chapter
1) will yield a rich lesson on intelligences.
Symbols and Reflection Charts
Using symbols for each intelligence, or asking students to create
their own symbols also helps in teaching students about intelligences. It is
also a good idea to use a reflection chart to help students pay closer
attention to their learning process and to advise themselves on how to
improve their learning. Figure 6.18 (p. 98) shows a sample reflection chart.
Figure 6.18. Intelligence Reflection Chart
Noticed Styles Advice
I am creative—I
like to use words
in strange ways.
I like to work by
myself.
I hum, whistle,
and tap a beat
while I work.
My linguistic, musical, and
intrapersonal intelligences
are highly developed.
My spatial and logical-
mathematical intelligences
are somewhat developed.
My interpersonal and
bodily-kinesthetic
intelligences need the most
improvement.
I need to “put my guard
down” when I work in
groups, and I need to listen
to others more attentively.
I need to begin seeing the
way I move and use my body
as an intelligence that I can
develop.

15
Demonstration
One way to teach students about the eight intelligences is to ask
them to think about things they do or have done that require them to use
specific intelligences. After explaining each intelligence, the teacher can
stop and engage students in brief activities that demonstrate each
intelligence.
For instance, after explaining logical-mathematical intelligence, you
might ask students to solve a logic puzzle or make an interpretation of
numerical data. Asking students to pay close attention to a piece of music,
to use their bodies to represent a concept, to gather and classify natural
items, or to work with other students are just some of the many activities
you might use to make your demonstration particularly memorable. Along
the way, you can fold in reflection, asking students to note how well they
use each intelligence and what they might do to improve.
Intelligence Stations
Another effective method for teaching students about multiple
intelligences is to set up intelligence stations or activity centers (Armstrong,
1994). These are learning centers with appropriate activities for each
intelligence set up around the classroom. Activity centers can be designed
to meet a number of instructional purposes. You might create permanent
centers with the same materials at each station all year long and have
students explore various topics using these permanent materials. Or you
might change the contents of the stations throughout the year so that at the
bodily-kinesthetic center, for instance, students can design pyramids using
construction blocks while studying Ancient Egypt and later use
manipulatives and abacuses to understand math concepts.
To make his stations particularly memorable for students, one
teacher chose to use famous people to represent the intelligence of each
station. His learning centers were labeled Maya Angelou's Station, Marie
Curie's Station, Georgia O'Keeffe's Station, Ludwig von Beethoven's
Station, Jackie Joyner-Kersee's Station, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s
Station, Socrates's Station, and Charles Darwin's Station. Before engaging
in any activities, students read brief biographical descriptions and,
wherever possible, experienced the work of each famous person (e.g.,
reading a selection of Angelou's poetry, listening to the fourth movement of
Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, listening to Dr. King's “I Have a Dream”
speech). After students had learned about the eight people and their eight
intelligences, the class discussed how intelligences are important in
helping humans achieve great things.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES – ACTIVITIES FOR CREATING A GOOD
STUDENT PROFILE AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SCHOOL YEAR
By Nathalie Bérubé
Description
In our desire to help students with learning disabilities do well in
school, in terms of their education, socialization, and qualification, we need
to accept that success can look very different, depending on each
student’s needs and abilities.

16
Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences can be used
by educators to create a class profile, which will help with planning for
differentiated learning in the classroom.
For teachers, activities that follow the theory of multiple intelligences make
it possible to:
 Be attentive to their students;
 Understand the strengths, needs, and interests of their students;
 Create learning groups (homogeneous or heterogeneous,
depending on the activity);
 Build meaningful relationships with their students;
 Provide appropriate classroom management;
 Maximize learning;
 Shape planning and teaching around the multiple intelligences of
their students;
 Work within each child’s range;
 Create a positive, student-centred environment in the classroom;
 Respond to the various needs of each student;
 Foster a culture of mutual help and support amongst their students;
 Offer each student various ways of learning, taking into account
each student’s “personal learning roadmap”.
For students, the multiple intelligence approach:
 Supports success for all;
 Encourages them to learn about themselves and to see their
potential;
 Creates a connection with the teacher;
 Creates awareness, helping them to become engaged and take
responsibility for their learning;
 Creates a sense of community (through bonds with peers);
 Encourages them to express themselves (through their choices of
projects);
 Is a source of motivation;
 Inspires them to draw on their natural strengths in order to learn;
 Makes them feel a sense of self-worth and honours their
uniqueness;
 Is an excellent way to celebrate individual differences.
“[When a teacher is aware of the strengths, learning styles, and areas of
interest of his/her students, he/she can make informed decisions with
respect to the appropriate pedagogical strategies to use in the classroom,
the development of learning units and projects; the selection of resources,
groupings of students, and adaptations. In order to achieve effective,
differentiated instruction in the classroom, this knowledge is essential.]”
(translated from Ontario Ministry of Education, 2005).
Multiple intelligence activities enable educators to know their students and
plan more effectively, in order to engage them in their learning. This can be
done with students from Kindergarten to Grade 12.
Materials
• Multiple Intelligences survey for students to complete.
• Posters of Multiple Intelligences for primary students.

17
• Eight baskets with objects that represent each kind of intelligence
(verbal-linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, musical–
rhythmic, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and
naturalistic).
• Poster-size paper for analyzing the data
Steps
*In advance of the activities, include a questionnaire with the
welcome letter that is sent out to parents in the first week of school.
Multiple Intelligence (MI) activities need to be held in early September, in
order to generate a classroom profile that can be used for planning
instructional activities as quickly as possible.
Before introducing MI activities, a teacher must be aware of his/her
own strengths, asking himself or herself, what forms of intelligence are
dominant in me? Gardner tells us that teachers naturally gravitate to
teaching strategies that match their strengths. Each form of intelligence
gives rise to a preferred form of learning and a preferred form of teaching.
Activities
First Activity
1. Ask your students, “What does it mean to be smart?” Write their
answers on poster paper. Demystify what it means to be intelligent
for the children and help them to understand that everyone is
intelligent. This theory teaches us that all children are smart—
they’re just smart in different ways.
2. Show your students the 8 images of multiple intelligences. Take the
time to explain them and then post the images around the
classroom.
3. Ask your students to watch the multiple intelligences song on
YouTube. Ask your students to walk around the classroom and
choose two forms of intelligence (explain that they are to choose the
forms of intelligence that describe them best). Ask them to write
their name on the images that describe them best.
4. Gather up the posters. Create a chart with the forms of intelligence
that each student has identified.
Second Activity
In advance of the second activity, prepare eight baskets with objects that
represent each form of intelligence.
Example: the logical-mathematical basket could contain numbers,
geometric shapes, an abacus, and manipulatives.
Present the eight baskets to the entire class. Then place the baskets
around the classroom. Beside each basket, place a poster with the eight
forms of intelligence. Ask your students to walk around the room, looking at
and handling the objects. Ask them to write their name beside the basket
they like best (they must choose only two baskets).
Gather up the posters. Create a chart with the forms of intelligence that
each student has identified.
Third Activity
For Parent-Teacher Night, display the posters around the
classroom. Discuss the importance of the approach with the parents. Ask

18
them to choose their child’s two dominant forms of intelligence and write
the given name of their child, based on his/her dominant forms of
intelligence.
Gather up the posters. Create a chart with the forms of intelligences that
the parents have identified for their child.
Following these activities, compile the results, identifying two dominant
strengths for each student. Ensure that you include your own (the
teacher’s) results on the frequency chart. Display these results in the form
of a bar graph in the classroom. Analyze it with the students, highlighting
the students’ strengths.
Ask your students these questions:
 Who can help me with a math problem?
 Who can help me to spell some words?
 Who can comfort me if there is a problem during recess?
 Who wants to look for bugs in the school yard?
 Who can show me how to skip rope or play soccer?
 Who can teach me how to draw?
 Who can show me a new song?
 Who can help me to make new friends?
*Write the students’ given names beside each question.
These questions will help you to create an atmosphere of mutual
help and support that is based on your students’ strengths. Explain to the
students that every person has all forms of intelligence. The chart shows
what forms of intelligence are dominant right now. They can change over
time, depending on a person’s educational experiences and cultural
experiences.
After analyzing the data, the teacher can plan projects, centres, and
activities based on the profile.
Example: With a kinesthetic group, the teacher can vary the centres
instead of circling sounds and syllables. The teacher can have the students
hop on little mats to find the syllables and sounds in a word.
Adaptations
 Following the presentation, ask students to explain the intelligences
once again and to describe the objects in the basket.
 Spread the lessons out. Present the posters on the first day and on
the second day use questioning to see what the students have
retained. Give your students time to integrate this information.
 Accompany some of the students as they walk around the room,
inspecting the baskets, to make sure that they make the right
choices.
http://ldatschool.ca/classroom/executive-function/multiple-intelligences/
LEARNING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES IN STUDENTS
3/1/2001 - Barbara M. Manner
Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences in Students
Students’ exhibit different learning styles and multiple intelligences, and only by
accommodating these various abilities can instructors properly plan and conduct

19
assignments and assess what students have learned. This article outlines the
types of learning styles and multiple intelligences of students, as well as
instructional techniques that work best with students.
Most of us who teach science courses lead or participate in field
studies. We do it for various reasons: to examine a particular feature or
outcrop, to visit a wetland for the purpose of studying the flora or fauna
inhabiting it, or just to get into the outdoors rather than spend all of our time
in a classroom or laboratory. Even physics classes, long relegated to the
laboratory, are now going to amusement parks to study the physics of
rollercoasters and free-fall rides. When we design and conduct field
studies, however, do we really think about how we can make them
pedagogically successful endeavors?
Simply conducting field studies does not ensure that we will achieve
optimal educational benefits for our students. In many cases, the social
aspect of the field trip overshadows the learning aspect (Orion and
Hofstein 1991). It is at this point that a field study is reduced to the
category of a field trip; a lot of time spent on logistics with little return in
learning.
To maintain the intellectual integrity of a field study, the coordinator
has to look at it from the perspective of pedagogical as well as science
content. Structure, learning materials, and instructional techniques
determine educational quality (Orion and Hofstein 1994). But to design
assignments that work well, we must first look at how students learn. This
requires that we consider the learning styles and multiple intelligences of
the participating students. After understanding these, an instructor can
then design the field study so that students derive maximum educational
benefits from it.
The following discussion and outline of learning styles and multiple
intelligences of students, as well as instructional techniques, was prepared
with science field studies in mind, but its content is general enough to be
applicable to virtually any teaching situation.
Learning Styles
How students process information—how well they learn and how
well they retain knowledge—is directly related to the learning style of the
individual. Teachers have long felt that if they lecture and tell students the
same thing over and over again, the student will learn and understand a
particular science concept. This learning style and instructional technique
were traditionally thought of as the way that the majority of people learn.
We now know that this is not true. Not everyone learns best with a single
instructional technique. Students actually learn best through various styles:
personal meaning, conceptual learning, how things work, and self-
discovery.
Students who learn best through personal meaning process
information according to its relationship to the individual. They learn by
listening and sharing ideas, they perceive information concretely and
process it reflectively, they tackle problems by reflecting alone and then
brainstorming with others, and they view experiences from many
perspectives. These learners are usually insightful and have a need to
become personally involved with their learning.

