Lidar in-ieee-format

Light Detection and Ranging
SONU SANGAM
USN-1CR07EC096
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
CMR Institute of Technology
No. 132,AECS Layout, Bangalore-560 037
sonu.sangam@gmail.com
Abstract — Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) have recently become the technologies of choice in mass
production of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), Digital Terrain Models (DTMs), and Triangulated Irregular
Networks (TINs), referred to generically hereafter as DEMs. This paper presents lessons learned from
LIDAR projects to date in various states. It addresses opportunities presented by LIDAR for generating
DEMs as articulated by various user groups in the National Height Modernization Study. Finally, it
summarizes actions required by the remote sensing community to establish LIDAR as standard tools, with
established standards, for generating digital elevation data for the new millennium.
• INTRODUCTION
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) is an optical remote sensing technology that measures properties of
scattered light to find range and/or other information of a distant target. The prevalent method to determine distance
to an object or surface is to use laser pulses. Like the similar radar technology, which uses radio waves, the range to
an object is determined by measuring the time delay between transmission of a pulse and detection of the reflected
signal. LIDAR technology has application
geometrics, archaeology, geography, geology, geomorphology, seismology,forestry, remote
sensing and atmospheric physics.[1] Applications of LIDAR include ALSM (Airborne Laser Swath Mapping), laser
altimetry or LIDAR Contour Mapping. The acronym LADAR (Laser Detection and Ranging) is often used in
military contexts. The term laser radar is also in use but is misleading because it uses laser light and not the
radiowaves that are the basis of conventional radar.
• GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The primary difference between LIDAR and RADAR is LIDAR uses much shorter wavelengths of
the electromagnetic spectrum, typically in the ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared range. In general it is possible to
image a feature or object only about the same size as the wavelength, or larger. Thus LIDAR is highly sensitive
to aerosols and cloud particles and has many applications in atmospheric research and meteorology.
An object needs to produce a dielectric discontinuity to reflect the transmitted wave. At radar
(microwave or radio) frequencies, a metallic object produces a significant reflection. However non-metallic objects,
such as rain and rocks produce weaker reflections and some materials may produce no detectable reflection at all,
meaning some objects or features are effectively invisible at radar frequencies. This is especially true for very small
objects (such as single molecules and aerosols).
Lasers provide one solution to these problems. The beam densities and coherency are excellent. Moreover the
wavelengths are much smaller than can be achieved with radio systems, and range from about 10 micrometers to
the UV (ca. 250 nm). At such wavelengths, the waves are "reflected" very well from small objects. This type of
reflection is called backscattering. Different types of scattering are used for different LIDAR applications, most
common are Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering and Raman scattering as well as fluorescence. Based on different
kinds of backscattering, the LIDAR can be accordingly called Rayleigh LIDAR, Mie LIDAR, Raman LIDAR and
Na/Fe/K Fluorescence LIDAR and so on. The wavelengths are ideal for making measurements of smoke and other
airborne particles (aerosols), clouds, and air molecules.
A laser typically has a very narrow beam which allows the mapping of physical features with very
high resolution compared with radar. In addition, many chemical compounds interact more strongly at visible
wavelengths than at microwaves, resulting in a stronger image of these materials. Suitable combinations of lasers

