Microprocessors-based systems (under graduate course) Lecture 6 of 9
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The document covers concepts of microprocessor-based systems, focusing on memory segmentation, address decoding, and instruction execution flow. It explains sequential and control transfer instructions in the 8086/8088 instruction set, including differences between unconditional and conditional transfers. Additionally, it outlines practical application examples related to assembly language programming, including sorting and arithmetic operations.
Microprocessors-based systems (under graduate course) Lecture 6 of 9
- 1. Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar Lecture 6
- 2. Lecture Content • Memory direct access • 8086/8088 instruction set (Branching) • Application examples 2Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 3. Memory segmentation, address decoding and direct access • According to the flow of instruction execution, the instructions may be categorized as (i) Sequential control flow instructions and (ii) Control transfer instructions. • Sequential control flow instructions are the instructions which after execution, transfer control to the next instruction appearing immediately after it (in the sequence) in the program. • For example, the arithmetic, logical, data transfer and processor control instructions are sequential control flow instructions. • The control transfer instructions, on the other hand, transfer control to some predefined address or the address somehow specified in the instruction, after their execution. • For example, INT, CALL , RET and JUMP instructions fall under this category. 3Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 4. Memory segmentation, address decoding and direct access • In other words, Storage in memory is not done sequentially as we have seen so far. Usually the coded instructions occupy certain segments in the memory and the data occupy different segments. • Thus the microprocessor has to track the sequence of instructions and access the data to operate on. • Thus the Instruction pointer (IP) has to jump between different locations to execute the instructions correctly. • Instruction: Jump 3000:1253 IP jumps to the offset 1253 in segment 3000 4Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 5. Memory segmentation, address decoding and direct access • Note that: Jump instruction is not saving the address of the current instruction before it moves to the new destination meaning that it cannot return back to the main program after ending the execution of the subroutine. • In such case we need an instruction that returns back if needed CALL instruction 5Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar JUMP Segment:Offset Main program instruction sequence
- 6. Memory segmentation, address decoding and direct access • When the microprocessor executes a CALL instruction, it will surely jump to a different location other then the next memory location. Thus it is important to save the return address in some register/memory. 6Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar CALL 600 CALL 7000 Main program Subroutine 1 Subroutine 2 2000:120 2000:123 2000:600 650 653 7000 . . . . . . . . 0653 0123 Stack (memory locations) Stack Pointer
- 7. Memory segmentation, address decoding and direct access • If we have more than 1 CALL we need more than 1 register in the order of execution. Since the excessive number of registers causes problem, thus it is better to specify a part of the external memory as a STACK (pile of registers) to save addresses and data from bottom to top in the order of call, then return to origins from top to bottom in the order of call (i.e. first in-last out) 7Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar CALL 600 CALL 7000 Main program Subroutine 1 Subroutine 2 2000:120 2000:123 2000:600 650 653 7000 . . . . . . . . 0653 0123 Stack (memory locations) Stack Pointer
- 8. 8086/8088 instruction set Control transfer / Branching instructions • The control transfer instructions transfer the flow of execution of the program to a new address specified in the instruction directly or indirectly. • When this type of instruction is executed, the CS and IP registers get loaded with new values of CS and IP corresponding to the location where the flow of execution is going to be transferred. • Depending upon the addressing modes, the CS may or may not be modified. These type of instructions are classified in two types: (a) Unconditional Control Transfer (Branch) Instructions, (b) Conditional Control Transfer (Branch) Instructions 8Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 9. 8086/8088 instruction set Control transfer / Branching instructions • Unconditional Control Transfer (Branch) Instructions: In case of unconditional control transfer instructions, the execution control is transferred to the specified location independent of any status or condition. The CS and IP are unconditionally modified to the new CS and IP. • Conditional Control Transfer (Branch) Instructions: In the conditional control transfer instructions, the control is transferred to the specified location provided the result of the previous operation satisfies a particular condition, otherwise, the execution continues in normal flow sequence. 9Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 10. 