20
Those who acquire knowledge best through conceptual learning are
goal-oriented, solitary learners who tackle problems with logic. They
perceive information abstractly and process it reflectively, form theory and
concepts by integrating observations into what is known, and think
sequentially.
Students who are actively involved in their
own learning thrive during manipulation of
objects or when presented with a problem
to be solved. These are the “how things
work” learners. They love a challenge and
will cut right to the heart of the matter. It is
these learners who are most suited to active field study. They perceive
information abstractly and process it actively, excel in down-to-earth,
hands-on problem solving, and tackle problems by acting without
consulting others.
The last of the learning styles is self-discovery. The person who
learns best in this way is stimulating, impulsive, and enthusiastic; avoids
isolation; and seeks to energize others. However, the drawback to all of
this enthusiasm is that he or she will often take on too many responsibilities
and as a result will often not complete a task. These learners perceive
information concretely and process it actively; are impulsive and intuitive;
and thrive on challenges and crises.
Multiple Intelligences
In addition to having differences in learning styles, not everyone is
smart in the same way, according to Harvard’s Dr. Howard Gardner
(Brualdi 1996). He says that individuals are intelligent to some degree in
each of the following areas:
 verbal-linguistic: facility in producing language;
 musical: sensitivity to components of music as well as to emotional
implications;
 logic-mathematical: ability to reason deductively or inductively and
recognize and manipulate abstract relationships;
 spatial: ability to create visual representations of the world and
transfer them mentally or concretely;
 kinesthetic: use of one’s body to solve problems, make things, and
convey ideas and emotions;
 interpersonal: ability to work effectively with others and understand
their emotions, goals, and intentions;
 intrapersonal: ability to understand one’s own emotions, goals, and
intentions; and
 naturalistic: capacity to recognize and make distinctions in the
natural world and use the ability productively (Nicholson-Nelson
1998); has keen sensory skills (Dickinson 1999).
Individuals possess each of these eight multiple intelligences to some
extent. The combinations and degrees of their intelligences are all different
and very rarely operate independently (Black 1994). Rather, they are used
concurrently and typically complement each other as individuals develop
skills and solve problems (Brualdi 1996). This must be kept in mind, not
only in planning and conducting field studies, but also in assessing what
the students have learned.

21
Instructional Techniques Students have different learning styles and multiple intelligences.
This has implications for the design and execution of a field study, or any
teaching situation. Science teachers should think of these as equally
important and aim to reach a broader range of talents and skills. This
philosophy contradicts the traditional educational systems of teaching
science that typically emphasize the development and use of verbal and
mathematical intelligences (Brualdi 1996).
Consideration of the various learning styles and intelligences of
participants in field studies requires that the coordinator of a study select
instructional techniques that engage most or all of the intelligences and
learning styles. This not only excites students about learning, but it allows a
teacher to reinforce material in various ways. By activating a wide
assortment of intelligences, a teacher can facilitate a deeper understanding
of the subject material, and a student’s ability to observe, memorize, and
recall facts will be significantly higher (Manner 1997). Although each
learner has his or her own characteristics, it is important to realize, just as
Gardner did, that some of these characteristics overlap. One instructional
technique may address the needs of more than one learning style or
intelligence.
The instructor may draw on various instructional techniques,
accommodating all of the above learning styles during the field study. Such
techniques involve offering materials to read (e.g., field guides and
background information on natural history and culture of the study area)
lectures before and during the study describing what to expect on the trip;
the biology and geology of the area; and other relevant information. These
Self-Check Guidelines
To make it easier to address all of
the learning styles and multiple
intelligences of your students, here are
some self-check guidelines you can use
when designing and carrying out your
field study.
 Give options for learners to acquire
mastery of material (i.e., don’t limit
yourself to pencil-and-paper tests;
include journals, group projects,
and photographic essays);
 Provideproblem-solving
opportunities;
 Create “What if?” situations;
 Approach the topic in an orderly
and creative fashion;
 Set up situations that require
hunches about outcomes;
 Set up field-based experiences that
go beyond the text or lectures
 Emphasize the broad nature of the
topic;
 Ask learners to explore
relationships within or among
topics;
 Ask learners to analyze material or
information;
 Introduce topics with situations
recognized by the learners;
 Use problem-solving group work;
 Help learners to see patterns;
 Provide cultural as well as scientific
experiences;
 Offer leadership opportunities.

22
lectures provide information and schedules that are necessary for the
“conceptual” and “how things work” learner.
Also, instructors should present hands-on experiences, such as research
projects, site explorations, interdisciplinary activities, first-hand experiences
with concepts, and examples described in lectures. Hands-on experiences
take into account the learning styles of most of the participants.
The “personal meaning” learner listens and
shares ideas. He or she also needs direct
experience. Research projects for the
“conceptual learner” are the ideal vehicle
for forming theories and interpreting
observations. The “how things work”
learner thrives on manipulation and loves exploration. And the “self-
discovery” learner is well suited to the interdisciplinary nature of the
activities. Interaction is a plus for all learners except the “conceptual”
learner who must have opportunities to work alone. Types of interaction
among participants include group activities, interdependence activities, and
individualized activities.
In addition, a field study can feature specific instructional techniques and
experiences to address each of the multiple intelligences (Dickinson 1999).
For example:
• verbal-linguistic learners favor using computer technology and
entering into discussions;
• musical learners study by listening to recordings related to the topic
(e.g., Holst’s “The Planets” or recordings related to nature, such as
Grofe’s “Grand Canyon Suite”);
• logic-mathematical learners prefer classifying, sequencing, and
solving problems;
• spatial learners like to observe and imagine and solve spatial
problems;
• kinesthetic learners excel with manipulatives and prefer to
participate actively;
• interpersonal learners like to work on group projects and discuss
with others;
• intrapersonal learners work independently; and
• naturalist learners see patterns and like to identify a problem and
research solutions (Meyer 1998).
Investing time and effort into planning and conducting field studies will
result in an optimal educational outcome. Numerous instructional
techniques can be employed, but we also need various ways in which we
evaluate what the students have learned. Assessment that truly reflects
what a student has learned can be accomplished through group projects,
journals, artwork, and portfolios. As Gardner believes, we should
encourage students to use their strongest domains, but help them to
develop their less dominant abilities and reflect on and analyze their own
learning styles and ways of thinking. They must “learn to think about how
they think and learn” (Brualdi 1996).

23
Field studies are a concrete bridge toward more abstract learning
levels. The structure, learning materials, teaching methods, and ability to
direct learning to a substantial interaction with the environment determine
the educational quality of any field study. Proper planning will ensure that
the field study is enjoyable and educational for all participants.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES AND LEARNING STYLES
Emily Giles, Sarah Pitre, Sara Womack
Department of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology,
University of Georgia
Introduction
Various theories on learning have been developed with increasing
frequency in the last few decades. In order to understand the relationship
between these theories, Curry's onion model (Curry, 1983) was developed
with four layers -- personality learning theories, information processing
theories, social learning theories, and multidimensional and instructional
theories.
Personality learning theories define the influences of basic personality on
preferences to acquiring and integrating information. Models used in this
theory include Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which measures personality in
dichotomous terms -- extroversion versus introversion, sensing versus
intuition, thinking versus feeling, and judging versus perception, and the
Keirsey Temperament Sorter, which classifies people as rationals,
idealists, artisans, or guardians.
Information processing theories encompass individuals' preferred
intellectual approach to assimilating information, and includes David Kolb's
model of information processing, which identifies two separate learning
activities: perception and processing.
Social learning theories determine how students interact in the classroom
and include Reichmann's and Grasha's types of learners: independent,
dependent, collaborative, competitive, participant, and avoidant.
Multidimensional and instructional theories address the student's
environmental preference for learning and includes the Learning Style
Model of Dunn and Dunn and the multiple intelligences theory of Howard

24
Gardner. This chapter focuses on this type of learning theory by Howard
Gardner.
Multiple Intelligences Section
Caption: This is a questionnaire created with Flash to give users a
profile of their multiple intelligences. It assesses the eight intelligences that
are fully accepted by educators in the classroom. The eight intelligences
are verbal, logical, spatial, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal
and naturalistic. The ninth would be Existential, but this is not a confirmed
intelligence. This is NOT a scientific assessment. There is no validity to this
test at all. We include it to simply help you think about your own abilities.
By Myung Hwa Koh, Li Zhu and Seow Chong Wong (2003).
Multiple Intelligences Scenario
Ms. Cunningham, a seventh grade American History Teacher, is
preparing a unit on the American Civil Rights Movement of the 1950's and
1960's. The teacher has created a succession of lessons to be completed
over a two-week period to enhance her students' understanding of the
events, organizations, and individuals that were crucial to the movement.
When the unit is over, Ms. Cunningham wants her students to have a
complete picture of the historical period. She designs a variety of activities
that give the students the opportunity to explore historical and cultural
aspects of the 1950's and 1960's, and to fully identify with those who were
involved in the Movement. In order to reach her instructional goals, the
students will read selected excerpts from the textbook and listen to various
lecturers about the Movement. In addition to the aforementioned, the
students will complete several exploratory tasks about the Civil Rights
movement as well.
To begin the unit the teacher uses a KWL chart on the overhead to
spur discussion and start the students' "juices" flowing. A KWL chart is a
visual representation of what students already know, what they want to
know, and what they learned at the end of a lesson. This activity is
completed as a class. The students take turns sharing the tidbits of
information that they already know about the Civil Rights movement. This
information is on major figures, events and places involved in the Civil
Rights movement. Upon establishing what basic prior knowledge the
students possess, it is now time to begin discovering new information and
confirming previously held information about the Civil Rights movement.
Ms. Cunningham then lectures on the basic events, people, and places
involved in the majority of the Civil Rights movement in order to provide
students some framework within which to begin placing their new
information.
She closes the first lesson by asking the students to create a
timeline using the dates of events she has provided. This will be a working
outline to be used throughout the unit. During a subsequent lesson,
students are asked to share their outlines with their classmates in small
groups. They should make corrections and comments on the outlines as
needed. Ms. Cunningham gains class consensus of the proper order for
their working outline as she places an enlarged version on the classroom
wall.

