Lecture 5: Software platforms and services

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Lecture 5: Software platforms and services
EEEM048/COM3023- Internet of Things
Prof. Payam Barnaghi
Centre for Vision, Speech and Signal Processing (CVSSP)
Electrical and Electronic Engineering Department
University of Surrey
Autumn 2018

Wireless Sensor (and Actuator) Networks
Sink
node Gateway
Core network
e.g. InternetGateway
End-user
Computer services
- The networks typically run on constrained devices
- Consist of one or more sensors (and actuators), could be different type of sensors (or actuators)
Operating
Systems?
Services?
Protocols?
Protocols?

Operating Systems
− An Operating System (OS) in an embedded system is a thin
software that resides between the node’s hardware and the
application layer.
− OS provides basic programming abstractions to the
application developer.
− The main task of the OS is to enable applications to interact
with hardware resources, to schedule and prioritise tasks and
mediate between applications and services that try to use the
memory resources.
3

Features of the OS in embedded systems
− Memory management
− Power management
− File management
− Networking
− Providing programming environment and tools (commands,
interpreters, compiler, etc.)
− Providing entry points to access sensitive resources such as
writing to input components.
− Providing and supporting functional aspects such as
scheduling, multi-threading, handling interrupts, memory
allocations.
4

5
Operating systems and run-time in constrained
environments
− Need for energy efficiency
− The code is more restricted (compared to conventional
operating systems) so a full-blown OS is not required.
− An appropriate programming model
− A clear way to structure a protocol stack
− And support for energy management

Threads and events
− A “thread” in a programming environment is the smallest
sequence of programmed instructions that can be managed
and run independently by a scheduler.
− An event driven program typically runs an event loop. It
keeps waiting for for an event, e.g. input from internal alarms.
When an event occurs, the program collects data about the
event and dispatches the event to the event handler software
to deal with it.
6

Thread-based vs Event-based Programming
− In WSN it is important to support concurrent tasks; in
particular tasks related to I/O systems.
− Thread-based programming uses multiple threads and a single
address space.
− This way if a thread is blocked by an I/O operation, the
thread can be suspended and other tasks can be executed in
different threads.
− The programmer must protect shared data structures with
locks, coordinate the execution of threads.
− The program written for multiple threading can be complex,
can include bugs and may lead to deadlocks.
7

Thread-based vs Event-based Programming- II
− The event-based programming uses events and event
handlers.
− Event handlers are registered at the OS scheduler and are
notified when a named event occurs.
− The OS kernel usually implements a loop function that polls
for events and calls relevant event handlers when an event is
occurred.
− An event is processed by an event handler until completion
unless it reaches a blocking operation.
− In the case of reaching a blocking operation it registers a new
call back and returns control to scheduler.
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Dynamic Programming
− There could be a requirement for programming some parts of
an application (for example in a WSN environment) after
deployment. For example:
− The complete deployment setting and requirements may not be know
prior to the deployment and as a result the network may not function
optimally;
− Application requirements and physical environment properties can
change over time;
− There could be bug fixes or update requirements while the network is
till operating.
− In the above cases, manual replacement of software may not
be feasible because of the large number of nodes in the
network.
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Dynamic Programming
−If there is no clear separation between OS and the
application dynamic programming can not be
supported.
−In dynamic programming, OS should be able to
receive the software updates and store it in the
active memory.
−OS should make sure that this is an updated version.
−OS should remove the piece of software that needs
to be updated from memory and should install and
configure the new version.
10

11
TinyOS
−“TinyOS is an open source operating system
designed for low-power wireless devices, such as
those used in sensor networks .”
−TinyOS applications are developed using nesC
−nesC is a dialect of the C language that is optimised
for the memory limits of sensor networks.

