Macro molecules
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Carbon is a versatile element that forms the backbone of biomolecules in living things. It has four electrons in its outer shell that allow it to form up to four covalent bonds with other atoms. The four main types of biomolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids - are all made primarily of carbon chains and contain other common elements like hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These biomolecules consist of monomers like amino acids or sugars that polymerize to form larger macromolecules through condensation reactions.
Macro molecules
- 2. All LIVING things are mostly made of 4 types of molecules called BIOMOLECULES. BIOMOLECULES are very large molecules of many ATOMS covalently bonded together All BIOMOLECULES contain CARBON (C)
- 3. Organic CompoundsOrganic Compounds CompoundsCompounds that contain CARBONCARBON are called organicorganic. MacromoleculesMacromolecules are large organicorganic moleculesmolecules. 3
- 4. Carbon Just like water carbon is very important to life Most molecules of the cell are carbon-based Molecules in the cell are called biomolecules These consist of a backbone of carbon atoms Atoms of other elements may branch off this backbone This is the basic structure of most of the
- 5. Carbon (C)Carbon (C) CarbonCarbon has 4 electrons4 electrons in outer shell. CarbonCarbon can form covalent bondscovalent bonds with as many as 44 other atoms (elements). Usually with C, H, O or NC, H, O or N. Example:Example: CHCH44(methane)(methane) 5
- 6. Why are carbon atoms so common in living things? Because carbon is a very versatile element Lets look at the element carbon It has 4 electrons on it’s outer shell/energy level This means it can form up to four bonds with other atoms Carbon-based molecules are called organic molecules Non- carbon based molecules are called…… Inorganic molecules e.g. water, oxygen, ammonia
- 7. Monomers & Polymers Some biomolecules consist of hundreds or even millions of atoms Large molecules are made from smaller units called monomers Monomers are linked to form polymers Every cell has thousands of different polymers All these are built from fewer than 50 monomers Life’s large molecules are classified into 4 main categories: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids The 4 types of biomolecules often consist of large carbon chains
- 9. MacromoleculesMacromolecules Large organic molecules.Large organic molecules. Also called POLYMERSPOLYMERS. Made up of smaller “building blocks” called MONOMERSMONOMERS. Examples:Examples: 1. Carbohydrates1. Carbohydrates 2. Lipids2. Lipids 3. Proteins3. Proteins 4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)) 9
- 10. Carbohydrates Carbohydrate means “hydrated” carbon Composing elements C, H, O Hydrogen and Oxygen are in a ratio of 2:1 Can be simple monomers like glucose Can be complex polymers like cellulose 10
- 12. CarbohydratesCarbohydrates Organic compounds made up of Sugar molecules. Contain C, H, O in the ratio 1:2:1 Small sugar moleculesSmall sugar molecules to large sugar moleculeslarge sugar molecules. Examples:Examples: A.A. monosaccharidemonosaccharide B.B. disaccharidedisaccharide C.C. polysaccharidepolysaccharide 12
- 13. CarbohydratesCarbohydrates Monosaccharide: one sugar unitMonosaccharide: one sugar unit Examples:Examples: glucose (glucose (C6H12O6) deoxyribosedeoxyribose riboseribose FructoseFructose GalactoseGalactose 13 glucoseglucose
- 14. Carbohydrates Organic compounds made up of sugar molecules Contain C, H, O in the ratio 1:2:1 Monosaccharides Consist of just one sugar unit E.g. glucose, fructose and galactose Honey contains glucose and fructose Main fuel for cellular work Cells break down glucose molecules and extract their stored energy
- 15. CarbohydratesCarbohydrates Disaccharide:Disaccharide: Made by joining 2 monosaccharides by process of dehydration Examples:Sucrose,lactose, maltoseExamples:Sucrose,lactose, maltose 15 •These sugars give energy that lasts a little longer than monosaccharides because the glycosidic bond (a covalent bond between two monosaccharides) must be broken before the sugar can be used for energy
- 16. Using a dehydration reaction cells can make disaccharides from two monosaccharides Sucrose is made from glucose and fructose Found in plant sap Table sugar is sucrose which comes from sugar cane
- 17. Polysaccharide: many sugar unitsPolysaccharide: many sugar units Examples:Examples:starch (bread, potatoes), glycogen(beef muscle) cellulosestarch (bread, potatoes), glycogen(beef muscle) cellulose (lettuce, corn)(lettuce, corn) 17 glucoseglucoseglucoseglucose glucoseglucoseglucoseglucose glucoseglucoseglucoseglucose glucoseglucoseglucoseglucose cellulosecellulose