25
The culmination of this unit will be a final project in which students
create a portfolio containing work on three mini-projects. All students will
listen to the same guest lecturers, view the same video taped footage and
participate in the same class discussions during the first half of each class.
The remainder of each class period will be reserved for work on personal
exploration pertaining to their portfolio pieces. Ms. Cunningham has
provided a list of possible activities and a rubric for each suggested activity
in order to support and to guide the student's work. She has also arranged
her room so that "art" materials are in a central location; mapping and
graphing information is grouped together and there is a section replete with
reading and research materials.
Mrs. Cunningham's students will have many options for creating
something chat can be included in their portfolios. Students will have the
option to write letters to members of the community who were teenagers
during the Civil Rights Movement, asking them to share their memories
and experiences about life during the time period. Students may work in
teams to prepare speeches based on period issues for their fellow
classmates. Students may consult with the school's Media Specialist or
more knowledgeable other to find resources for the class, including popular
music from the time period. They may also learn and share dances that
were popular during the 1950's and 1960's. If they choose, students may
include music in the plays they write and act out for their classmates. With
the assistance of the Art instructor, students may opt to work together to
create a mural that represents key figures of the Civil Rights Movement
such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., with accompanying
biographical information about each leader. Students may also create a
map representing key events. Students may also work in groups to prepare
short plays to enact for the class based on the readings and what they
learn from the guest speakers. Afterwards, Mrs. Cunningham will moderate
discussion sessions about the plays. All students will keep a record of their
thoughts and feelings about the mini-lessons they completed. This
journaling process will provide a synthesis of the materials with which they
dealt. As one final measure, students present their portfolios to their
classmates.
James, a student whose proclivities lean towards creative visual
projects expresses interest in working on the mural of Civil Rights leaders.
Mrs. Cunningham feels that James needs to shift gears and concentrate
on other activities in the classroom. The teacher suggests that James work
on creating the map and / or timeline. At the teacher's encouragement,
James begins to work on the other projects, but his attention continues to
drift towards the students painting the mural. He contributes some
excellent ideas and shows so much interest in the details and creation of
the mural, that the teacher allows him to shift his focus back towards the
visual project.
In another seventh grade classroom, Mr. Smith taught a unit on the
Civil Rights Movement by assigning textbook readings and lecturing the
students on the historical events surrounding the Movement. Students
were given sentence completion pop quizzes throughout the course of the
lesson. The teacher showed videotaped programs to the class and each
student wrote a short research paper about a Civil Rights leader or

26
prominent figure. At the end of the unit, students were given a multiple
choice and essay test.
What is Multiple Intelligences Theory?
Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences utilizes aspects of
cognitive and developmental psychology, anthropology, and sociology to
explain the human intellect. Although Gardner had been working towards
the concept of Multiple Intelligences for many years prior, the theory was
introduced in 1983, with Gardner's book, Frames of Mind.
Gardner's research consisted of brain research and interviews with
stroke victims, prodigies, and individuals with autism. Based on his
findings, Gardner established eight criteria for identifying the seven (he has
subsequently added an eighth and is considering a ninth) separate
intelligences. The eight criteria used by Gardner to identify the intelligences
are listed below:
 Isolation by brain damage/neurological evidence
 The existence of prodigies, idiot savants, and exceptional individuals
 Distinguishable set of core operations
 Developmental stages with an expert end state
 Evolutionary history and plausibility
 Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system
 Support from experimental psychological tasks
 Support from psychometric research
For a more detailed look at these eight criteria, visit
http://surfaquarium.com/MI/criteria.htm.
Originally, the theory accounted for seven separate intelligences.
Subsequently, with the publishing of Gardner's Intelligence Reframed in
1999, two more intelligences were added to the list. The intelligences are
Verbal/Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Visual/Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic,
Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, and Existential.
Gardner's theory challenges traditional, narrower views of intelligence.
Previously accepted ideas of human intellectual capacity contend that an
individual's intelligence is a fixed entity throughout his lifetime and that
intelligence can be measured through an individual's logical and language
abilities. According to Gardner's theory, an intelligence encompasses the
ability to create and solve problems, create products or provide services
that are valued within a culture or society. Originally, the theory accounted
for seven separate intelligences. Subsequently, with the publishing of
Gardner's Intelligence Reframed in 1999, two more intelligences were
added to the list. The nine intelligences are outlined in more detail in the
section below. Listed below are key points of Gardner's theory:
 All human beings possess all nine intelligences in varying degrees.
 Each individual has a different intelligence profile.
 Education can be improved by assessment of students' intelligence
profiles and designing activities accordingly.
 Each intelligence occupies a different area of the brain.
 The nine intelligences may operate in consort or independently from
one another.
 These nine intelligences may define the human species.

27
Gardner, a Professor of Education at Harvard University, and other
researchers and educators continue to work towards a more holistic
approach to education through Project Zero. For more information on the
projects and research involved in Project Zero, visit the website at
http://www.pz.harvard.edu.
Although the theory was not originally designed for use in a
classroom application, it has been widely embraced by educators and
enjoyed numerous adaptations in a variety of educational settings
Teachers have always known that students had different strengths and
weaknesses in the classroom. Gardner's research was able to articulate
that and provide direction as to how to improve a student's ability in any
given intelligence. Teachers were encouraged to begin to think of lesson
planning in terms of meeting the needs of a variety of the intelligences.
From this new thinking, schools such the Ross School in New York, an
independent educational institution, and the Key Learning Community, a
public magnet school in Indianapolis emerged to try teaching using a
Multiple Intelligences curriculum. The focus of this part of the chapter will
be on lesson design using the theory of Multiple Intelligences, and
providing various resources that educator's may use to implement the
theory into their classroom activities.
The Eight Intelligences
Verbal/Linguistic
Verbal/Linguistic intelligence refers to an individual's ability to
understand and manipulate words and languages. Everyone is thought to
possess this intelligence at some level. This includes reading, writing,
speaking, and other forms of verbal and written communication. Teachers
can enhance their students' verbal/linguistic intelligence by having them
keep journals, play word games, and by encouraging discussion. People
with strong rhetorical and oratory skills such as poets, authors, and
attorneys exhibit strong Linguistic intelligence. Some examples are T.S.
Elliot, Maya Angelou, and Martin Luther King Jr. Traditionally, Linguistic
intelligence and Logical/Mathematical intelligence have been highly valued
in education and learning environments.
Logical/Mathematical
Logical/Mathematical intelligence refers to an individual's ability to
do things with data: collect, and organize, analyze and interpret, conclude
and predict. Individuals strong in this intelligence see patterns and
relationships. These individuals are oriented toward thinking: inductive and
deductive logic, numeration, and abstract patterns. They would be a
contemplative problem solver; one who likes to play strategy games and to
solve mathematical problems. Being strong in this intelligence often implies
great scientific ability. This is the kind of intelligence studied and
documented by Piaget. Teachers can strengthen this intelligence by
encouraging the use of computer programming languages, critical-thinking
activities, linear outlining, Piagetian cognitive stretching exercises, science-
fiction scenarios, logic puzzles, and through the use of logical/sequential
presentation of subject matter. Some real life examples people who are
gifted with this intelligence are Albert Einstein, Niehls Bohr, and John
Dewey.

28
Visual/Spatial
Visual/Spatial intelligence refers to the ability to form and manipulate
a mental model. Individuals with strength in this area depend on visual
thinking and are very imaginative. People with this kind of intelligence tend
to learn most readily from visual presentations such as movies, pictures,
videos, and demonstrations using models and props. They like to draw,
paint, or sculpt their ideas and often express their feelings and moods
through art. These individuals often daydream, imagine and pretend. They
are good at reading diagrams and maps and enjoy solving mazes and
jigsaw puzzles. Teachers can foster this intelligence by utilizing charts,
graphs, diagrams, graphic organizers, videotapes, color, art activities,
doodling, microscopes and computer graphics software. It could be
characterized as right-brain activity. Pablo Picasso, Bobby Fischer, and
Georgia O'Keefe are some examples of people gifted with this intelligence.
Bodily/Kinesthetic
Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence refers to people who process
information through the sensations they feel in their bodies. These people
like to move around, touch the people they are talking to and act things
out. They are good at small and large muscle skills; they enjoy all types of
sports and physical activities. They often express themselves through
dance. Teachers may encourage growth in this area of intelligence through
the use of touching, feeling, movement, improvisation, "hands-on"
activities, permission to squirm and wiggle, facial expressions and physical
relaxation exercises. Some examples of people who are gifted with this
intelligence are Michael Jordan, Martina Navratilova, and Jim Carrey.
Naturalistic
Naturalistic intelligence is seen in someone who recognizes and
classifies plants, animals, and minerals including a mastery of taxonomies.
They are holistic thinkers who recognize specimens and value the unusual.
They are aware of species such as the flora and fauna around them. They
notice natural and artificial taxonomies such as dinosaurs to algae and
cars to clothes. Teachers can best foster this intelligence by using
relationships among systems of species, and classification activities.
Encourage the study of relationships such as patterns and order, and
compare-and-contrast sets of groups or look at connections to real life and
science issues. Charles Darwin and John Muir are examples of people
gifted in this way.
Musical Intelligence
Musical intelligence refers to the ability to understand, create, and
interpret musical pitches, timbre, rhythm, and tones and the capability to
compose music. Teachers can integrate activities into their lessons that
encourage students' musical intelligence by playing music for the class and
assigning tasks that involve students creating lyrics about the material
being taught. Composers and instrumentalists are individuals with strength
in this area. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Louis Armstrong are
examples.
Interpersonal
Although Gardner classifies interpersonal and intrapersonal
intelligences separately, there is a lot of interplay between the two and they
are often grouped together. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to

29
interpret and respond to the moods, emotions, motivations, and actions of
others. Interpersonal intelligence also requires good communication and
interaction skills, and the ability show empathy towards the feelings of
other individuals. Teachers can encourage the growth of Interpersonal
Intelligences by designing lessons that include group work and by planning
cooperative learning activities. Counselors and social workers are
professions that require strength in this area. Some examples of people
with this intelligence include Gandhi, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton.
Intrapersonal
Intrapersonal Intelligence, simply put, is the ability to know oneself.
It is an internalized version of Interpersonal Intelligence. To exhibit strength
in Intrapersonal Intelligence, an individual must be able to understand their
own emotions, motivations, and be aware of their own strengths and
weaknesses. Teachers can assign reflective activities, such as journaling
to awaken students' Intrapersonal Intelligence. Its important to note that
this intelligence involves the use of all others. An individual should tap into
their other intelligences to completely express their Intrapersonal
Intelligence. Authors of classic autobiographies such as Jean Paul Satre
and Frederick Douglas are examples of individuals who exhibited strong
Interpersonal Intelligence in their lifetimes.
There is a ninth intelligence that has yet to experience full
acceptance by educators in the classroom. This is Existential intelligence,
which encompasses the ability to pose and ponder questions regarding the
existence -- including life and death. This would be in the domain of
philosophers and religious leaders.
The table below summarizes the strengths, learning preferences, and
needs that correspond to the intelligences.
Table 1. Summary of the Eight Intelligences
Intelligence
Area
Strengths Preferences
Learns best
through
Needs
Verbal /
Linguistic
Writing,
reading,
memorizing
dates, thinking
in words, telling
stories
Write, read,
tell stories,
talk,
memorize,
work at
solving
puzzles
Hearing and
seeing
words,
speaking,
reading,
writing,
discussing
and debating
Books, tapes,
paper diaries,
writing tools,
dialogue,
discussion,
debated, stories,
etc.
Mathematical/
Logical
Math, logic,
problem-
solving,
reasoning,
patterns
Question,
work with
numbers,
experiment,
solve
problems
Working with
relationships
and
patterns,
classifying,
categorizing,
working with
the abstract
Things to think
about and
explore, science
materials,
manipulative,
trips to the
planetarium and
science
museum, etc.
Visual /
Spatial
Maps, reading
charts, drawing,
mazes,
puzzles,
imagining
things,
visualization
Draw, build,
design,
create,
daydream,
look at
pictures
Working with
pictures and
colors,
visualizing,
using the
mind's eye,
drawing
LEGOs, video,
movies, slides,
art, imagination
games, mazes,
puzzles,
illustrated book,
trips to art
museums, etc.
Bodily /
Kinesthetic
Athletics,
dancing, crafts,
using tools,
acting
Move
around,
touch and
talk, body
language
Touching,
moving,
knowledge
through
bodily
Role-play,
drama, things to
build,
movement,
sports and