can allow for remote mapping of atmospheric contents by looking for wavelength-dependent changes in the
intensity of the returned signal.
LIDAR has been used extensively for atmospheric research and meteorology. With the deployment of the GPS in
the 1980s precision positioning of aircraft became possible. GPS based surveying technology has made airborne
surveying and mapping applications possible and practical. Many have been developed, using downward-looking
LIDAR instruments mounted in aircraft or satellites. A recent example is the NASA Experimental Advanced
Research LIDAR.
A basic LIDAR system involves a laser range finder reflected by a rotating mirror (top). The laser is scanned
around the scene being digitized, in one or two dimensions (middle), gathering distance measurements at specified
angle intervals (bottom).
In general there are two kinds of LIDAR detection schema: "incoherent" or direct energy detection (which is
principally an amplitude measurement) and Coherent detection (which is best for Doppler, or phase sensitive
measurements). Coherent systems generally use Optical heterodyne detection which being more sensitive than
direct detection allows them to operate a much lower power but at the expense of more complex transceiver
requirements.
In both coherent and incoherent LIDAR, there are two types of pulse models: MICROPULSE LIDAR systems
and high energy systems. Micropulse systems have developed as a result of the ever increasing amount
of computer power available combined with advances in laser technology. They use considerably less energy in the
laser, typically on the order of one microjoule, and are often "eye-safe," meaning they can be used without safety
precautions. High-power systems are common in atmospheric research, where they are widely used for measuring
many atmospheric parameters: the height, layering and densities of clouds, cloud particle properties (extinction
coefficient, backscatter coefficient, depolarization), temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, trace gas concentration
(ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, etc.).
On a functional level, LiDAR is typically defined as the integration of three technologies into a single system
capable of acquiring data to produce accurate digital elevation models (DEMs). These technologies are lasers, the
Global Positioning System (GPS), and inertial navigation systems (INS). Combined, they allow the positioning of
the footprint of a laser beam as it hits an object, to a high degree of accuracy. Lasers themselves are very accurate in
their ranging capabilities, and can provide distances accurate to a few centimeters. The accuracy limitations of
LiDAR systems are due primarily to the GPS and IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) components. As advancements
in commercially available GPS and IMUs occur, it is becoming possible to obtain a high degree of accuracy using
LiDAR from moving platforms such as aircraft.A LiDAR system combines a single narrow-beam laser with a
receiver system. The laser produces an optical pulse that is transmitted, reflected off an object, and returned to the
receiver. The receiver accurately measures the travel time of the pulse from its start to its return. With the pulse
travelling at the speed of light, the receiver senses the return pulse before the next pulse is sent out. Since the speed
of light is known, the travel time can be converted to a range measurement. Combining the laser range, laser scan
angle, laser position from GPS, and laser orientation from INS, accurate x, y, z ground coordinates can be calculated
for each laser pulse.
Laser emission rates can be anywhere from a few pulses per second to tens of thousands of pulses per
second. Thus, large volumes of points are collected. For example, a laser emitting pulses at 10,000 times per second
will record 600,000 points every minute. Typical raw laser point spacing on the ground ranges from 2 to 4 meters.
Some LiDAR systems can record “multiple returns” from the same pulse. In such systems the beam may hit leaves
at the top of tree canopy, while part of the beam travels further and may hit more leaves or branches. Some of the
beam is then likely to hit the ground and be reflected back, ending up with a set of recorded “multiple returns” each
having an x, y, z position. This feature can be advantageous when the application calls for elevations for not only
the ground, but for tree or building heights. As surface types and characteristics vary and change the laser beam’s
reflectivity, then the ability of the LiDAR to record the return signals changes. For example, a laser used for
topographic applications will not penetrate water, and in fact records very little data even for the surface of the body
of water. Where the application calls for a laser to penetrate water to determine x, y, z positions of undersea
features, then a slightly different variation of LiDAR technology is used
• COMPONENTS
There are several major components to a LIDAR system:

1. Laser — 600-1000 nm lasers are most common for non-scientific applications. They are inexpensive but
since they can be focused and easily absorbed by the eye the maximum power is limited by the need to make them
eye-safe. Eye-safety is often a requirement for most applications. A common alternative 1550 nm lasers are eye-safe
at much higher power levels since this wavelength is not focused by the eye, but the detector technology is less
advanced and so these wavelengths are generally used at longer ranges and lower accuracies. They are also used for
military applications as 1550 nm is not visible in night vision goggles unlike the shorter 1000 nm infrared laser.
Airborne topographic mapping LIDARS generally use 1064 nm diode pumped YAG lasers, while bathymetric
systems generally use 532 nm frequency doubled diode pumped YAG lasers because 532 nm penetrates water with
much less attenuation than does 1064 nm. Laser settings include the laser repetition rate (which controls the data
collection speed). Pulse length is generally an attribute of the laser cavity length, the number of passes required
through the gain material (YAG, YLF, etc.), and Q-switch speed. Better target resolution is achieved with shorter
pulses, provided the LIDAR receiver detectors and electronics have sufficient bandwidth.
2. Scanner and optics — How fast images can be developed is also affected by the speed at which it can be
scanned into the system. There are several options to scan the azimuth and elevation, including dual oscillating
plane mirrors, a combination with a polygon mirror, a dual axis scanner. Optic choices affect the angular resolution
and range that can be detected. A hole mirror or a beam splitter are options to collect a return signal.
3. Photodetector and receiver electronics — two main photodetector technologies are used in lidars: solid
state photodetectors, such as silicon avalanche photodiodes, or photomultipliers. The sensitivity of the receiver is
another parameter that has to be balanced in a LIDAR design.
4. Position and navigation systems — LIDAR sensors that are mounted on mobile platforms such as airplanes
or satellites require instrumentation to determine the absolute position and orientation of the sensor. Such devices
generally include a Global Positioning System receiver and an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU).
• APPLICATIONS
Fig1:LIDAR System
This LIDAR-equipped mobile robot uses its LIDAR to construct a map and avoid obstacles.
Other than those applications listed above, there are a wide variety of applications of LIDAR, as often mentioned
in Dataset programs.
ARCHAEOLOGY
LIDAR has many applications in the field of archaeology including aiding in the planning of field campaigns,
mapping features beneath forest canopy, and providing an overview of broad, continuous features that may be
indistinguishable on the ground. LIDAR can also provide archaeologists with the ability to create high-resolution
digital elevation models (DEMs) of archaeological sites that can reveal micro-topography that are otherwise hidden
by vegetation. LIDAR-derived products can be easily integrated into a Geographic Information System (GIS) for
analysis and interpretation. For example at Fort Beausejour - Fort Cumberland National Historic Site, Canada,
previously undiscovered archaeological features have been mapped that are related to the siege of the Fort in 1755.
Features that could not be distinguished on the ground or through aerial photography were identified by overlaying
hill shades of the DEM created with artificial illumination from various angles.
With LIDAR the ability to produce high-resolution datasets quickly and relatively cheaply can be an advantage.
Beyond efficiency, its ability to penetrate forest canopy has led to the discovery of features that were not
distinguishable through traditional geo-spatial methods and are difficult to reach through field surveys.

