Lesson 1
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The document provides an overview of a lesson on scientific research, including definitions of research, the role of research in universities, the theoretical approach to science, classification of sciences, areas of knowledge, and ethics in scientific research and publication. It discusses how research involves systematic and methodical activities to increase knowledge. The university's role is to conduct basic and applied research and transfer knowledge to society. Science is a collection of knowledge obtained through observation and reasoning. Sciences are classified as formal, factual, and social/human. Areas of knowledge are organized into fields and disciplines according to an international classification system. Ethics are important in research due to events like the Nuremberg trials that established codes of conduct.
Lesson 1
- 1. Lesson: Concept, characteristics and aim of the scientific research. Ethics and integrity in scientific research Common cross-curricular activities Activity 2 >Section 1
- 2. Lecturer: Carmen Pire Galiana Academic secretary doctoral school
- 3. Index 1. Research 2. Research in the University 3. What is science? Theorical approach 4. Ethics and integrity in scientific research
- 4. OVERVIEW Research Research in the University What is science? Teorical approach Classification of the sciences Areas of knowledge Ethics and integrity in scientific research Ethics in research and publication Practical cases
- 5. 1. Research
- 6. RESEARCH • Etymology: The word investigate comes from the Latin word investigare which is derived from vestigium, meaning ”in the footprints of”, meaning "to look for clues". • Research (Spanish Royal Academy) 3. intr. To carry out intellectual and experimental activities in a systematic manner with the objective of increasing knowledge on a certain topic. • Characteristics of Research: reflexive, systematic and methodical • Purpose of Research: generation of innovative knowledge, products, processes, methods and novel systems, as well as the transfer of both technological and humanistic knowledge.
- 7. RESEARCH CONTEXTO OBSERVACIÓN ANTECEDENTES PREGUNTA HIPÓTESIS OBTENCIÓN DE INFORMACIÓN/ EXPERIMENTACIÓN ANÁLISIS DE DATOS Y RESULTADOS COMUNICACIÓN CIENTÍFICA Hipótesis falsaHipótesis cierta • Scientific method: Techniques and mechanisms to research phenomena, acquire new knowledge or correct/extend/integrate prior knowledge, present and confirm theories.
- 8. 2. Research in the University
- 9. • ORGANIC LAW OF UNIVERSITIES (Organic Law 6/2001) • Article 39. Research and transfer of knowledge. Functions of the university. • 1. Scientific research is an essential foundation of teaching and a primordial tool for social development through the transfer of its results to society. As such, it constitutes an essential function of the university, derived from its key role in the generation of knowledge and its capacity to stimulate and generate critical thought, key to all scientific processes. • 2. Freedom of research is recognised and guaranteed in the university environment. • 3. One of the essential objectives of the university is the development of scientific, technical and artistic research and the transfer of knowledge to society, as well as the training of researchers, and will focus on both basic research and applied research. RESEARCH IN THE UNIVERSITY
- 10. RESEARCH IN THE UNIVERSITY • THE DOCTORATE (Royal Decree 99/2011) It must play a fundamental role as an intersection between the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) and the European Research Area (ERA), both fundamental pillars of society based on knowledge. The research must have a clear importance as an integral part of the university higher education and the mobility must be valued in both the doctoral and post-doctoral phase as an essential part of the education of young researchers. The process of change of the productive model towards a sustainable economy needs doctors as principal actors in society for the generation, transfer and adaptation of the R&D&I. The doctors must play an essential role in all institutions involved in the innovation and research, in order to lead the transfer of the knowledge to the well-being of society.