30
sensations,
processing
physical games,
tactile
experiences,
hands-on
learning, etc.
Musical
Picking up
sounds,
remembering
melodies,
rhythms,
singing
Sing, play an
instrument,
listen to
music, hum
Rhythm,
singing,
melody,
listening to
music and
melodies
Sing-along time,
trips to concerts,
music playing at
home and
school, musical
instruments, etc.
Interpersonal
Leading,
organizing,
understanding
people,
communicating,
resolving
conflicts, selling
Talk to
people, have
friends, join
groups
Comparing,
relating,
sharing,
interviewing,
cooperating
Friends, group
games, social
gatherings,
community
events, clubs,
mentors/
apprenticeships,
etc.
Intrapersonal
Recognizing
strengths and
weaknesses,
setting goals,
understanding
self
Work alone,
reflect
pursue
interests
Working
alone,
having
space,
reflecting,
doing self-
paced
projects
Secret places,
time alone, self-
paced projects,
choices, etc.
Naturalistic
Understanding
nature, making
distinctions,
identifying flora
and fauna
Be involved
with nature,
make
distinctions
Working in
nature,
exploring
living things,
learning
about plants
and natural
Order,
same/different,
connections to
real life and
science issues,
patterns .
Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom
There are many ways to incorporate Multiple Intelligences theory
into the curriculum, and there is no set method by which to incorporate the
theory. Some teachers set up learning centers with resources and
materials that promote involving the different intelligences. For example, in
the above scenario, Ms. Cunningham creates an area with art supplies in
her classroom. Other instructors design simulations that immerse students
into real life situations. Careful planning during the lesson design process
will help to ensure quality instruction and valuable student experiences in
the classroom.
Other instructional models, such as project-based and collaborative
learning may be easily integrated into lessons with Multiple Intelligences.
Collaborative learning allows students to explore their interpersonal
intelligence, while project-based learning may help structure activities
designed to cultivate the nine intelligences. For instance, Ms. Cunningham
uses aspects of project-based learning in her classroom by allowing
students to plan, create, and process (through reflection) information
throughout the Civil Rights unit, while also integrating activities that teach
to the intelligences. This particular instructional model allows students to
work together to explore a topic and to create something as the end
product. This works well with Multiple Intelligences theory, which places
value on the ability to create products. By collaborating with the Media
Specialist to give students the opportunity to choose from a variety of
resources to complete their assignments, Ms. Cunningham uses aspects
of resource-based learning, an instructional model that places the ultimate
responsibility of choosing resources on the student.

31
It is important for teachers to carefully select activities that not only teach to
the intelligences, but also realistically mesh with the subject matter of the
lesson or unit. Multiple Intelligences theory should enhance, not detract
from what is being taught.
Disney's website entitled Tapping into Multiple Intelligences suggests two
approaches for implementing Multiple Intelligences theory in the
classroom. One is a teacher-centered approach, in which the instructor
incorporates materials, resources, and activities into the lesson that teach
to the different intelligences. The other is a student-centered approach in
which students actually create a variety of different materials that
demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter. The student-
centered approach allows students to actively use their varied forms of
intelligence. In a teacher-centered lesson, the number of intelligences
explored should be limited to two or three. To teach less than two is nearly
impossible since the use of speech will always require the use of one's
Verbal/Linguistic intelligence. In a student-centered lesson, the instructor
may incorporate aspects of project-based learning, collaborative learning,
or other inquiry-based models. In such a case, activities involving all nine
intelligences may be presented as options for the class, but each student
participates in only one or two of the tasks.
Ms. Cunningham incorporates both student-centered and teacher-centered
activities into her unit on the Civil Rights Movement. The teacher-led
lecture is a standard example of a teacher-centered activity. The lecture
teaches to students' Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence. The viewing of the
videotape is another example of a teacher-centered activity. This activity
incorporates Visual/Spatial Intelligence into how the unit is learned. It is
important to note that many activities, although designed to target a
particular intelligence, may also utilize other intelligences as well. For
example, in Ms. Cunningham's classroom the students may work together
on creating a mural of Civil Rights Leaders. This is a student-centered
activity that directly involves Visual/Spatial intelligence, but also gives
students a chance to exercise their Interpersonal Intelligence. The journal
assignment, also a student-centered activity, is designed to enhance
students' Intrapersonal Intelligence by prompting them to reflect on their
feelings and experiences in relation to the Civil Rights movement. This
activity also taps into Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence. The timeline and map
assignments are student-centered activities that are designed to enhance
students' Logical/Mathematical Intelligence, but they also delve into
Visual/Spatial Intelligence. Students must collect and organize information
for both the timeline and the map therefore using their
Logical/Mathematical intelligence. In creating these items, students must
think visually as well. By incorporating dance into one lesson, Ms.
Cunningham is able to promote awareness of her students' Bodily-
Kinesthetic intelligence. By showing videos of popular dances from the
time period, or inviting an expert from the community to talk about the
social aspects of dance, Ms. Cunningham might incorporate a teacher-
centered activity. Having students learn and perform dances is a student-
centered way of teaching through Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence. The short
plays that students prepare involve Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence, as well
as Interpersonal and Verbal/Linguistic intelligences. Class discussions

32
provide an opportunity for students to exercise both areas of their personal
intelligences, as well as to reinforce the subject matter.
Planning and Implementing Student-Centered Lessons
This type of lesson revolves around student created materials. The types of
activities and assignments that support student-centered lessons can be
easily designed in concert with many of the inquiry-based models
discussed in the text of this book. One of the most important aspects of
student-centered lessons is allowing students to make choices. Teachers
should encourage students to exercise their weaker intelligences, but allow
them to explore their stronger areas as well. In Ms. Cunningham's class,
the student named James is very strong in Visual/Spatial Intelligence and
always leans towards this type of project. The teacher encourages James
to participate in other activities, but when it is obvious that his interest lies
in working on the mural Ms. Cunningham allows him to work on the project.
Listed below are steps to implement a student-centered lesson or unit:
 Carefully identify instructional goals, objectives, and instructional
outcomes.
 Consider activities that you can integrate into the lesson or unit that
teach to the different intelligences. Teachers need not incorporate
all nine intelligences into one lesson.
 When gathering resources and materials, consider those which will
allow students to explore their multiple intelligences.
 Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit.
 Allow for considerable element of student choice when designing
activities and tasks for the intelligences
 Design activities that are student-centered, using inquiry-based
models of instruction.
 Provide a rubric for student activities. You might consider having
students help create rubrics.
 Incorporate assessment into the learning process.
In an effort to maximize students' interest in both the subject matter and
their own learning proclivities, teachers may wish to teach their students a
little bit about Multiple Intelligences. Teachers can brief the class about
each type of intelligence and then follow up with a self-assessment for
each student. In this way, students will be able to capitalize on their
strengths and work on their weaker areas. Disney's Tapping Into Multiple
Intelligences website includes a self-assesment.
Planning and Implementing a Teacher-Centered Lesson
Structured, teacher-centered activities provide an opportunity for
teachers to introduce material and establish prior knowledge and student
conceptions. Teachers may lecture students, show informational videos
and posters, perform drills, pose problem-solving exercises, arrange
museum visits, and plan outings to concerts. There are all examples of
teacher-centered activities. All of these activities integrate the Multiple
Intelligences into the subject matter being taught. Teacher-centered
lessons should be limited to a few activities that provide a foundation for
students to later complete more exploratory tasks in which they can
demonstrate understanding of the material. A teacher may choose to start
an instructional unit or lesson with teacher-centered activities and then

33
follow up with subsequent student-centered lessons. Teachers may follow
these steps when designing and implementing a teacher-centered lesson:
 Identify instructional goals and objectives
 Consider teacher-centered activities that teach to students' Multiple
Intelligences. In a teacher-centered lesson, limit the number of
activities to two or three.
 Consider what resources and materials you will need to implement
the lesson. For example, will you need to schedule a museum visit
or to consult the Media Specialist for videos or other media?
 Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit.
 Provide an opportunity for reflection by students
 Provide a rubric to scaffold student activities
 Integrate assessment into the learning process
Assessment is one of the biggest challenges in incorporating Multiple
Intelligences in the classroom. Ms. Cunningham's students are given the
option of working on several mini-projects during the course of the Civil
Rights unit. At the end of the unit, their performance is assessed through a
portfolio that represents their work on these projects. It is very important for
assessment to be integrated into the learning process. Assessment should
give students the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding of the
subject matter. One of the main goals of acknowledging and using Multiple
Intelligences in the classroom is to increase student understanding of
material by allowing them to demonstrate the ways in which they
understand the material. Teachers need to make their expectations clear,
and may do so in the form of a detailed rubric.
Benefits of Multiple Intelligences
Using Multiple Intelligences theory in the classroom has many benefits:
• As a teacher and learner you realize that there are many ways to be
"smart"
• All forms of intelligence are equally celebrated.
• By having students create work that is displayed to parents and
other members of the community, your school could see more
parent and community involvement.
• A sense of increased self-worth may be seen as students build on
their strengths and work towards becoming an expert in certain
areas
• Students may develop strong problem solving skills that they can
use real life situations
Multiple Intelligences: Classroom Application (Table added by Brandy
Bellamy and Camille Baker, 2005)
Table 2. Multiple Intelligences: Classroom Application (Table added by
Brandy Bellamy and Camille Baker, 2005)
Teacher Centered Student Centered
Verbal/Linguistic
• Present content
verbally
• Ask questions
aloud and look for
student feedback
• Interviews
• Student Presents
Material
• Students read
content and
prepare a
presentation for
his/her classmates
• Students debate
over an issue
Logical/Mathematical
• Provide brain
teasers or
challenging
questions to begin
lessons.
• Make logical
connections
• Students categorize
information in
logical sequences
for organization.
• Students create
graphs or charts to
explain written info.

34
between the
subject matter and
authentic situations
to answer the
question "why?"
• Students participate
in webquests
associated with the
content
Bodily/Kinesthetic
• Use props during
lecture
• Provide tangible
items pertaining to
content for students
to examine
• Review using
sports related
examples (throw a
ball to someone to
answer a question)
• Students use
computers to
research subject
matter.
• Students create
props of their own
explaining subject
matter (shadow
boxes, mobiles,
etc...)
• Students create
review games.
Visual/Spatial
When presenting the
information, use visuals to
explain content:</br>
PowerPoint Slides,
Charts, Graphs, cartoons,
videos, overheads,
smartboards
• Have students work
individually or in
groups to create
visuals pertaining to
the information:
• Posters; timelines;
models; powerpoint
slides; maps;
illustrations, charts;
concept mapping
Musical
• Play music in the
classroom during
reflection periods
• Show examples or
create musical
rhythms for
students to
• Create a song or
melody with the
content embedded
for memory
• Use well known
songs to memorize
formulas, skills, or
remember things test content
Interpersonal
• Be aware of body
language and facial
expressions
• Offer assistance
whenever needed
• Encourage
classroom
discussion
• Encourage
collaboration
among peers
• Group work
strengthens
interpersonal
connections
• Peer feedback and
peer tutoring
• Students present to
the class
• Encourage group
editing
Intrapersonal
• Encourage
journaling as a
positive outlet for
expression
• Introduce web
logging (blogs)
• Make individual
questions welcome
• Create a positive
environment.
• Journaling
• Individual research
on content
• Students create
personal portfolios
of work
Naturalistic
• Take students
outside to enjoy
nature while in
learning process
(lecture)
• Compare authentic
subject matter to
natural
occurrences.
• Relate subject
• Students organize
thoughts using
natural cycles
• Students make
relationships
among content and
the natural
environment (how
has nature had an
impact?)