METEOROLOGY AND ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT
The first LIDARs were used for studies of atmospheric composition, structure, clouds, and aerosols. Initially based
on ruby lasers, LIDARs for meteorological applications were constructed shortly after the invention of the laser and
represent one of the first applications of laser technology.
Elastic backscatter LIDAR is the simplest type of LIDAR and is typically used for studies of aerosols and clouds.
The backscattered wavelength is identical to the transmitted wavelength, and the magnitude of the received signal at
a given range depends on the backscatter coefficient of scatterers at that range and the extinction coefficients of the
scatterers along the path to that range. The extinction coefficient is typically the quantity of interest.
Differential Absorption LIDAR (DIAL) is used for range-resolved measurements of a particular gas in the
atmosphere, such as ozone, carbon dioxide, or water vapor. The LIDAR transmits two wavelengths: an "on-line"
wavelength that is absorbed by the gas of interest and an off-line wavelength that is not absorbed. The differential
absorption between the two wavelengths is a measure of the concentration of the gas as a function of range. DIAL
LIDARs are essentially dual-wavelength elastic backscatter LIDARS.
Raman LIDAR is also used for measuring the concentration of atmospheric gases, but can also be used to retrieve
aerosol parameters as well. Raman LIDAR exploits inelastic scattering to single out the gas of interest from all other
atmospheric constituents. A small portion of the energy of the transmitted light is deposited in the gas during the
scattering process, which shifts the scattered light to a longer wavelength by an amount that is unique to the species
of interest. The higher the concentration of the gas, the stronger the magnitude of the backscattered signal.
Doppler LIDAR is used to measure wind speed along the beam by measuring the frequency shift of the
backscattered light. Scanning LIDARs, such as NASA's HARLIE LIDAR, have been used to measure atmospheric
wind velocity in a large three dimensional cone. ESA's wind mission ADM-Aeolus will be equipped with a Doppler
LIDAR system in order to provide global measurements of vertical wind profiles. A Doppler LIDAR system was
used in the 2008 Summer Olympics to measure wind fields during the yacht competition.[6] Doppler LIDAR
systems are also now beginning to be successfully applied in the renewable energy sector to acquire wind speed,
turbulence, wind veer and wind shear data. Both pulsed and continuous wave systems are being used. Pulsed
systems using signal timing to obtain vertical distance resolution, whereas continuous wave systems rely on detector
focusing.
GEOLOGY
In geology and seismology a combination of aircraft-based LIDAR and GPS have evolved into an important tool for
detecting faults and measuring uplift. The output of the two technologies can produce extremely accurate elevation
models for terrain that can even measure ground elevation through trees. This combination was used most famously
to find the location of the Seattle in Washington, USA.[8] This combination is also being used to measure uplift
at Mt. St. Helens by using data from before and after the 2004 uplift.[9] Airborne LIDAR systems
monitor glaciers and have the ability to detect subtle amounts of growth or decline. A satellite based system
is NASA's ICESat which includes a LIDAR system for this purpose. NASA's Airborne Topographic Mapper is also
used extensively to monitor glaciers and perform coastal change analysis.
PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY
A worldwide network of observatories uses lidars to measure the distance to reflectors placed on the moon,
allowing the moon's position to be measured with mm precision and tests of general relativity to be done. MOLA,
the Mars Orbiting Laser Altimeter, used a LIDAR instrument in a Mars-orbiting satellite (the NASA Mars Global
Surveyor) to produce a spectacularly precise global topographic survey of the red planet.
In September, 2008, NASA's Phoenix Lander used LIDAR to detect snow in the atmosphere of Mars.
In atmospheric physics, LIDAR is used as a remote detection instrument to measure densities of certain constituents
of the middle and upper atmosphere, such as potassium, sodium, or molecular nitrogen and oxygen. These

measurements can be used to calculate temperatures. LIDAR can also be used to measure wind speed and to provide
information about vertical distribution of the aerosol particles.
BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION
LIDAR has also found many applications in forestry. Canopy heights, biomass measurements, and leaf area can all
be studied using airborne LIDAR systems. Similarly, LIDAR is also used by many industries, including Energy and
Railroad, and the Department of Transportation as a faster way of surveying. Topographic maps can also be
generated readily from LIDAR, including for recreational use such as in the production of orienteering maps.
In oceanography, LIDAR is used for estimation of phytoplankton fluorescence and generally biomass in the surface
layers of the ocean. Another application is airborne LIDAR bathymetry of sea areas too shallow
for hydrographic vessels.
In addition, the Save-the-Redwoods League is undertaking a project to map the tall redwoods on California's
northern coast. LIDAR allows research scientists to not only measure the height of previously unmapped trees but to
determine the biodiversity of the redwood forest.
• LIDAR DATA
What can you do with LIDAR?
Measure distance
Measure speed
Measure rotation
Measure chemical composition and concentration

Fig 2: Comparison of various steps involved in DTM generation, Photogrammetry vs. LIDAR
WHAT ARE LIDAR DATA?

Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) is a
remote sensing system used to collect topographic
data. This technology is being used by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) and NASA scientists to
document topographic changes along shorelines.
These data are collected with aircraft-mounted
lasers capable of recording elevation
measurements at a rate of 2,000 to 5,000 pulses
per second and have a vertical precision of 15
centimeters (6 inches). After a baseline data set
has been created, follow-up flights can be used to
detect shoreline changes.
Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) is a remote sensing system used to collect topographic data. This technology
is being used by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and NASA scientists to document
topographic changes along shorelines. These data are collected with aircraft-mounted lasers capable of recording
elevation measurements at a rate of 2,000 to 5,000 pulses per second and have a vertical precision of 15 centimeters
(6 inches). After a baseline data set has been created, follow-up flights can be used to detect shoreline changes.
HOW LIDAR DATA ARE COLLECTED ?
For the South Carolina project, a LIDAR sensor was mounted on-board a NOAA DeHavilland Twin Otter aircraft
pictured below. Once in flight, the aircraft travels over the beach at approximately 60 meters per second. During the
flight, the LIDAR sensor pulses a narrow, high frequency laser beam toward the earth through a port opening in the
bottom of the aircraft's fuselage. The LIDAR sensor records the time difference between the emission of the laser
beam and the return of the reflected laser signal to the aircraft.
The LIDAR transceiver is rigidly fastened to the aircraft and does not move. However, a scan mirror assembly is
mounted beneath the transceiver. A 45-degree folding mirror reflects the laser pulses onto a moving mirror which
directs the laser pulses to the earth.
The reflected laser light from the ground follows the reverse optical path and is directed into a small Cassegrainian
telescope. The moving mirror produces a conical sampling pattern beneath the aircraft over a 30-degree wide swath,
thus permitting the collection of topographic information over a strip approximately 300 meters (about 1000 feet) in
width from the nominal 600 meter (2000 feet) data collection altitude.

Fig 4:Illustration of How the LIDAR Sensing Instrument Captures Elevation Points.
The LIDAR instruments only collect elevation data. To make these data spatially relevant, the positions of the data
points must be known. A high-precision global positioning system (GPS) antenna is mounted on the upper aircraft
fuselage. As the LIDAR sensor collects data points, the location of the data are simultaneously recorded by the GPS
sensor. After the flight, the data are downloaded and processed using specially designed computer software. The
end product is accurate, geographically registered longitude, latitude, and elevation (x, y, z) positions for every data
point. These "x, y, z" data points allow the generation of a digital elevation model (DEM) of the ground surface.
LIDAR data sets on this CD-ROM cover an area from the low water line to the landward base of the sand dunes.
Flights are planned to maximize the number of elevation points collected at the lowest tide for the largest area
possible. The aircraft flight path is always parallel to the beach. Four passes are flown over each section of the
beach. Two of these passes are flown so the center of the swath is over the sand/water interface. The other two
passes are flown over the center of the sand/development interface.
Flights generally last four hours. Weather conditions must be monitored. The flights cannot be flown during times
of rain or fog as the water vapor in the air could cause the laser beams to scatter and give a false reading.
Additionally, the plane cannot fly during times of high winds as the returned laser pulse will not be recorded
correctly.
• INTERPRETING LIDAR ELEVATION MAPS
In remote sensing, false color images such as LIDAR elevation maps are common. They serve as an effective
means for visualizing data. The term "false color" refers to the fact that these images are not photographs. Rather,
they are digital images in which each image pixel represents a data point that is colored according to its value. The
purpose of this section is to aid users in interpreting false color images.
LIDAR beach mapping data are composed of elevation measurements of the beach surface and are acquired through
aerial topographic surveys. The file format used to capture and store LIDAR data is a simple text file and referred to
as "x,y,z," where x is longitude, y is latitude, and z is elevation. Using the elevation "points," LIDAR data may be
used to create detailed topographic beach maps.
In the three images shown below, the legend in the bottom right corner of the image has a range of numbers from -3
meters to +5 meters. The numbers indicate the relationship between the colors on the legend and the elevations
depicted on the map. For example, in the Huntington Beach map, the deep blue color represents land approximately
at sea level or zero elevation. The cyan (light blue) features, like the jetty, represent elevations around 1 meter, or
about 3 feet above sea level.