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TinOS - programming
−“TinyOS is completely non-blocking:
−It has one stack.
−All I/O operations that last longer than a few hundred
microseconds are asynchronous and have a callback.
−“To enable the native compiler to better optimise across
call boundaries, TinyOS uses nesC's features to link these
callbacks, called events, statically.”
TinyOS home page: http://www.tinyos.net/
TinyOS tutorial: http://docs.tinyos.net/tinywiki/index.php/TinyOS_Tutorials

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Contiki
− Contiki is an open source operating system for networked embedded systems
and wireless sensor nodes.
− It is designed for microcontrollers with small amounts of memory.
− A typical Contiki configuration is 2 kilobytes of RAM and 40 kilobytes of
ROM.
− Contiki provides IP communications, both for IPv4 and IPv6.
− It has an IPv6 stack that, combined with power-efficient radio mechanisms such
as ContikiMAC, allows battery-operated devices to participate in IPv6
networking.
− Contiki supports 6lowPAN header compression and the CoAP application
layer protocol.
− We will study 6LowPAN and CoAP protocols later in this module.
Source: http://www.contiki-os.org

Contiki- Functional aspects
− It’s kernel functions as an event-driven kernel; multithreading is supported
by an application library. In this sense it is a hybrid OS.
− Contiki realises the separation of concern of the basic system support
form the rest of the dynamically loadable and programmable services
(called processes).
− The services communicate with each other through the kernel by posting
events.
− The ContikiOS kernel does not provide any hardware abstraction; but it
allows device drivers and application directly communicate with the
hardware.
− Each Contiki service manages its own state in a private memory space and
the kernel keeps a pointer to the process state.
14

The Contiki OS
15
Kernel
Program Loader
Language runtime
Communication service
Loaded program
Core
Service Core: single binary
Usually never modified
Loadable programs
Can be easily updated

Protothreads
− Protothreads can be seen as lightweight (stackless) threads.
− They also can be seen as interruptible tasks in event-based
programming.
− A protothread provides a conditional blocking “wait”
statement which takes a conditional statement and blocks the
protothread until the statement is evaluated true.
− By the time the protothread reaches the wait time if the
conditional statement is true, it continues executing without
any interruption.
− A protothread is invoked whenever a process receives a
message from another process or a timer event.
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Protothreads- example
− For example consider a MAC protocol that turns off the radio subsystem
on a periodic basis; but you want to make sure that the radio subsystem
completes the communication before it goes to sleep state.
1. At t=t0 set the radio ON
2. The radio remains on for a period of tawake seconds
3. Once tawake is over, the radio has to be switched off, but any on-going communication needs to be
completed.
4. If there is an on-going communication, the MAC protocol will wait for a period, twait_max before
switching off the radio.
5. If the communication is completed or the maximum wait time is over, then the radio will go off
and will remain in the off state for a period of tsleep.
6. The process is repeated.
17
Source: Adam Dunkels, Oliver Schmidt, Thiemo Voigt, and Muneeb Ali. 2006. Protothreads: simplifying event-driven programming of memory-constrained embedded systems. In
Proceedings of the 4th international conference on Embedded networked sensor systems (SenSys '06). ACM.

Radio sleep cycle code with events
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Event driven code can be
messy and complex

Radio sleep cycle with Protothreads
19

Contiki process
− Contiki processes implement their own version of
protothreads, that allow processes to wait for incoming
events.
− The protothread statements used in Contiki processes are
therefore slightly different than the pure protothread
statements as presented in the previous section.
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Contiki Process
− Code in Contiki runs in either of two execution contexts: cooperative or
preemptive.
− Cooperative code runs sequentially with respect to other cooperative
code.
− Preemptive code temporarily stops the cooperative code.
− Contiki processes run in the cooperative context, whereas interrupts and
real-time timers run in the preemptive context.
− All Contiki programs are processes. A process is a piece of code that is
executed regularly by the Contiki system.
− Processes in Contiki are typically started when the system boots, or when
a module that contains a process is loaded into the system. Processes run
when something happens, such as a timer firing or an external event
occurring.
21Source: https://github.com/contiki-os/contiki/wiki/Processes#Protothreads

Sensor Network Programming
− Sensor Network programming can be: node centric or it can be
application centric.
− Node-centric approaches focus on development of a software for nodes
(on a per-node level).
− Application-centric approaches focus on developing software for a part or
all of the network as one entity.
− The application centric programming will require collaboration among
different nodes in the network for collection, dissemination, analysis
and/or processing of the generated and collected data.
− While in node centric programming the main focus is on developing a
software on a per-node level.
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The Contiki code
#include "contiki.h"
PROCESS(sample_process, "My sample process");
AUTOSTART_PROCESSES(&sample_process);
PROCESS_THREAD(sample_process, ev, data) {
PROCESS_BEGIN();
while(1) {
PROCESS_WAIT_EVENT();
}
PROCESS_END();
}
Header files
Defines the name of
the process
Defines the process
will be started every
time module is
loaded
contains the
process code
Threads must have
an end statement
Event parameter; process
can respond to events
process can receive
data during an event