35
matter to stages
that occur in nature
(plants, weather,
etc)
• Students perform
community service
Learning Styles Section
Scenario
A group of four city planners in Boston is working on a project to
improve the methods of repairing streets. They have spent a lot of time in
the field looking at streets and learning about the stresses they receive,
how engineers currently deal with those problems, and the public's
perceptions of street conditions. Some improvements have been made
including a new system of diagnosing problems and new methods of
repairing the streets. The final stage of their project is to determine how to
educate the city's employees on these improvements.
Jessica believes that showing maps of where the various sidewalks in
various states of decay would be helpful. She also wants to use a flow
chart to represent the new repair process. Maybe a computer instruction
guide could be utilized in the employee education program.
Patrick feels that the planners need to discuss these improvements with
the city's employees. A question and answer session could also be
implemented in an attempt to answer any questions concerning the new
system of diagnosing problems and new methods of repairing the streets.
Will has already begun work on an extensive training manual, which will
provide a concrete resource to guide employees in training and for later
reference. The manual will be available in hard copy and on the web.
Claire thinks that the city employees would benefit the most from a
multimedia presentation as well as a CD-ROM with links to other useful
information. She also wants the employees to go into the field and see
some of the streets that were used as models in the new program. If that is
not possible, pictures could be provided as examples to give the
employees a concrete idea of the improvements.
Learning Styles
The term "learning styles" is commonly used throughout various
educational fields and therefore, has many connotations. In general, it
refers to the uniqueness of how each learner receives and processes new
information through their senses. The National Association of Secondary
School Principals defines learning style as, "the composite of characteristic
cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable
indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the
learning environment." Other phrases are used interchangeably with
learning styles. Some include perceptual styles, learning modalities, and
learning preferences.
Each person is born with certain preferences toward particular styles, but
culture, experience, and development influence these preferences. The
four most common learning styles are visual, aural, reading/writing, and
kinesthetic/tactile. Most people learn through all modalities, but have
certain strengths and weaknesses in a specific modality. Some people
have an equal propensity for more than one style, which is titled as the
multimodal style. This preference can be determined through various
testing instruments. Once a person's learning style is ascertained,

36
accommodations can be made to increase academic achievement and
creativity, as well as improve attitudes toward learning.
What is your learning style?
The Visual Learning Style
Visual learners process information most effectively when the
information is seen. Depictions can include charts, graphs, flow charts, and
all the symbolic arrows, circles, hierarchies and other devices that
instructors use to represent what could have been presented in worlds.
These learners think in pictures and have vivid imaginations. Most people
are classified as visual learners.
Jessica is a visual learner. Her suggestions focus on the use of visual aids
to increase information processing.
The Aural Learning Style
Aural learners process information most effectively when spoken or
heard. These learners respond well to lectures and discussions and are
excellent listeners. They also like to talk and enjoy music and dramas.
When trying to recall information, aural learners can often "hear" the way
someone told them the information.
Patrick is an aural learner. His need to discuss the new improvements
points to the benefits of obtaining information in an oral language format.
The Reading/Writing Learning Style
Reading/Writing learners process information most effectively when
presented in a written language format. This type of learner benefits from
instructors that use the blackboard to accent important points or provide
outlines of the lecture material. When trying to recall information,
reading/writing learners remember the information from their "mind's eye."
Many academics have a strong preference for the reading/writing style.
Will is a reading/writing learner. His comprehensive training manual allows
the employees to utilize the written language format.
The Kinesthetic/Tactile Learning Style
Kinesthetic/Tactile learners process information actively through
physical means. Kinesthetic learning refers to whole body movement while
tactile learning refers only to the sense of touch. These learners gesture
when speaking, are poor listeners, and lose interest in long speeches.
Most students that do not perform well in school are kinesthetic/tactile
learners. The crux of this learning style is that the learner is connected to
real situations through experience, example, practice, or simulation.
Claire is a kinesthetic/tactile learner. Her method of instruction utilizes
"hands on" demonstrations and field experiences.
Learning Strategies for Each Learning Style
The Visual Learning Style
• Replace words with symbols or initials.
• Translate concepts into pictures and diagrams.
• Underline or highlight your notes or textbooks with different colors.
• Practice turning your visuals back into words.
• Make flashcards of key information with words, symbols, and
diagrams.
The Aural Learning Style
• Attend lectures and tutorials.
• Discuss topics with your instructor and other students.

37
• Put summarized notes on tape and listen to them.
• Join a study group or have a "study buddy."
• Tape record your lectures.
• When recalling information or solving problems, talk out loud.
The Reading/Writing Learning Style
• Write out important information again and again.
• Read your notes silently.
• Organize any diagrams into statements.
• Rewrite the ideas and principles in other words.
• Make flashcards of words and concepts that need to be memorized.
The Kinesthetic/Tactile Learning Style
• Sit near the instructor in classroom situations.
• Read out loud from your textbook and notes.
• Copy key points onto large writing surfaces (i.e. chalkboard or easel
board).
• Copy key points using word processing software.
• Listen to audiotapes of your notes while exercising.
• Take in information through field trips, laboratories, trial and error,
exhibits, collections, and hands-on examples.
• Put real life examples into your notes summary.
• Recall experiments and role-play.
• Use pictures and photographs that illustrate an idea.
Educational Implications for Learning Styles
Teachers that rely on learning styles have opened their classrooms to
more than one approach to intellectual work. The activities planned by
these teachers are more student-centered than traditional activities and
have engaged in learning-style based instruction.
The first step in implementing learning style-based instruction is diagnosing
the individual learning styles of each student. A variety of methods exist for
testing learning styles in a relatively quick manner. Many are available
online, like the VARK Questionnaire listed above.
The second step is profiling group preferences and weaknesses. Are most
of the students visual learners? Does your class have very few
kinesthetic/tactile learners?
The third step is assessing current instructional methods to determine
whether they are adequate or require more flexibility. If modifications need
to be made, various activities can be developed and/or adapted to conform
with learning styles. Three techniques have been proposed.
1. Teachers can add alternative activities that could replace or
supplement ones. This could create increased opportunities for
students to use different styles. For example, hands on activities can
be conducted after a lecture to confirm abstract concepts.
2. Teachers can also challenge students to develop skills in other
areas by completing assignments that utilize all learning styles. For
example, the students can complete multidimensional packets,
which contain activities from each learning style.
3. Another approach to include learning styles in an education
curriculum is to organize activities around complex projects. These

38
projects would require that students use all learning styles. An
example of a complex activity would be a project-based learning
project.
When teaching an individual, teachers should present the most difficult
concepts in the preferred style. Easier concepts should be introduced in a
different style. When teaching an entire class, teachers should use all
learning styles in their presentations if they are to reach every student. This
can be fairly simple.
For example, Mrs. Erwin, a fifth grade teacher is going to teach a unit on
Charlotte's Web. In order to accommodate all learning styles, she will have
the students read sections of the book silently and out loud to others, act
out various scenes, and complete a timeline of events on the bulletin
board. Mrs. Erwin understands that students must be exposed to the
concepts in a variety of ways to ensure full comprehension.
http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/index.php?
title=Multiple_Intelligences_and_Learning_Styles
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Howard Gardner of Harvard has identified seven distinct
intelligences. This theory has emerged from recent cognitive research and
"documents the extent to which students possess different kinds of minds
and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in different ways,"
according to Gardner (1991). According to this theory, "we are all able to
know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial
representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or
to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an
understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of
these intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways
in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different
tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains."
Gardner says that these differences "challenge an educational
system that assumes that everyone can learn the same materials in the
same way and that a uniform, universal measure suffices to test student
learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our educational system is heavily
biased toward linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and, to a
somewhat lesser degree, toward logical-quantitative modes as well."
Gardner argues that "a contrasting set of assumptions is more likely to be
educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are identifiably
distinctive. The broad spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as a
whole - would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a
numbers of ways and learning could be assessed through a variety of
means." The learning styles are as follows:
Visual-Spatial - think in terms of physical space, as do architects
and sailors. Very aware of their environments. They like to draw, do jigsaw
puzzles, read maps, daydream. They can be taught through drawings,
verbal and physical imagery. Tools include models, graphics, charts,
photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video, videoconferencing, television,
multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.
Bodily-kinesthetic - use the body effectively, like a dancer or a
surgeon. Keen sense of body awareness. They like movement, making

39
things, touching. They communicate well through body language and be
taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, role playing.
Tools include equipment and real objects.
Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music,
but they are also sensitive to sounds in their environments. They may
study better with music in the background. They can be taught by turning
lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, tapping out time. Tools include
musical instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.
Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with others. These
students learn through interaction. They have many friends, empathy for
others, street smarts. They can be taught through group activities,
seminars, dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio conferencing, time
and attention from the instructor, video conferencing, writing, computer
conferencing, E-mail.
Intrapersonal - understanding one's own interests, goals. These
learners tend to shy away from others. They're in tune with their inner
feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and motivation, as well as a strong
will, confidence and opinions. They can be taught through independent
study and introspection. Tools include books, creative materials, diaries,
privacy and time. They are the most independent of the learners.
Linguistic - using words effectively. These learners have highly
developed auditory skills and often think in words. They like reading,
playing word games, making up poetry or stories. They can be taught by
encouraging them to say and see words, read books together. Tools
include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape recorders, and lecture.
Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually,
abstractly and are able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They
like to experiment, solve puzzles, ask cosmic questions. They can be
taught through logic games, investigations, mysteries. They need to learn
and form concepts before they can deal with details.
At first, it may seem impossible to teach to all learning styles.
However, as we move into using a mix of media or multimedia, it becomes
easier. As we understand learning styles, it becomes apparent why
multimedia appeals to learners and why a mix of media is more effective. It
satisfies the many types of learning preferences that one person may
embody or that a class embodies. A review of the literature shows that a
variety of decisions must be made when choosing media that is
appropriate to learning style.
Visuals: Visual media help students acquire concrete concepts,
such as object identification, spatial relationship, or motor skills where
words alone are inefficient.
Printed words: There is disagreement about audio's superiority to
print for affective objectives; several models do not recommend verbal
sound if it is not part of the task to be learned.
Sound: A distinction is drawn between verbal sound and non-verbal
sound such as music. Sound media are necessary to present a stimulus
for recall or sound recognition. Audio narration is recommended for poor
readers.
Motion: Models force decisions among still, limited movement, and
full movement visuals. Motion is used to depict human performance so that

40
learners can copy the movement. Several models assert that motion may
be unnecessary and provides decision aid questions based upon
objectives. Visual media which portray motion are best to show
psychomotor or cognitive domain expectations by showing the skill as a
model against which students can measure their performance.
Color: Decisions on color display are required if an object's color is
relevant to what is being learned.
Realia: Realia are tangible, real objects which are not models and
are useful to teach motor and cognitive skills involving unfamiliar objects.
Realia are appropriate for use with individuals or groups and may be
situation based. Realia may be used to present information realistically but
it may be equally important that the presentation corresponds with the way
learner's represent information internally.
Instructional Setting: Design should cover whether the materials
are to be used in a home or instructional setting and consider the size what
is to be learned. Print instruction should be delivered in an individualized
mode which allows the learner to set the learning pace. The ability to
provide corrective feedback for individual learners is important but any
medium can provide corrective feedback by stating the correct answer to
allow comparison of the two answers.
Learner Characteristics: Most models consider learner
characteristics as media may be differentially effective for different
learners. Although research has had limited success in identifying the
media most suitable for types of learners several models are based on this
method.
Reading ability: Pictures facilitate learning for poor readers who
benefit more from speaking than from writing because they understand
spoken words; self-directed good readers can control the pace; and print
allows easier review.
Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three
to eleven and most include some or all of Gagne's (1977) learning
categories; intellectual skills, verbal information, motor skills, attitudes, and
cognitive strategies. Several models suggest a procedure which
categorizes learning outcomes, plans instructional events to teach
objectives, identifies the type of stimuli to present events, and media
capable of presenting the stimuli.
Events of Instruction: The external events which support internal
learning processes are called events of instruction. The events of
instruction are planned before selecting the media to present it.
Performance: Many models discuss eliciting performance where
the student practices the task which sets the stage for reinforcement.
Several models indicate that the elicited performance should be
categorized by type; overt, covert, motor, verbal, constructed, and select.
Media should be selected which is best able to elicit these responses and
the response frequency. One model advocates a behavioral approach so
that media is chosen to elicit responses for practice. To provide feedback
about the student's response, an interactive medium might be chosen, but
any medium can provide feedback. Learner characteristics such as error
proneness and anxiety should influence media selection.