- 18. Polysaccharides Also called complex carbs Starch made of glucose monomers Starch is found mostly in plants Glycogen is found in animal cells Stored in liver and muscle Cellulose is a polysacc that acts as a building material Commonly known as fiber We do not have a digestive enzyme to break it down
- 19. Functions of carbohydrates. HOW DO THEY HELP THE CELL?HOW DO THEY HELP THE CELL? Carbohydrate functions as an energy source of the body and acts as Bio fuel. 1. PROVIDE ENERGY.1. PROVIDE ENERGY. Polysaccharide starch acts as storage food for plants. Glycogen stored in liver and muscles acts as storage food for animals. 2. STRUCTURAL SUPPORT.2. STRUCTURAL SUPPORT. Cellulose forms cell wall of plant cell 3. CELL-CELL COMMUNICATION.3. CELL-CELL COMMUNICATION. Therefore the building block of Carbohydrates are sugarsTherefore the building block of Carbohydrates are sugars
- 20. LipidsLipids 20
- 21. Lipids Have you ever looked into a bottle of salad dressing…. What did you notice? Lipids are hydrophobic – afraid of water This is very important to their function Cell membranes surround the cell Lipids also make signalling molecules Form energy storage
- 22. LipidsLipids General term for compounds which are not soluble in waternot soluble in water. Lipids are soluble in hydrophobic solventsare soluble in hydrophobic solvents. Remember:Remember: “stores the most energy”“stores the most energy” Examples:Examples: 1. Fats1. Fats 2. Phospholipids2. Phospholipids 3. Oils3. Oils 4. Waxes4. Waxes 5. Steroid hormones5. Steroid hormones 6. Triglycerides6. Triglycerides 22
- 23. LipidsLipids Six functions of lipids:Six functions of lipids: 1.1. Long termLong term energy storageenergy storage 2.2. Protection against heat loss (insulation)Protection against heat loss (insulation) 3.3. Protection against physical shockProtection against physical shock 4.4. Protection against water lossProtection against water loss 5.5. Chemical messengers (hormones)Chemical messengers (hormones) 6.6. Major component of membranesMajor component of membranes (phospholipids)(phospholipids) 23
- 24. Lipids- structureLipids- structure CComposed of 3 carbon backbone called glycerol and 33 fatty acidsfatty acids. 24 H H-C----O H-C----O H-C----O H glycerol O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = fatty acids O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH =CH-CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 3 =
- 25. Fatty AcidsFatty Acids There are two kinds of fatty acidsfatty acids you may see these on food labels: 1.1. Saturated fatty acids:Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds (bad)no double bonds (bad) Lard and butter (solid at RT) 2.2. Unsaturated fatty acids:Unsaturated fatty acids: double bonds (good)double bonds (good) Fats found in fruit, vegetable, fish, corn oil, vegetable oil 25 O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 = saturatedsaturated O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH=CH-CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 2 -CH 3 = unsaturated
- 26. Saturated fats…..take care Diets rich in saturated fats are unhealthy…. Cause the build up of plaque-like substance in your arteries
- 27. Protein
- 28. Amino acids Each amino acid consists of a central carbon with 4 partners In all amino acids 3 of the partners are the same with Hydrogen Amino group – NH2 Carboxyl group – COOH R-group is the functional group which is different in all amino acids This is responsible for the properties of each AA
- 29. Building a protein…. Cells make proteins by linking 20 amino acids by peptide bonds. Amino acids are joined together when a dehydration reaction removes a hydroxyl group from the carboxyl end of one amino acid and a hydrogen from the amino group of another. This chain of AA’s is called a polypeptide (also known as a protein) Proteins are made from one or more polypeptide chains. Human body makes lots of proteins using different arrangements of amino acids Each protein has a unique sequence of AA’s
- 30. Protein shape An chain of AA’s on it’s own cannot function. A functional or working protein consists of polypeptide chains twisted, folded and coiled in a special way. There are 4 levels of proteins Four levels of protein structure are:Four levels of protein structure are: A.A.Primary StructurePrimary Structure B.B. Secondary StructureSecondary Structure C.C. Tertiary StructureTertiary Structure D.D.Quaternary StructureQuaternary Structure 30