Timers in Contiki OS
− The Contiki system provides a set of timer libraries that are
used both by application programs and by the Contiki system
itself.
− The timer libraries contain functionality for checking if a time
period has passed, waking up the system from low power
mode at scheduled times, and real-time task scheduling.
− The timers are also used by applications to let the system
work with other things or enter low power mode for a time
period before resuming execution.
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Source: https://github.com/contiki-os/contiki/wiki/Timers

The Contiki Timer Modules
− The timer and stimer libraries provides the simplest form of
timers and are used to check if a time period has passed. The
applications need to ask the timers if they have expired.
− The etimer library provides event timers and are used to
schedule events to Contiki processes after a period of time.
They are used in Contiki processes to wait for a time period
while the rest of the system can work or enter low power
mode.
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The etimer Library
− The Contiki etimer library provides a timer mechanism that
generate timed events. An event timer will post the event
PROCESS_EVENT_TIMER to the process that set the timer
when the event timer expires. The etimer library use
clock_time() in the clock module to get the current system
time.
− An event timer is declared as a struct etimer and all access to
the event timer is made by a pointer to the declared event
timer.
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Setting the Etimer
− An event timer is always
initialized by a call to etimer_set()
which sets the timer to expire
the specified delay from current
time.
− An event timer can be stopped
by a call to etimer_stop() which
means it will be immediately
expired without posting a timer
event. etimer_expired() is used to
determine if the event timer has
expired.
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The Clock Module
− The function clock_time() returns the current system time in
clock ticks.
− The number of clock ticks per second is platform dependent
and is specified with the constant CLOCK_SECOND.
− The system time is specified as the platform dependent type
clock_time_t and in most platforms this is a limited unsigned
value which wraps around when getting too large.
− The clock module also provides a function clock_seconds() for
getting the system time in seconds as an unsigned long and
this time value can become much larger before it wraps
around (136 years on MSP430 based platforms).
− The system time starts from zero when the Contiki system
starts.
28Source: https://github.com/contiki-os/contiki/wiki/Timers

Contiki code
#include "contiki.h"
PROCESS (sample_process, "My sample process");
PROCESS (LED_process, "LED blink process");
AUTOSTART_PROCESSES(&sample_process, &LED_process);
PROCESS_THREAD(sample_process, ev, data) {
static struct etimer t;
static int c = 0;
PROCESS_BEGIN();
etimer_set(&t, CLOCK_CONF_SECOND);
while(1) {
PROCESS_WAIT_EVENT();
if(ev == PROCESS_EVENT_TIMER) {
printf(“Timer event #%i n", c);
c++;
etimer_reset(&t);
}
}
PROCESS_END();
}
PROCESS_THREAD(LED_process, ev, data) {
static struct etimer timer;
static uint8_t leds_state = 0;
PROCESS_BEGIN();
while (1)
{
etimer_set(&timer, CLOCK_CONF_SECOND / 4);
PROCESS_WAIT_EVENT_UNTIL(ev == PROCESS_EVENT_TIMER);
leds_off(0xFF);
leds_on(leds_state);
leds_state += 1;
}
PROCESS_END();}
Process thread
names
Process thread 1
Process thread 2

Some of the blocking macros in Contiki
− PROCESS_WAIT_EVENT(): yield and wait for an event to be posted to
this process;
− PROCESS_WAIT_EVENT_UNTIL(cond): yield and wait for an event, and
for the cond condition to be true;
− PROCESS_WAIT_UNTIL(cond): wait until the cond condition is true. If it
is true at the instant of call, does not yield;
− PROCESS_WAIT_WHILE(cond): wait while the cond condition is true. If
it is false at the instant of call, does not yield;
− PROCESS_PAUSE(): post an event to itself and yield. This allows the
kernel to execute other processes if there are events pending, and
ensures continuation of this process afterward;
− PROCESS_EXIT(): terminate the process.
30Source: http://senstools.gforge.inria.fr/doku.php?id=contiki:examples