41
Testing which traditionally is accomplished through print, may be handled
by electronic media. Media are better able to assess learners' visual skills
than are print media and can be used to assess learner performance in
realistic situations.
Source: http://www.tecweb.org/styles/gardner.html
LEARNING THEORIES AND LEARNING STYLES
1. Learning Theories
A number of (often competing) theories of learning have been proposed.
1.1Andragogy
Knowles (1913-97) differentiates the needs of adult learners from those of
juveniles and uses the term andragogy to describe the specific methods
which should be employed in the education of adults. Smith

42
summarizes Knowles' andragogy thus:
• The adult learner moves towards independence and is self-directing.
The teacher encourages and nurtures this movement.
• The learner's experience is a rich resource for learning. Hence
teaching methods include discussion, problem-solving etc.
• People learn what they need to know, so that learning programmes
are organized around life application.
• Learning experiences should be based around experiences, since
people are performance centred in their learning.
Andragogy requires that adult learners be involved in the identification of
their learning needs and the planning of how those needs are satisfied.
Learning should be an active rather than a passive process. Adult learning
is most effective when concerned with solving problems that have
relevance to the learner's everyday experience.
1.2Behaviorism
Skinner (1904-1990) is associated with the approach to learning
known as behaviorism. Skinner conducted experiments in which pigeons
and rats were taught to obtain food pellets by performing certain actions,
e.g. pecking a lever a certain number of times. Skinner asserted learning
occurs through operant conditioning. This is based upon the idea that
organisms operate on their environment. If an action has positive
consequences for the organism it is more likely to repeat that action, if the
consequences are undesirable then the action is less likely to be repeated
Skinner's approach has been used "to teach mentally retarded and
autistic children, … in industry to reduce job accidents, and … in numerous
applications in health-related fields." However some kinds of learning are
not easily explained by conditioning, e.g. "those cases where skills are
used in a highly flexible way, as in the use of language; … where people
do things that lead only to intangible rewards; … where people appear to
learn passively by observing others' actions"
Skinner's 1971 work "Beyond Freedom and Dignity" drew criticism
because it appeared to deny the essential human attributes of free will and
dignity and declared "man's actions were nothing more than a set of
behaviors that were shaped by his environment, over which he had no
control."
According to Tennant the influence of behaviorism on adult education is
"most apparent in the literature on behavioral objectives". Behavioral
objectives are formulated using language that refers to observable
behavior only, e.g. describes, identifies, explains, predicts… Criticisms of
such predefined objectives include:
• they are inappropriate for certain types of learning, e.g. music,
drama etc.;
• they fragment learning into many narrow categories and in so doing
fail to address the whole;
• they are concerned only with the outcomes and not the process of
learning;
• they cannot describe the acquisition of general ides which are
applicable in a variety of contexts;
• they cannot account for subjective outcomes, e.g. the development
of self-concept;

43
• they ignore peripheral learning, i.e. that which lies beyond the formal
syllabus but frequently occurs in any course of study;
• they do not account for changing learner needs as learning takes
place.
1.3 Chomsky and Language Acquisition
A particular challenge to behaviorism comes from Chomsky's theory
of language acquisition. Chomsky argues that human beings are
endowed with an internal understanding of the fundamental rules of
language that allow us to develop language skills far in excess of those
which would result purely from environmental conditioning. Gross and
McIlveen give the following evidence supporting Chomsky's view:
• language acquisition appears to occur in a culturally universal and
invariant sequence of stages;
• native speakers use language creatively, i.e. they are able to
produce sentences of a form they have not previously encountered;
• children spontaneously use grammar rules they have never heard or
been taught;
• the meaning of a sentence is more than the meaning of its individual
words and varies according to context;
• babies as young as two days have been shown (by Eimas) to be
able to discriminate between 'ba' and 'pa' sounds;
• studies of twins (by Malmstrom and Silva) have shown the existence
of private languages intelligible only to the twins, such languages
share certain features with ordinary languages.
1.4Constructivism
Constructivism asserts that people construct their own individual mental
models of the world in order to make sense of their experiences. Learning
is the process of adding to or refining this mental model.
On Purpose Associates describe how constructivism impacts on learning:
• There is no standardized curriculum. Curricula are customized to the
students' prior knowledge, and hands-on problem solving is
emphasized.
• Educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering
new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching
strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyze,
interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on
open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among
students.
• Assessment is part of the learning process and students play a
larger role in judging their own progress. There are no grades or
standardized testing.
2. Learning Styles
Just as individuals exhibit different personalities it has been suggested that
people learn (most effectively) in different ways. A number of different
learning styles have been identified.
2.1 Field Dependence/Independence
Tennant describesWitkin's work on field dependence/independence.
Essentially field dependent people are significantly influenced by context in

44
making judgment whilst field independents pay little or no attention to
context (i.e. are able to isolate their point of interest). Witkin suggests that
field dependence/independence forms a continuous distribution, and that
an individual's field dependence/independence changes with the context in
which they find themselves. Field dependents tend to learn better in a
social setting, e.g. class discussion, group work etc., and where direction
and structured material are provided for them. They tend to specialize in
work and study requiring interaction with people. Field independents tend
to be more self-directed and better able to make sense of unstructured
material. They are more likely to favour impersonal disciplines such as
science and mathematics. Studies have shown that learners can modify
their style of learning with appropriate guidance.
The field dependence/independence of the teacher will tend to
influence their teaching style, e.g. field dependent teachers favour class
discussions and field dependents favour more impersonal lectures. It is
suggested that more effective learning takes place when the styles of the
teacher and students match, however other commentators state that the
conflict arising from mixing teacher and learner styles creates a challenge
that ultimately enhances the learner's experience.
Whilst it is impractical to create classes according to learning style, and in
any case this would present the learners with a very artificial environment,
it is beneficial for the teacher to be aware of the different styles and to
teach in a manner that is accessible to the majority of students.
2.2 Neuro-Linguistic Programming
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is "a set of models of how
communication impacts and is impacted by subjective experience" It was
first developed in the 1970s by John Grinder and Richard Bandler. The
models used by NLP have arisen because they have been observed to
work rather than being based on any deep underlying theory.
One NLP technique identifies a set of learning styles based upon an
individual's dominant sense.
• Visual learners learn best from what they see.
• Auditory learners learn best from what they hear.
• Kinaesthetic learners learn best from physical manipulation.
Since any group of learners is likely to consist of members with different
styles the most effective lessons will include elements suited to each.
3.3 Multiple Intelligence Theory
Gardner's multiple intelligence theory suggests that human beings perceive
and understand the world in a number of ways. Gardner proposes a not
necessarily exhaustive list of seven such intelligences:
• Verbal-Linguistic - the ability to use words and language.
• Logical-Mathematical -The capacity for inductive and deductive
thinking and reasoning, as well as the use of numbers and the
recognition of abstract patterns.
• Visual-Spatial -The ability to visualize objects and spatial
dimensions, and create internal images and pictures.
• Body-Kinesthetic -The wisdom of the body and the ability to control
physical motion.

45
• Musical-Rhythmic -The ability to recognize tonal patterns and
sounds, as well as a sensitivity to rhythms and beats.
• Interpersonal -The capacity for person-to-person communications
and relationships.
• Intrapersonal -The spiritual, inner states of being, self-reflection, and
awareness.
2.4 Experiential Learning Model
Kolb and Fry (referred to in identify a four-stage learning cycle
(experiential learning model) comprising concrete experience, reflection
and observation on that experience, the formation of a theory and the
testing of that theory under new conditions. From this learning cycle Kolb
and Fry propose two dimensions, one ranging from concrete experience to
abstract conceptualization (theory formation) the other from reflective
observation to active experimentation. They further state that individuals
will tend to favour one of the two extremes in each dimension and will in
fact fall somewhere on the continuum between the two. From the
combination of an individual's preference on the two dimensions Kolb and
Fry identify four learning styles, namely converger, diverger, assimilator
and accommodator. Kolb and Fry consider each style to be equally valid
and assert that the most effective learners are those who learn to apply
each of the styles to their learning experiences.
http://www.twinisles.com/dev/research/learningts.htm
COGNITIVE STYLE AND LEARNING
Theoretical background:
1. Nature or Nurture
Before the 1970s, individual differences had been synonymous with
differences in ability (Willing 1988:35), at least in the field of learning
theory. Nevertheless, many psychologists in the 1950s and 1960s became
increasingly concerned about the narrowness of abilities measured by

46
standard intelligence (IQ) tests. Emphasis on abstract logical reasoning
seemed to restrict intelligence to "convergent thinking" towards pre-
determined answers but excluded the type of "divergent thinking" which
leads to imaginative or creative innovation. Guildford (1965) introduced a
model of the structure of the intellect in which he differentiated between a
number of cognitive operations including convergent and divergent thinking
(Lovell 1980:104). Divergent thought soon became equated with creativity,
but although his (1975) concepts of fluency, flexibility and originality are
still widely used, the value of his contributions to the understanding of
creative thinking is now thought to be questionable (Ochse 1990:205).
The real value of Guildford’s distinction was realised by Hudson
(1968) who suggested that tests of divergent thought were not so much a
measure of creativity as a sampling of the individual’s preferred style of
thinking (Lovell 1980:105). From a study of sixth form science and arts
students, Hudson found that science students, specially those specialising
in physics, tended to prefer a convergent style of thinking and saw
themselves as basically cold, dull and unimaginative. Similarly, arts
students, particularly those specialising in English literature, history and
modern languages, were more likely to be divergent thinkers and saw
themselves as warm, imaginative and exciting but at the same time lacking
in manliness and dependability (Lovell 1980:105).
Hudson’s work was important in that it also showed a connection between
style of thinking (or cognitive style) and the learners’ social behaviour and
self-image.
Hudson (1968) also found a relationship between
convergent/divergent thinking and another bi-polar dimension known as
syllabus-bound and syllabus-free orientation. Convergent thinks or "sylbs"
were typically concerned with getting good examination marks and happily
accepted the restrictions of a formal syllabus. "Sylfs", on the other hand,
had intellectual interests that extended far beyond the syllabus, which they
often found constricting (Lovell 1980:105). Parlett (1969) found that "sylbs
were exam-oriented but had little personal interest in the subjects they
studied. Although they were "model" students at university, attending more
lectures, working harder and achieving higher marks in exams, "sylbs"
were less successful than "sylfs" when it came to independent project work
(Lovell 1980:106).
Again, the distinction between "sylbs" and "sylfs" was not just
limited to cognitive behaviour but included social and affective
characteristics. Another study of sixth-form students, this time by Josephs
and Smithers (1975), showed that "sylbs" tended to be "more conservative,
controlled, conscientious and persistent, shy, cautious and practical "when
contrasted with "sylfs". They were more intolerant and authoritarian in their
outlook and more dependent upon their social group (conformists) (Lovell
1980:106).
As many as 19 different ways of describing cognitive style have been
identified, all of which consist of bi-polar distinctions similar to those
described above (Entwistle 1988:47). All of these tend to be assimilated to
the construct field-dependence-field-independence (Willing 1988:41),