- 32. Primary Structure Amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds (straight chains)peptide bonds (straight chains) Amino acid sequence of the protein 32 aa1 aa2 aa3 aa4 aa5 aa6 Peptide Bonds Amino Acids (aa)
- 33. Secondary Structure -Secondary Structure - H bonds in the peptide chain backbone 3-dimensional folding arrangement of a primary structureprimary structure into coilscoils and pleatspleats held together by hydrogen bondshydrogen bonds. Two examples:Two examples: 33 Alpha HelixAlpha Helix Beta Pleated SheetBeta Pleated Sheet Hydrogen BondsHydrogen Bonds
- 34. Tertiary StructureTertiary Structure Secondary structuresSecondary structures bentbent and foldedfolded into a more complex 3-D arrangementmore complex 3-D arrangement of linked polypeptides Bonds: H-bonds, ionic, disulfideBonds: H-bonds, ionic, disulfide bridges (S-S)bridges (S-S) Call a “subunit”.“subunit”. 34 Alpha HelixAlpha Helix Beta Pleated SheetBeta Pleated Sheet
- 35. Quaternary StructureQuaternary Structure Composed of 2 or more “subunits” Globular in shape Form in Aqueous environments Example: enzymes (hemoglobin)enzymes (hemoglobin) 35 subunitssubunits
- 36. Proteins (Polypeptides)Proteins (Polypeptides) Amino acids (20 different kinds of aa) bonded together by peptide bondspeptide bonds (polypeptidespolypeptides). Building blocks of Proteins are Amino Acids. Six functions of proteins :Six functions of proteins : 1.1. Storage:Storage: albumin (egg white)albumin (egg white) 2.2. Transport:Transport: hemoglobinhemoglobin 3.3. Regulatory:Regulatory: hormoneshormones 4.4. Movement:Movement: musclesmuscles 5.5. Structural:Structural: membranes, hair, nailsmembranes, hair, nails 6.6. Enzymes:Enzymes: cellular reactionscellular reactions 36
- 37. Functions of proteins. Structural proteins -they form structures like hair. Horns, feather & fur. As storage- Make up muscles and provide long term nutrient storage. (Albumin in the egg. And seeds of plants) As Hormones – Insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas causes other tissues to take up glucose and regulates blood sugar concentration. As Defense mechanism- They circulate in blood and defend from harmful microbes.(Antibodies inactivate and help destroy viruses and bacteria). Transport – Hemoglobin a protein in blood helps carrying oxygen. Some act as signals, conveying messages from cell to cell. As enzymes -A group of proteins controls the chemical reactions in a cell.(enzymes) 37
- 38. Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids • There are two types of nucleic acids – Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – Ribonucleic acid (RNA) • Each nucleic acid is made of monomers called nucleotides • Each nucleotide consists of phosphate groupphosphate group pentose sugar (5-carbon)pentose sugar (5-carbon) nitrogenous bases:nitrogenous bases: adenine (A)adenine (A) thymine (T) DNA onlythymine (T) DNA only uracil (U) RNA onlyuracil (U) RNA only cytosine (C)cytosine (C) guanine (Gguanine (G 38
- 39. DNA - double helixDNA - double helix 39 P P P O O O 1 2 3 4 5 5 3 3 5 P P P O O O 1 2 3 4 5 5 3 5 3 G C T A
- 40. How do enzymes work? In the human body catalysts are called enzymes Each enzyme catalyzes (or speeds up) only one type of reaction – an enzyme is specific The molecules that an enzyme reacts with are called substrate The substrate fits exactly into a part of the enzyme called the active site. Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down Sucrose into glucose and fructose copyright cmassengale 40 SubstrateEnzyme Active site
- 42. MacromoleculesMacromolecules Formed andFormed and broken?broken? 42 Dehydration Synthesis & Hydrolysis
- 43. Dehydration SynthesisDehydration Synthesis Also called “condensation reaction”“condensation reaction” Forms polymerspolymers by combining monomersmonomers by “removing water”“removing water”. 43 HO H HO HO HH H2O
- 44. Most macromolecules are made from single subunits, or building blocks, called monomers. The monomers combine with each other using covalent bonds to form larger molecules known as polymers. In doing so, monomers release water molecules as byproducts. This type of reaction is known as dehydration synthesis, which means “to put together while losing water.” Question:Question: How are Macromolecules separated or digested?How are Macromolecules separated or digested? Hydrolysis - Polymers are broken down into monomers in a process known as hydrolysis, which means “to split water,” a reaction in which a water molecule is used during the breakdown 44
- 45. Answer:Answer: HydrolysisHydrolysis Separates monomersmonomers by “adding“adding water”water” 45 HO HO HH HO H H2O
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