- 11. 3. What is science? Teorical aproach Classification of the Sciences Areas of knowledge
- 12. WHAT IS SCIENCE? THEORETICAL APPROACH “Science knows no country, because knowledge belongs to humanity, and is the torch which illuminates the world. Science is the highest personification of the nation” Louis Pasteur (Dôle, France 1822 - Marnes-la-Coquette, France 1895; chemist and bacteriologist) From the lat. scientia. 1. f. Collection of knowledge obtained through observation and reasoning, systematically structured and of which general laws and principles are deduced which can be predicted and verified through experiments. In science, the explanations must be made in such a way that they can be subject to empirical tests, a process which must include the possibility of rebuttal. The dividing line between non-scientific thinking and scientific thinking is that the first does not require proof, while for the second evidence is essentialt. When a scientific theory is false, by essence it cannot be proven, only rebutted.
- 13. WHAT IS SCIENCE? THEORETICAL APPROACH • It therefore follows that knowledge is not definitive, to the extent that it can change when new, better established ideas prove this. Two conclusions: science is fallible (Bunge, 1996) and progressive: a scientific theory is often replaced by another that is more complete, more accurate and more comprehensive. • Difference between the truth and the consideration of value "The history of science shows that theories are perishable. With every new truth that is revealed we get a better understanding of Nature and our conceptions and views are modified.” Nikola Tesla (Smiljan, Austrian Empire, present day Croatia, 1856-New York,1943; inventer, mechanical, electrical and physical engineer)
- 14. CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES • "Science" should be used as a single term to cover all disciplines. • In practice, we find several classifications. The most universal distinguishes between: Formal sciences: these are based on the deductive method and their purpose is to prove theorems and postulates. E.g.: Logic and mathematics. Factual sciences: these are based on the perception and observation of the exterior world, on human experience. Their reasoning is, basically, inductive, ranging from particular to general. They have the objective of verification, which leads to the generation of temporary knowledge, which is accepted as truth until new reasoning or techniques permit the formulation of more coherent or extended explanations for a phenomenon, or until a particular case is recognised which does not comply with the rule. E.g.: Physics, chemistry, biology, ecology, etc. Social or human sciences: in these sciences, the enunciation of laws is limited, given that man's actions are conditioned by will, a situation that does not occur, or is less frequent, in other sciences. The social sciences are also called human sciences, studying the human or social facts that have value, sense and purpose. Study methods: Abstraction, deduction, dialectic and others. E.g.: Sociology, economy, education, psychology, etc.
- 15. CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES Science Formal Logic Mathematics Factual Natural Physics Chemistry Biology … Cultural Sociology Economy Education Psychology … Classification according to Mario Bunge
- 17. AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE International nomenclature by the UNESCO for the fields of Science and Technology Fields: These refer to more general sections. They are coded with two digits and cover various disciplines. Disciplines: These imply a general description of speciality groups in Science and Technology. They are sections coded with four digits. Despite being different from each other, the disciplines with crossed references, or within the same field, are considered to have common characteristics. Sub-disciplines: These are the most specific entries in the nomenclature and represent the activities that are carried out within a discipline. They are coded with six digits. At the same time, they must correspond to the individual specialities in Science and Technology.