47
which has become a sort of general theory of perception, intellect and
personality. Berry (1981) characterises this dimension as follows:
"The central feature of this style is the "extent of autonomous
functioning" (Witkin, Gooddenough and Otman 1979); that is, whether an
individual characteristically relies on the external environment as a given,
in contrast to working on it, is the key dimension along which individuals
may be placed. As the name suggests, those who tend to accept or rely
upon the external environment are relatively more Field Dependent (FD),
while those who tend to work on it are relatively more Field Independent
(FI)" (quoted in Willing 1988: 41-42).
Berry goes on to explain that individuals have a characteristic
"place" on this dimension but that this may change according to
circumstance and in response to specific training (ibid: 42).
A summary of the findings of cognitive style research as they relate
to the two contrasting poles of the field independent (analytical/field
independent (concrete) dimension is given below in Fig.1.
Fig 1 Contrasts on the two poles of the Field Independent
(Analytical) Field Dependent (Concrete) Dimension (from Willing, 1988)
Analytical (Field Independent) Concrete (Field Dependent)
Information processing
This person finds it relatively easy to
detach an experienced (perceived)
item from its given background
This person experiences item as
fused with its context; what is
interesting is the impression of the
The item is extractable because it is
perceived as having a rudimentary
meaning on its own; thus it can be
moved out of its presented
surroundings and into a
comprehensive category system---for
understanding (and "filing" in
memory)
Tendency to show traits of
introversion (the person’s mental
processing can be strongly activated
by low-intensity stimulus; hence
dislikes excessive input)
Tendency to be "reflective" and
cautious in thinking task
Any creativity or unconventionality
would derive from individual’s
development of criteria on a rational
basis
whole
Item is experienced and
comprehended as part of an overall
associational unity with concrete and
personal interconnections; (item’s
storage in, and retrieval from,
memory is via these often affectively-
charged associations)
Tendency to show traits of
extraversion (person’s mental
processing is activated by relatively
higher-intensity stimulus; therefore
likes rich, varied input
Tendency to be "impulsive" in
thinking tasks; "plays hunches"
Any creativity or unconventionality
would derive from individual’s
imaginativeness or "lateral thinking"

48
Learning strengths
Performs best on analytical
language lasks (e.g. understanding
and using correct syntactical
structures; semantically ordered
comprehension of words; phonetic
articulation)
2.Favors material tending toward the
abstract and impersonal; factual or
analytical; useful; ideas
3. Has affinity for methods which are:
focused; systematic; sequential;
cumulative
4 Likely to set own learning goals
and direct own learning; (but may
well choose or prefer to use---for own
purpose---an authoritative text or
passive lecture situation.
1. Performs best on tasks calling
for intuitive "feel" for language (e.g.
expression; richness of lexical
connotation; discourse; rhythm and
intonation)
2.Prefers material which has a
human, social content; or which has
fantasy or humour; personal;
musical, artistic
3.Has affinity for methods in which
various features are managed
simultaneously; realistically; in
significant context
4. Less likely to direct own learning;
may function well in quasi-autonomy
(e.g. "guided discovery"); (but may
well express preference for a formal,
teacher dominated learning
arrangement, as a compensation for
own perceived deficiency in ability to
5. "Left hemisphere strengths" structure
5"Right hemisphere strengths"
Human relations
1. Greater tendency to experience
self as a separate entity; with, also a
great deal of internal differentiation
and complexity
2. Personal identity and social role to
a large extent self-defined
3. More tendency to be occupied with
own thoughts and responses;
relatively unaware of the subtle
emotional content in interpersonal
interactions
4.Relatively less need to be with
people
5. Self-esteem not ultimately
1Tendency to experience and relate
not as a completely differentiated
"self but rather as---to a degree---
fused with group and with
environment
2. Greater tendency to defer to social
group for identity and role-definition
3.More other-oriented (e.g. looking at
and scrutinizing other "faces; usually
very aware of other" feelings in an
interaction; sensitive to "cues"
4.Greater desire to be with people
5.Learning performance much
improved if group or authority figure
give praise

49
dependent upon the opinion of others
In order to understand better the notion of field dependence/field
independence, it is worth explaining how the original distinction came
about and how it differs from an alternative but complementary explanation
of the source of cognitive style differences, namely the split nature of the
brain.
Witkin et al (1954) found that people differ from each other in the
way they perceive both their environment and themselves in relation to it.
Their original findings were based on the contrasting ways in which
individuals establish the upright in tests involving tilted frames or tilted
rooms. Field-dependent people tended to rely upon visual information from
the outside world (hence the term field-dependent) whereas field
independent people relied almost exclusively on internal cues such as
muscle tension or sensations from the vestibular system in the ear (Lovell
1980:107) and ignored external evidence to the contrary. A brief
description of these experiments is given in Witkin (1969:288-291).
Later, an alternative (and simpler) way of measuring field dependence –
field independence (FD-FI) was developed which consisted of having
people pick out simple figures from a more complex design. Again,
individuals were asked to deal perceptually with items in a field. For some
(FI) people the simple figure almost "popped out" of the complex design,
while other (FD) people were unable to find it even in the five minutes
allowed (Witkin 1969:292).
Witkin (1969:294) argues that "the style of functioning we first picked up in
perception (…) manifest itself as well in intellectual activity". Field
dependence or field independence are the perceptual components of a
particular cognitive style. Thus "at one extreme there is a tendency for
experience to be diffuse and global; the organisation of a field as a whole
dictates the way in which its parts are experienced. At the other extreme
the tendency is for experience to be delineated and structured; parts of a
field are experienced as discrete and the field as a whole is structured"
(ibid: 294).
While scores for any large group of people on tests of FD-FI show a
continuous distribution (ibid: 294). Witkin repeatedly found sex differences
with females tending to be more FD and males correspondingly more FI.
(Later studies, however, show the evidence to be conflicting – see Willing
1988:103.) Witkin attributed this discrepancy to different styles of child
rearing. Thus he claims, for example, that mothers of field-dependent
children tend to represent the world to their children as uniformly
dangerous and satisfy all their children’s needs in the same way (e.g. a
mother might breastfeed her baby every time it cried). Mothers of field-
independent children, on the other hand, are more likely to specify sources
of danger selectively and to respond differently needs. According to Witkin,
the extent to which the mother articulates such early experiences
determines the child’s later position on the FD/FI continuum (Witkin
1969:312).
But just as there is a nature-nurture debate with regard to the source of
intelligence differences, so differences in cognitive style can also be
attributed to genetic factors. An alternative explanation is that cognitive
style reflects the individual’s preferential use of one or other hemisphere of

50
the brain much in the way that left-or right-handedness does. Evidence
from brain research suggests that one gene determines the dominant
hemisphere of the developing brain, while another relates to "handedness"
(Entwistle 1988:48). While the specialisation of functions is relative rather
than absolute (ibid: 48) and, in normal functioning, the two halves
cooperate very closely to produce a unity, Levy (1979) argues that a
perfect balance of strength only exists in about fifteen per cent of normal
people: in all other cases, hemisphere strengths are unbalanced (Willing
1988:45).
There is no room here to go into the question of hemispheric
specialisation in any great depth, but Hartnett (1981) states that:
"Recent brain research … provides evidence that the left cerebral
hemisphere is specialised for logical, analytical, linear information
processing, and the right hemisphere is specialised for synthetic, holistic,
imagistic information processing. This evidence seems to parallel research
on dual cognitive style models such as field independent/field dependent
…, analytical/rational …, serialist/holist … and sequential-
successive/parallel-simultaneous". (Quoted in Willing 1988:46).
2. Pedagogical implications
What are the implications, then, of cognitive style for the
development and use of learning strategies? As mentioned above, the
construct FD-FI has over the years become very broad and encompasses
not only cognitive and metacognitive elements but also the socio-affective
side of the learner. In order to avoid too much repetition, the socio-affective
implications of learning style will be discussed in a later article that deals
with personality. Here we shall refer to a more limited version of the FD-FI
dichotomy which was developed with special reference to education and
which according to Lovell (1980:106) has special significance for an
individual’s choice of learning strategies although Lovell himself gives no
examples. This is Pask’s (1969) distinction between serialist and holist
styles of learning.
A holist style involves a preference for setting the task in the
broadest possible perspective and gaining an overview of the area of study
so that the details are contextualised (Entwistle 1988:61-62). This has
implications for metacognitive strategies such as previewing,
organisational planning and directed and selective attention. Previewing
will tend to come naturally but may be rather indiscriminate. It is perhaps
more difficult for holistic to extract the organising principle from a text
without explicit cues. Holists may have more difficulty in attending to task
or deciding what is essential in the early stages. On writing task, they are
more likely to discover what they want to say through a global strategy of
drafting and redrafting rather than filling in an initial outline, and their
approach tends to be "idiosyncratic and personalised" (Entwistle 1988:62).
They may have difficulty with evaluating form.
Holists use visual imagery and personal experience to build up
understanding. Drawing mind-maps using imagery and colour will be useful
memory strategies for holists (see Buzan 1989:95). Creative elaboration
(e.g. making up stories) and personal elaboration are also likely to appeal
to holists. However, they may need to develop strategies that compensate
for a natural tendency to over generalise and ignore important differences

51
between ideas. Such attention-directing strategies are described by De
Bono (1976) and include "thinking tools" such as listing other people’s
points of view, arguments for and against a proposal etc.
In contrast, a serialist style is described by Pask (1969) as step-by-
step learning. The focus is narrow, with the student concentrating on each
step of the argument in order and in isolation (Entwistle 1988:63). Serialists
approach the study of new material by stringing a sequence of cognitive
structures together and thus tend to be very intolerant of redundant
information because of the extra burden it places on memory (Lovell
1980:106). They are likely to use planning and selective attention
strategies too early in an attempt to limit the amount of information they
have to deal with. On writing tasks, they may need to make a considerable
effort to "brainstorm" for new ways of approaching a subject and are likely
to have difficulty in evaluating content, which "tends to be carefully
structured and clearly presented, but may be dull and humourless"
(Entwistle 1988:63) and "lacking in personal interpretation or independent
conclusions" (ibid)-
Unlike holists, serialists are good at noticing even trivial differences but
are poor at noticing similarities. Thus they may need to use elaboration
strategies that emphasise relating different parts of new information to
each other as well as relating information to personal experience. A caveat
must be added here. As with the FI/FD dimension of which the serialist-
holist forms a part, few people are totally serialist or holist in their
approach. Pask found some students who were versatile: they were
equally comfortable with either style and could use both as appropriate.
Other students, however, showed a marked over-reliance on one or other
of these styles which gave rise to characteristic pathologies of learning
(Entwistle 1988:62). It is these individuals who are likely to prove the most
impervious to strategy training.
3. Cultural influences and imitations
Finally, there is the question of how cognitive style relates to
cultural background. Witkin himself identified field independence with a
higher and more advanced degree of autonomy and individualisation
(Willing 1988:48). Subsequent research (Witkin 1977; Berry 1979,1981)
has shown that in "loose" migratory, hunter-gatherer societies in which the
individual typically works alone and depends upon a high degree of
perceptual discrimination and autonomous decision-making, field-
independence is favoured. But in more stable, sedentary or stratified
societies (usually agrarian) with "tight" family and social networks, relative
field dependence seems to be the norm (Willing 1988:48-49).
Modern industrial societies, however, are more complex. On the one
hand, they present many of characteristics of agrarian societies although
the extended family is rare in Northern Europe and America. Yet it might
also be predicated that education would tend to produce a more
"analytical" mode of thinking (Willing 1988:102). In fact a study carried out
in Australia by the Adult Migrant Education Service (AMES) has shown that
at least as far as language learning is concerned:
"(…) learning modes cut across age levels, both sexes, and all levels of
previous education. To a considerable degree, learning preferences