8086/8088 instruction set (CALL) Unconditional Branch Instructions • CALL: Unconditional Call: This instruction is used to call a subroutine from a main program. • In case of assembly language programming, the term procedure is used interchangeably with subroutine. The address of the procedure may be specified directly or indirectly depending upon the addressing mode. • There are again two types of procedures depending upon whether it is available in the same segment (Near CALL, i.e ± 32K displacement) or in another segment (Far CALL, i.e. anywhere outside the segment). • The modes for them are respectively called as intrasegment and intersegment addressing modes. • On execution, this instruction stores the incremented IP (i.e. address of the next instruction) and CS onto the stack along with the flags and loads the CS and IP registers, respectively, with the segment and offset addresses of the procedure to be called. 10Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 11. 8086/8088 instruction set (RET) • Unconditional Branch Instructions • RET: Return from the Procedure: At each CALL instruction, the IP and CS of the next instruction is pushed onto stack, before the control is transferred to the procedure. • At the end of the procedure, the RET instruction must be executed. • When it is executed, the previously stored content of IP and CS along with flags are retrieved into the CS, IP and flag registers from the stack and the execution of the main program continues further. 11Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 12. 8086/8088 instruction set (JMP) • Unconditional Branch Instructions • JMP: Unconditional lump: This instruction unconditionally transfers the control of execution to the specified address using an 8-bit or 16-bit displacement (intrasegment relative) or CS : IP (intersegment) or label. • No flags are affected by this instruction. • Example: MOV AX, 0005; MOV BX, 0FF7H; LABEL: OR BX, AX AND DX, AX JMP LABEL 12Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 13. 8086/8088 instruction set (JMP) • Conditional Branch Instructions • When these instructions are executed, they transfer execution control to the address specified relatively in the instruction, provided the condition implicit in the code is satisfied, otherwise, the execution continues sequentially. • The conditions, here, means the status of condition code flags. • The address has to be specified in the instruction relatively in terms of displacement which must lie within -80H to 7FH from the address of the branch instruction. • In other words, only short jumps can be implemented using conditional branch instructions. A label may represent the displacement, if it lies within the above specified range. 13Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 14. 8086/8088 instruction set (JMP) 14Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 15. Application Examples • Write a program for the addition of a series of 8-bit numbers. The series contains 100 (numbers). 15Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 16. Application Examples • A program to find out the largest number from a given unordered array of 8-bit numbers, stored in the locations starting from a known address 16Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 17. Application Examples • A program to find out the number of even and odd numbers from a given series of 16-bit hexadecimal numbers 17Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar •The simplest logic to decide whether a binary number is even or odd, is to check the least significant bit of the number. •If the bit is zero, the number is even, otherwise it is odd. •Check the LSB by rotating the number through carry flag, and increment even or odd number counter.
- 18. Application Examples • Write an assembly language program to arrange a given series of hexadecimal bytes in ascending order • Solution • There exist a large number of sorting algorithms. The algorithm used here is called bubble sorting. The method of sorting is explained as follows. • To start with, the first number of the series is compared with the second one. If the first number is greater than second, exchange their positions in the series otherwise leave the positions unchanged. • Then, compare the second number in the recent form of the series with third and repeat the exchange part that you have carried out for the first and the second number, and for all the remaining numbers of the series. 18Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 19. Application Examples • Repeat this procedure for the complete series (n-1) times. After (n-1) iterations, you will get the largest number at the end of the series, where n is the length of the series. • Again start from the first address of the series. Repeat the same procedure right from the first element to the last element. • After (n-2) iterations you will get the second highest number at the last but one place in the series. Continue this till the complete series is arranged in ascending order. • Let the series be as given: 19Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar
- 20. Application Examples 20Microprocessor-Based Systems Dr. Randa Elanwar •2nd largest number 4-2=2 operations 02, 19, 25, 53 1st operation •3rd largest number 4-3 = 1 operations •Instead of taking a variable count for the external loop in the program like (n-1), (n – 2), (n-3),...., etc. It is better to take the count (n- 1) all the time for simplicity.