- 18. AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE http://www.idi.mineco.gob.es/portal/site/MICINN/menuitem.8ce192e94ba842bea3bc811001432ea0/?vgn extoid=363ac9487fb02210VgnVCM1000001d04140aRCRD&vgnextchannel=28fb282978ea0210VgnVC M1000001034e20aRCRD 11 Logic 12 Mathematics 21 Astronomy and astrophysics 22 Physics 23 Chemistry 24 Life Sciences 25 Earth and Space Sciences 31 Agricultural Science 32 Medical Science 33 Technological Science 51 Anthropology 52 Demography 53 Economical Science 54 Geography 55 History 56 Legal Science and Law 57 Linguistics 58 Pedagogy 59 Political Science 61 Psychology 62 Art and Humanity Sciences 63 Sociology 71 Ethics 72 Philosophy 11 LOGIC 1101 Applications of logic 1102 Deductive logic 1103 General logic 1104 Inductive logic 1105 Methodology 1199 Other specialities relative to logic (specify) 1102 DEDUCTIVE LOGIC 110201 ANALOGY 110202 BOOLE ALGEBRA 110203 FORMAL LOGIC 110204 FORMALISED LANGUAGES 110205 FORMAL SYSTEMS 110206 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS 110207 GENERALISATION 110208 MATHEMATICAL LOGIC 110209 MODAL LOGIC 110210 THEORY OF MODELS 110211 THEORY OF TESTS 110212 PROPOSITIONAL CALCULATION 110213 RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS 110214 SYMBOLIC LOGIC 110215 THEORY OF FORMAL LANGUAGES 110299 OTHERS (SPECIFY)
- 19. OVERVIEW Research Research in the University What is science? Teorical approach Classification of the sciences Areas of knowledge Ethics and integrity in scientific research Ethics in research and publication Practical cases
- 20. 4. Ethics and integrity in scientific research Ethics in research and publication
- 21. ETHICS AND INTEGRITY IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH After the Second World War, one of the Nuremberg courts led the trial of Doctors, which processed various Nazi medical professionals for carrying out experiments on prisoners in the concentration camps. The Nuremberg court revealed the importance of scientists acting within the limits of ethics. Its decision constituted the basis for modern applied ethics. The court thus concluded the numbering of a ten point code of ethics for experimentation on humans known as the Code of Nuremberg. Some years later, the World Medical Association (WMA), in a meeting held in Helsinki in 1964, enacted the Helsinki Declaration as a proposal for ethical principles for medical research on human beings, including the spirit of the Nuremberg Code in order to perfect it from a procedural and substantive point of view. Through its successive versions, the Declaration became a cornerstone of international reference for ethics in biomedical research.
- 22. ETHICS AND INTEGRITY IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Law 14/2011, dated June 1st, on Science, Technology and Innovation Article 10. Spanish Research Ethics Committee 1. The Spanish Research Ethics Committee was created, adhered to the Council for Scientific, Technological and Innovation Policy, as a collegiate body, independent with an advisory nature, on topics related to professional ethics in scientific and technical research. 2. The functions of the Spanish Research Ethics Committee are: a) To issue reports, proposals and recommendations on topics related to professional ethics in scientific and technical research. b) To establish the general principles for the elaboration of codes of good practice in scientific and technical research, including the resolution of conflicts of interest between public and private activities. These codes will be developed by the Research Ethics Committee and by the Spanish Bioethics Committee. c) To represent Spain in supranational and international forums and organisations related to research ethics, except for bioethics, where the representation of Spain will correspond to the Spanish Bioethics Committee. d) To promote the creation of ethics committees linked to the enforcement agents of the Spanish System of Science, Technology and Innovation. e) To create an annual report on activities. f) Any others requested by the Council of Scientific, Technological and Innovation Policy or the development regulations of this law.
- 23. ETHICS AND INTEGRITY IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Research Ethics Committee at the University of Alicante The projects that imply research with human beings, use of personal data, biological samples of human origin, experimentation with animals, biological agents or that use genetically modified organisms must have express authorisation issued by the Ethics Committee in the centre where the research is to be carried out.
- 24. https://sp.ua.es/es/documentos/formacion-e- informacion/informacion/guia-sobre-riesgos-en- laboratorios.pdf EcoCampus Office. Waste management: https://web.ua.es/es/ecocampus/gest- residuos/gestion-de-residuos.html ETHICS AND INTEGRITY IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
- 25. ETHICS IN RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION Authorship Author: The person that made considerable intellectual contributions to a published study. Responsibilities of the authors: Only report real data, not invented or altered. Originality. Avoid plagiarism. Declare any conflict of interest. Present the work to be considered to one journal at a time.
- 26. ETHICS IN RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION Poor scientific conduct Fabrication, falsification or plagiarism when proposing, performing or reviewing research, or when communicating the results of research. (a) Fabrication: Inventing data or results and recording or presenting them. (b) Falsification: Manipulating research materials, equipment or processes. Changing or omitting data or results. (c) Plagiarism: Appropriation of the ideas, processes, results or words of another person. (d) Poor conduct in the research does not include honest errors or differences of opinion.