LIDAR data become easier to interpret when examined in conjunction with additional data such as aerial
photography. In the example below a LIDAR elevation map is compared with an orthophotograph. This small area
on Kiawah Island provides a variety of interesting features. Comparing the orthophoto to the LIDAR data it
becomes easier to identify features such as houses, roads, the vegetated dune area, and irrigation ponds.
Comparing Features Found in an Orthophotograph to LIDAR Data
Along the South Carolina coast, beach features tend to be less than 5 meters (16 feet). As a result, the scale of the
color bar was chosen to highlight relatively narrow variations in elevation. This legend can be readily viewed in the

PDF maps located in the pdf/islands directory on this CD-ROM. Additionally, this legend has been provided for use
in Arc View and is located at: data/LIDAR/avelev.shp.
In this second example, an additional vector base map was overlaid on both the orthophoto and LIDAR elevation
map. The base map, created in 1993, includes digitized building footprints, dune walkovers, and roads. A detailed
base map can assist in confirming features detected by LIDAR elevation measurements. For example, when houses
are surrounded by tall vegetation, LIDAR elevation data do not distinguish between roof top and tree top. Without
the vector base map, it would be very difficult to determine boundaries between roofs and trees. Often ancillary data
do not provide sufficient detail or are not available. In these cases, the user must obtain ground reference
information using either local knowledge or by visiting the area to accurately confirm landmarks.
Fig7:Example of How Vector Data Can be Useful in Identifying Features in LIDAR Data
Users can also view LIDAR data by creating a plot or profile of the data. In the profile below the beach features
including the dune crest, beach face, and the water line can be identified. Users that have the add-on Arc View
Spatial Analyst module can use the LIDAR Data Handler Extension, provided on this CD-ROM, to create similar
profiles.

Fig 8:LIDAR Data Viewed as a Profile
• APPLICATIONS EXAMPLES
FLOOD RISK MAPPING
LiDAR surveys are one of the quickest and most accurate methods to produce a DEM. Using the LiDAR derived
DEM, hydrologists are able to predict flood extents and plan mitigation and remediation strategies. The reliability of
flood risk mapping and hydrological models is dependent on the accuracy of the terrain elevation data used. This is
especially true for modeling in areas of little terrain relief. For example, in a flat river basin such as the Red River in
Manitoba and North Dakota, a slight increase in water level can flood a large area. This may mean that many
communities would be affected by a rise in water level. In areas with more relief, the accuracy of the DEM is not as
critical, but knowledge of slope and aspect can aid considerably in predicting water volumes and flow
characteristics.
The following is an excerpt from the IJC’s final report “Living with the Red”, and is based on the results of LiDAR
surveys done in the region:
“The Task Force found that current mapping of high risk areas was not adequate for modeling and analysis of flood
risk, or for the consideration of flood protection options. Among other things, the Task Force produced high-
resolution digital elevation data for the lower Pembina River and for the area south of the Winnipeg Floodway, and
analyzed data collection technologies. Through these efforts, the Task Force found that airborne laser mapping can
be a fast, reliable, and cost-effective method of obtaining three-dimensional data suitable for the creation of a digital
elevation models (DEM).”
• CONCLUSIONS:

LiDAR mapping is a maturing technology, and applications are still being identified and developed as end-users
begin to work with the data. There are on-going initiatives to identify areas where the technology allows value-
added products to be generated or where it offers significant cost reductions over traditional survey methods.
There are a number of conclusions to be drawn from the information presented herein. These deal with LiDAR
technology itself, the impact of the technology on the survey and mapping industry, and the societal and economic
benefits that accrue through its use. They have been presented below in point form, in no particular order.
1. LiDAR is an enabling technology. Primarily, it has allowed data to be collected that was difficult or
impossible to obtain prior to its introduction. This is especially true in the forest industry and utility corridor arena,
where it has been very difficult and expensive to get elevation models using ground-based GPS, conventional
survey and/or photogram metric techniques.
2. LiDAR is an enhancing technology. For applications where a more precise DEM is required, such as
engineering and road design and flood plain mapping, LiDAR is able to provide much more information than can be
acquired by virtually any other means — at least within economic reason.
3. LiDAR has revolutionized the survey and mapping world. In practical terms, hydrographic LiDAR has
been a viable survey tool since the early 1980s. With the advent of a full constellation of GPS in the early 1990s,
hydrographic LiDAR has taken a giant leap forward in being able to provide accurate data for difficult survey
operations. Topographic LiDAR has evolved from a relative physics experiment to a useable and reliable survey
tool, all since the mid 1990s. Now that the technological “chasm” is virtually crossed, and more people are buying
into LiDAR, the survey and mapping industry is racing to meet the demand for services. This includes the industry’s
ability to properly acquire, process and quality control the data.
4. LiDAR has empowered clients. The speed with which data can be collected, and the relative speed at which
it can be processed compared to any other technology, has given clients the power to demand products more
quickly. In many cases, time saved on surveying and mapping translates into huge downstream economic gains.
5. LiDAR saves clients money. For many projects, especially those where DEMs are required for heavily
vegetated areas, LiDAR can greatly reduce survey time and effort. This translates directly into cost savings for
clients.
6. LiDAR offers flexibility. Although it can be said of data collected via other methods, data collected by
LiDAR is extremely versatile. It can be used for anything from power line detection to DEM generation in a second
growth forest. This is due to the tremendous point density achieved from LiDAR, its accuracy, and its ability to
penetrate to the ground through foliage in vegetated areas.
7. LiDAR is unobtrusive and environmentally friendly. Unlike ground survey techniques, airborne LiDAR
can be flown over areas where access is limited, impossible, or undesirable. Apart from the need to validate the
8. LiDAR with ground truthing, it is not necessary to send pervasive ground crews to conduct intense survey
operations. LiDAR surveying can also avoid unnecessary tree cutting and other practices that can harm the
environment.
In conclusion, it is hoped that this paper will have provided an insight into the possibilities of LiDAR, and will elicit
discussion regarding the use of LiDAR to conduct mapping projects. Given the versatility of the technology, and its
maturation, it seems logical that any strategic plan or project should at least consider its use. If required, more
information can be obtained by contacting TerraPoint.
VIII. REFERENCES
1. Cracknell, Arthur P.; Hayes, Ladson (2007) [1991], Introduction to Remote Sensing (2 ed.), London:
Taylor and Francis, ISBN 0849392551, OCLC 70765252
2. Experimental Advanced Research Lidar', NASA.org. Retrieved 8 August 2007.
3. EID; crater beneath canopy

4. Thomas D. Wilkerson, Geary K. Schwemmer, and Bruce M. Gentry. Lidar Profiling of Aerosols, Clouds,
and Winds by Doppler and Non-Doppler Methods, NASA International H2O Project (2002).
5. Earth Explorers: ADM-Aeolus', ESA.org (European Space Agency, 6 June 2007). Retrieved 8 August
2007.
6. Doppler lidar gives Olympic sailors the edge', Optics.org (3 July, 2008). Retrieved 8 July 2008.
7. a b Strauss C. E. M., "Synthetic-array heterodyne detection: a single-element detector acts as an array",
Opt. Lett. 19, 1609-1611 (1994)
8. Tom Paulson. 'LIDAR shows where earthquake risks are highest, Seattle Post (Wednesday, April 18,
2001).
9. Mount Saint Helens Lidar Data', Washington State Geospatial Data Archive (September 13, 2006).
Retrieved 8 August 2007.
10. Airborne Topographic Mapper', NASA.gov. Retrieved 8 August 2007.
11. NASA. 'NASA Mars Lander Sees Falling Snow, Soil Data Suggest Liquid Past' NASA.gov (29 September
2008). Retrieved 9 November 2008.
12. CW Gowers. ' Focus On : Lidar-Thomson Scattering Diagnostic on JET' JET.EFDA.org (undated).
Retrieved 8 August 2007.

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