Running Contiki on a Hardware
− Write your code
− Compile Contiki and the application
− make TARGET=XM1000 sample_process
− Make file
− If you plan to compile your code on the chosen platform more than once;
− make TARGE=XM1000 savetarget
− Upload your code
− make simple_process.upload
− Login to the device
− make login
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CONTIKI = ../..
all: simple_process
include $(CONTIKI)/Makefile.include

Power saving mode in Contiki
− The Contiki Kernel does not contain any explicit power
saving abstractions.
− However, Contiki allows the application specific parts of the
system implement power saving mechanisms.
− To help an application decide when to power down the
system, the event scheduler exposes the size of event queue;
if there were not events scheduled, this information can be
used to power down the processor.
32

Nodes and Applications in WSNs
− Sensor Networks consist of nodes with different capabilities.
− Large number of heterogeneous sensor nodes
− Spread over a physical location
− It includes physical sensing, data processing and networking
− In ad-hoc networks, sensors can join and leave due to
mobility, failure etc.
− Data can be processed in-network or it can be directly
communicated to the endpoints.

Types of nodes
− Sensor nodes
− Low power
− Consist of sensing device, memory, processor and radio
− Resource-constrained
− Sink nodes
− Another sensor node or a different wireless node
− Normally more powerful/better resources
− Gateway
− A more powerful node
− Connection to core network
− Could consist service representation, cache/storage, discovery and
other functions

Types of applications
− Event detection
− Reporting occurrences of events
− Reporting abnormalities and changes
− Could require collaboration of other nearby or remote nodes
− Event definition and classification is an issue
− Periodic measurements
− Sensors periodically measure and report the observation and measurement
data
− Reporting period is application dependent
− Approximation and pattern detection
− Sending messages along the boundaries of patterns in both space/time
− Tracking
− When the source of an event is mobile
− Sending event updates with location information

Requirements and challenges
− Fault tolerance
− The nodes can get damaged, run out of power, the wireless
communication between two nodes can be interrupted, etc.
− To tolerate node failures, redundant deployments can be necessary.
− Lifetime
− The nodes could have a limited energy supply;
− Sometimes replacing the energy sources is not practical (e.g.
underwater deployment, large/remote field deployments).
− Energy efficient operation can be a necessity.

Requirements and challenges – Continued
− Scalability
− A WSN can consists of a large number of nodes
− The employed architectures and protocols should scale to these
numbers.
− Wide range of densities
− Density of the network can vary
− Different applications can have different node densities
− Density does not need to be homogeneous in the entire network and
network should adapt to such variations.

Requirements and challenges – Continued
− Programmability
− Nodes should be flexible and their tasks could change
− The programmes should be also changeable during operation.
− Maintainability
− WSN and environment of a WSN can change;
− The system should be adaptable to the changes.
− The operational parameters can change to choose different trade-offs
(e.g. to provide lower quality when energy efficiency is more
important)

Communications and Network Protocol Support

Communication Protocols
− Wired
− USB, Ethernet
− Wireless
− Wifi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, IEEE 802.15.x
− Single-hop or multi-hop
− Sink nodes, cluster heads…
− Point-to-Point or Point-to-Multi Point

ZigBee
− It is aimed to be a low cost, low power mesh network protocol.
− ZigBee operation range is in the industrial, scientific and medical radio
bands;
− ZigBee’s physical layer and media access control defined in defined based
on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard.
− ZigBee nodes can go from sleep to active mode in 30 ms or less, the
latency can be low and in result the devices can be responsive, in
particular compared to Bluetooth devices that wake-up time can be
longer (typically around three seconds).
[source: Gary Legg, ZigBee: Wireless Technology for Low-Power Sensor Networks,
http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1275760]

ZigBee
[source: Gary Legg, ZigBee: Wireless Technology for Low-Power Sensor Networks,
http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1275760]

Network protocols
− The network (or OSI Layer 3 abstraction) provides an
abstraction of the physical world.
− Communication protocols
− Most of the IP-based communications are based on the IPV.4 (and
often via gateway middleware solutions)
− IP overhead makes it inefficient for embedded devices with low bit
rate and constrained power.
− However, IPv6.0 is increasingly being introduced for embedded
devices
− 6LowPAN

IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks
(6LowPAN)
− 6LoWPAN typically includes devices that work together to connect the
physical environment to real-world applications, e.g., wireless sensors.
− Small packet size
− the maximum physical layer packet is 127 bytes
− 81 octets (81 * 8 bits) for data packets.
− Header compression
− Fragmentation and reassembly
− 6LoWPAN defines a header encoding to support fragmentation when IPv6 datagrams
do not fit within a single frame and compresses IPv6 headers to reduce header
overhead.
− Support for both 16-bit short or IEEE 64-bit extended media access
control addresses.
− Low bandwidth
− Data rates of 250 kbps, 40 kbps, and 20 kbps for each of the currently defined
physical layers (2.4 GHz, 915 MHz, and 868 MHz, respectively).
Source: Jonathan W. Hui and David E. Culler, IPv6 in Low-Power Wireless Networks, Proceedings of the IEEE (Volume:98 , Issue: 11 ).

6LowPAN
− IPv6 requires the link to carry a payload of up to 1280 Bytes.
− Low-power radio links often do not support such a large
payload - IEEE 802.15.4 frame only supports 127 Bytes of
payload and around 80 B in the worst case (with extended
addressing and full security information).
− the IPv6 base header, as shown, is relatively large at 40 Bytes.
Source: Jonathan W. Hui and David E. Culler, IPv6 in Low-Power Wireless Networks, Proceedings of the IEEE (Volume:98 , Issue: 11 ).

Using gateway and middleware
− It is unlikely that all IoT devices will be IP-enabled and/or will
run an IP protocol stack.
− Gateway and middleware solutions can interfaces between
low-level sensor island protocols and IP-based networks.
− The gateway can also provide other components such as QoS
support, caching, mechanisms to address heterogeneity and
interoperability issues.

Gateway and IP networks
Gateway

Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
− CoAP is a transfer protocol for constrained nodes and networks.
− CoAP uses the Representational State Transfer (REST) architecture.
− REST make information available as resources that are identified by URIs.
− Applications communication by exchanging representation of these resources
using a transfer protocol such as HTTP.
− Clients access servicer controlled resources using synchronous
request/response mechanisms.
− Such as GET, PUT, POST and DELETE.
− CoAp uses UDP instead of TCP and has a simple “message layer” for re-
transmitting lost packets.
− It also uses compression techniques.
C. Bormann, A. P. Castellani, Z. Shelby, "CoAP: An Application Protocol for Billions of Tiny Internet Nodes," IEEE Internet Computing,
vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 62-67, Feb. 2012, doi:10.1109/MIC.2012.29

Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)
Client
GET/temperature,
Room A
Server
200 OK
Txt/plain
17, Celsius

CoAP protocol stack and interactions
C. Bormann, A. P. Castellani, Z. Shelby, "CoAP: An Application Protocol for Billions of Tiny Internet Nodes," IEEE Internet Computing,
vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 62-67, Feb. 2012, doi:10.1109/MIC.2012.29

Further reading and examples
− Processes and protothreads: https://github.com/contiki-
os/contiki/wiki/Processes
− Timers, https://github.com/contiki-os/contiki/wiki/Timers
− Examples: https://github.com/contiki-
os/contiki/tree/master/examples
− Cooja simulator (if you are interested in advanced
programming and simulation; this will not be a part of the
exam): https://github.com/contiki-os/contiki/wiki/An-
Introduction-to-Cooja
51

Further reading (optional - not part of the exam)
− If you are interested in more advanced topics in Contiki OS
programming:
− The dynamic loader: https://github.com/contiki-os/contiki/wiki/The-
dynamic-loader
− Multithreading: https://github.com/contiki-
os/contiki/wiki/Multithreading
52

Optional- Linux Shell Commands
− If you would like to review the Linux shell commands this
source can be helpful (the shell commands are useful during
the lab sessions).
− Linux Shell Commands:
http://linuxcommand.org/lc3_lts0010.php
− gedit Text File Editor:
https://help.gnome.org/users/gedit/stable/index.html.en
53

Acknowledgment
− Parts of the content is adapted from:
− Waltenegus Dargie, Christian Poellabauer, “Fundamentals of Wireless
Sensor Networks: Theory and Practice” (Wireless Communications
and Mobile Computing), Wiley, 2010.
− Holger Karl, Andreas Willig, “Protocols and Architectures for
Wireless Sensor Networks”, Wiley, 2007.
ISBN: 978-0-470-51923-3.
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