- 27. ETHICS IN RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION Plagiarism Literal copy This is only acceptable if the source is indicated and the copied text is between quote marks. Substantial copy This can include research materials, processes, tables or equipment. "Substantial" can be defined as either the quantity or quality of what has been copied. If a piece includes the essence of another person's work, it should be stated, quoting the original source. Paraphrasing Reproducing another person's ideas but without copying them word for word, without permission and indicating the original source. Paraphrasing is only acceptable if the source is correctly indicated and the intended meaning of the source is not changed. Self-Plagiarism Reproducing parts of the work from an article and sending it again for republication as a completely new piece.
- 28. ETHICS IN RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION Tools for detecting plagiarism. Free programs • DOCODE: permits analysis of two documents per day against others that exist online. • Copyscape: searches for online copies of a website from a URL. • Plagium: searches for identical or similar copies of an introduced text. • PlagScan: files can be uploaded or text can be entered directly. Returns results in order of preference. • The Plagiarism Checker: shows the websites where the introduced text can be found. • Dupli Checker: compares the text introduced with documents on the internet. • Plagiarisma: works on Windows, Android and BlackBerry. • ArticleChecker: compares text and websites on the Google and Yahoo search engines. • TinEye: search engines for reverse images. • Viper: software that permits comparison of documents with others online and with own documents. • Antiplagiarist: software that permits verification of fragments of copied text from documents.
- 29. ETHICS IN RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION Tool available on UA Cloud for teachers
- 30. ETHICS IN RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION Poor conduct in Research. Possible causes Professional pressure: Pressure to publish Pressure to publish, to be first and to have an impact is a factor that can lead to errors, pressured generalisations or even fraud. ‘Publish or Perish’ Pressure to find funding The publication bias by journal editors: Search for interesting and propositional articles. There can be a preference for articles that show a certain interesting or important correlation over those that do not. Both types of articles, however, are important for science.
- 31. Van Noorden, R. (2011). The trouble with retractions. Nature, 478(7367), 26. ETHICS IN RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION
- 32. Van Noorden, R. (2011). The trouble with retractions. Nature, 478(7367), 26. ETHICS IN RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION
- 33. Wager, E., & Williams, P. (2011). Why and how do journals retract articles? An analysis of Medline retractions 1988– 2008. J Med Ethics. 37(9):567-70 ETHICS IN RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION
- 34. Elsevier Publishing Campus Publishing & Research Ethics https://www.publishingcampus.elsevier.com/pages/63/ethics/Publishing-ethics.html
- 35. David R. Koepsell, Manuel H Ruiz de Chávez. Ética de la Investigación, Integridad Científica 2015. Comisión Nacional de Bioética/Secretaría de Salud. Mexico. http://www.cooperacionib.org/libro-etica-de-la-Investigacion-gratuito.pdf Declaración nacional sobre integridad científica: http://www.crue.org/Documentos%20compartidos/Informes%20y%20Posicionamientos/Declaraci %C3%B3n%20Nacional%20Integridad%20Cient%C3%ADfica_.pdf Red de comités de ética de universidades y organismos públicos de investigación http://www.ub.edu/rceue/index.htm Comité de ética de la investigación de la Universidad de Alicante https://sstti.ua.es/es/comite-etica/presentacion.html International Center for Academic Integrity: http://www.academicintegrity.org/icai/home.php The office of research integrity: https://ori.hhs.gov/ “What Constitutes Plagiarism?” Harvard Guide to Using Sources https://usingsources.fas.harvard.edu/what-constitutes-plagiarism Elsiever Publishing Campus: https://www.publishingcampus.elsevier.com/
- 36. Carmen Pire Galiana carmen.pire@ua.es Secretaria Académica de la Escuela de Doctorado
Editor's Notes
- #4: Ojo, se ha eliminado ap. 7 (casos prácticos) porque no había diapos sobre esto. El doc. Sobre ello se integrará en la web.