52
actually cut across all biographical variables – including ethnic group".
(Willing 1988:151)
Over eighty per cent of the participants in this study were from large
towns (50,000+) or cities and belonged to a wide number of ethnic groups,
both European and Asian (ibid: passim).
Unfortunately, research has also shown that perceptually-based testing
devices such as the Embedded Figures Test are not reliable when the
tested group itself is multicultural (Willing 1988:44). Willing (ibid: 44-45)
cites the example of obviously highly "analytical" students from certain
Asian cultures that were slower and less accurate in responding than some
Europeans who were in all other respects far less analytical and claims that
it would be necessary to reposition the entire scale in order to permit
comparison between cultures. The reason for this seems to be the cultural
bias involved in tests containing abstract geometric patterns. (Highly
educated Asians with long exposure to Western culture, however, are
presumably less likely to misunderstand what is required of them).
Curiously enough, the Embedded Figures Test correlates quite highly with
another culturally biased instrument – the standard IQ test in the low and
medium range of the scales although not at the higher end (see also
Skehan 1989:114-115 on FI as a disguised measure of intelligence).
In conclusion, cognitive style, in particular the FI-FD dimension, is a
well-researched construct that includes not only cognitive and
metacognitive elements but also the socio-affective side of the learner.
Unlike Gardner’s (1984) theory of multiple intelligences (MI), it does not
assume that linguistic functioning is separate from other types of
functioning, but rather that people fall on a continuum between serialist and
holist, analytical and intuitive, and independent and social, and have
different strengths and weaknesses. Similarly, unlike MI theory, it does not
presuppose that a person’s linguistic ability is more or less pre-determined
at birth (see my article in Share No. 68) but rather that cognitive style is the
result of complex interactions between hemisphere strengths and early
learning experiences. Also, the fact that the Embedded Figures Test has
been shown to be culturally biased should make us wary of assuming that
hemisphere strengths are totally ‘biological" or "genetic" in origin. Above
all, the research on cognitive style provides us with a rationale for
diagnosing individual weaknesses, while suggesting that the ideal balance
is somewhere in the middle of the FI/FD continuum. In this way, learners
can be taught compensatory strategies so as to get the best of both
worlds.
Source:http://www.monografias.com/trabajos16/learning-styles/learning-
styles.shtml
COGNITIVE/ LEARNING STYLES
Cognitive styles and learning styles refer to the preferred way an
individual processes information or the different ways in which children and
adults think and learn. Each of us develops a preferred and consistent set
of behaviors or approaches to learning.

53
Unlike theories of individual differences in abilities (e.g., Gardner),
which describe peak performance, learning styles describe a person’s
typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving. Furthermore,
styles are usually considered to be bipolar dimensions, whereas abilities
are unipolar (i.e., ranging from zero to a maximum value). Having more of
anability is usually considered beneficial, while having a particular cognitive
style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a certain manner. Cognitive
style is usually referred to as a personality dimension that influences
attitudes, values and social interaction.
To further our understanding of the learning process, Litzinger and
Osif (1993) broke it down into several processes:
 Cognition – How one acquires knowledge.
 Conceptualization – How one processes information. There are those
who are always looking for connections among unrelated events. For
others, each event triggers a multitude of new ideas.
 Affective – People’s motivation, decision-making styles, values and
emotional preferences will also help to define their learning styles.
Why is Learning Style Important?
Understanding students’ cognitive and/or learning style(s) can be
useful to the I&RS Team in planning strategies or methods that will be
most effective in helping educators facilitate student learning, growth and
achievement. Information about students’ learning styles (as well as
educators’ learning, facilitation and instructional styles) is important to both
the educator and the student for the following reasons:
 Low satisfaction or poor performance in a course or particular activity
may be misinterpreted as lack of knowledge or ability, when it is actually
difficulty with a particular style of learning.
 Individual learning preferences, although clearly not related to aptitude,
are significantly related to personal motivation and performance.
 Educators with an understanding of their students’ learning styles are
better able to appropriately adapt their teaching methods.
 Educators who introduce a variety of appropriate teaching methods into
their classes are more likely to motivate and engage students in learning.
 Students who learn about their own style become better learners,
achieve higher grades, become more motivated and have more positive
attitudes about their studies, have greater self-confidence and have more
skill in applying their knowledge in courses.
 Information about learning styles can help educators become more
sensitive to the diversity of students.
 Information about learning styles can serve as a guide to the design of
learning experiences that either match, or mismatch, students’ styles,
depending upon whether the educator’s purpose is efficiency of students’
learning or the development of skills with a style of learning.
 Information about learning styles can assist in working with at risk
students, since they have a greater chance of dropping out of school or
engaging in self-destructive behavior.

54
Field Independence versus Field Dependence
A number of cognitive styles have been identified and studied over
the years. Field independence versus field dependence is one of the most
widely known styles. It refers to a tendency to approach the environment in
a particular, as opposed to a global manner. At a perceptual level, field
independent personalities are able to distinguish figures as discrete from
their backgrounds. Field dependent individuals experience events in an
undifferentiated way, and have a greater social orientation relative to field
independent personalities. Several studies have identified a number of
major connections between this cognitive style and learning. For example,
field independent individuals are likely to learn more effectively under
conditions of intrinsic motivation (e.g., self-study) and are less influenced
by social reinforcement.
Scanning
This cognitive style focuses on differences in the extent and intensity of
attention resulting in variations in the vividness of experience and the span
of awareness.
Leveling versus Sharpening
These cognitive styles emphasize individual variations in remembering that
pertain to the distinctiveness of memories (i.e., sharpening) and the
tendency to merge similar events (i.e., leveling).
Reflection versus Impulsivity
This style has to do with individual consistencies in the speed and
adequacy with which alternative hypotheses are formed and responses
made.
Conceptual Differentiation
This style focuses on differences in the tendency to categorize perceived
similarities among stimuli, in terms of separate concepts or dimensions.
David Kolb’s Theory of Learning Styles
Kolb proposes a theory of experiential learning that involves the following
four principle stages that can be seen as a continuum running from
concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract
conceptualization (AC) and active experimentation (AE). Under Kolb’s
theory, the CE/AC and AE/RO dimensions are polar opposites, as far as
learning styles are concerned.
Kolb’s theory is based on the view that learning is a series of experiences
with cognitive additions, rather than as a series of pure cognitive
processes. Kolb’s theory sets forth that learning is a circular process in
which concrete experience (CE) is followed by reflection and observation

55
(RO), which in turn leads to the formulation of abstract concepts and
generalization (AC), the implications of which are tested in new situations
Through active experimentation (AE).
A description of Kolb’s learning styles are provided below, as well as
suggested instructional strategies for teaching to each style:
While Kolb’s theory describes an integrated process in which all stages of
the continuum have to be completed over time, it also contends that people
are rarely fully effective in all stages. Usually people come to prefer, and
rely on, one style above the others. I&RS teams should be familiar with and
able to apply information on student’s learning styles
when creating instructional materials, strategies and techniques for
identified problems.
Kolb produced variants of his main stages, and by combining
different parts of the four stages identified four main styles of learners:
divergers, assimilators, convergers and accommodators, depending upon
their position on the two opposite dimensions (i.e., CE/AE, AE/RO). For
example, an accommodator prefers concrete experiences and active
experimentation (AE, CE).
Learning Styles and the 4MAT System: A Cycle of Learning

56
The 4MAT system for creating lesson plans for teaching to learning styles
with right/left mode techniques, developed by Bernice McCarthy, is based
on a number of premises:
� First, different individuals perceive and process experience in different
and preferred ways, which comprise individuals’ unique learning styles.
� Essential to quality learning is an awareness in learners of their own
preferred mode, becoming comfortable with their own ways of learning,
and being helped to develop a learning repertoire, which is
developed through experience with alternative modes.
� The fact that students may have preferred and most comfortable modes
does not mean they can not function effectively in others. In fact, students
who have the flexibility to move easily from one mode to
another to accommodate the requirements of a situation are at a definite
advantage over those who limit themselves to only one style of thinking
and learning.
Descriptions of the four learning styles identified by McCarthy follow:
McCarthy argues that all styles should be addressed within the curriculum,
so that more than one type of student may be permitted to both “shine” and
“stretch.” That is, every lesson should contain something for everyone, so
each student not only finds their mode of greatest comfort, but also is
challenged to adapt less comfortable, but equally valuable modes.
The instructional sequence suggested by McCarthy teaches to the four
styles using both right- and left-brain processing techniques. This

57
integration of styles and processing modes ensures that we are educating
the “whole brain” (i.e., engaging both hemispheres of the brain).
Neurolinguistics/Psycholinguistics
Consideration of one aspect of neurolinguistics can also assist in
assessing students’ and educators’ learning styles. Specifically, our
tendencies toward the use of visual, auditory or kinesthetic/tactile
dimensions in language and thought are strong indicators of predominant
learning style.
The chart below, adapted from Accelerated Learning, by Colin Rose,
provides an example of how language and other cognitive processes can
illuminate ones’ primary leaning style. By reading the text in the left
column, and answering the questions in the successive three columns on
how you respond to each situation, you can determine your learning
style. Your answers may fall into all three columns, but one column will
likely contain the most answers, which indicates your main learning style.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Another construct that can be useful in determining one’s learning
style is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), developed by Katharine C.
Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, which sets forth four style dimensions. The
MBTI instrument provides data on four sets of preferences, resulting in
sixteen learning styles, or types. A type is the combination of an
individual’s four preferences (e.g., ESTJ or extraverted-sensing-
thinkingjudger). The four dimensions are described below, along with ideas
for teaching to each polarity of the four dimensions.

58

59
The Myers-Briggs inventory can be a very useful tool for helping
I&RS team members understand each other’s styles of learning and
working. The use of personal awareness instruments, such as Myers-
Briggs, are excellent resources to use for the maintenance of even fully-
functioning teams, as discussed in the section of this manual titled “Team
Wellness/Maintenance.”
Source:http://www.ntuaft.com/TISE/IRS
%20manual/innovative/cognitive_learning_styles.htm

60
Assessment Task/s
1. In your own words, describe the different learning/thinking styles
and multiple intelligences?
2. What is/are your thinking/learning styles? What are your dominant
multiple intelligences?
3. Choose a particular learning style and intelligence of students. Plan
learning activities that match the particular learning styles and
multiple intelligences of students.

Learning style inventory (1)

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