Use of Maps and Charts in Research

Use of the Maps and Graphs in Research Reports
Shashikant Kumar
Green Eminent, gercbrd@gmail.com
With the advancement in digital and print media including prints, multimedia,
documentaries and reports the outputs have changed its appearance from being simplistic
to attractive forms. Social science research deals with spatial aspects of the physical and
human features on the earth surface. Researchers use various mediums of expressions
whether its case study of particular community or region to express and present their
database. The common being the photograph, which are direct visual to show the nature
of the subject in the study.
Over a period, the scope of statistical analysis of the data has increased but means of their
representation have remained limited. Recently the extensive tables in the reports are
avoided or placed in annexure. The most common data representation is being through
the graphs and charts across the researchers in physical, biological and social sciences.
The accurate data representation by graphs and charts that reflects the trend and variance
makes it important content of research reports. The advancement in computing
technologies and special purpose graphical software’s allows the data to be represented in
the more than one type of graphic and chart forms.
Primary Data and Information Representation
Pictorials
The picture or sketch of the subject or area of study are mostly used in the research
reports. Often in the modern ‘Word’ processing the photographs or sketches are scanned
and is placed adjacent to the description in the reports. This can be presented in very
limited form and may not be directly related to the subject matter of research. The
pictorials like dots (coloured/symbols) are common in mass communication materials.
Dots- The representative dots can give the density of the variables related to a time-space
or both. The dots are used to identify the variables and its intensity.
Pictures- Graphical pictures are used to represent the variables like bar showing
production of crops or output of an industry. This makes user to quickly identify the
variables and related with the data represented. These type of pictorials with the charts
are mostly used by the news and print media in their analysis and report.
Charts and Graphs
The flow diagrams and charts comprising the sequential information is also an important
part of the research reports. Following are some examples;
16/01/2014 Research Methodology 1

Flow Diagram: This is an important component in the logical representation of the
activities conceptualized in the research or for presenting the methodological sequence of
the project. The flow diagram can also represent the model sequence presenting input-output
relationships among the factors and variables. The report should have flow
diagram in order to make the reader understand the logical reasoning in the research. This
helps to make the research and report structured.
Standard Graphs: It is used to present scientific data or readings from the table to show
the trends in the value of the variables.
Line Diagram: The most simplistic and
accepted representation of the data is done
through line diagram, whether it is depicting
a trend or exponential features of the data.
The statistical test results are often
represented through various linear diagrams
to reflect the results in curves or straight
line. The single line diagram shows the
single variable results or representation
whereas the multiple line diagrams would
show a multiple variable or temporal
changes of a variable.
Charts
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Charts can be either manually drawn or generated from the computer packages like MS
Excel, SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), Graphica or other similar
packages. The presentation of charts is essential to allow the reader to understand the
outputs of your analysis without looking into detail analytical tables.
You can choose among different types of chart to display different kinds of information:
area, bar, column, line, pie, and xy scatter charts. Each chart has several styles, such as
side-by-side, cumulative, and proportional, and several variations, such as adding
gridlines or exploding the first pie slice.
Some chart styles are good for comparing
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values or representing trends while others
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are best for emphasizing a significant
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Area charts are good for showing
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changes over time. There are two types of
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area chart. The cumulative uses the total
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This type shows both the trends in the total
values and the trends in the data series. The other type, proportional, normalizes the

values on the y-axis to percentages. This type of chart emphasizes relationships between
data values within data groups.
Bar and column charts show differences in value. The relative length of bars or columns
reveals differences and trends. The stacked
formats (i.e., cumulative and
proportional), which use the total value of
data series, or normalize them using
percentages, can enhance comparisons of
data within the same data group.
Line charts effectively represent trends
over a period of time. They emphasize a
rate of change. Line charts are helpful
when you need to show rising and falling
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trends among several data values.
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Pie charts represent the relationship
between parts and the whole. You can
emphasize the significance of information
contained in a slice by separating it from
the rest of the pie.
XY scatter charts show the relationship
between two related data groups. They can
reveal trends or patterns in data that have a
cause-and-effect relationship.
Animated Graphs
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The temporal representation of the data
across the time scale can be represented
through the animated graphs, which has
series of similar data variable across the
time scale. This may be 10 seconds –24
hours, One Day-Month or Month-Year
and Decadal. This can be viewed specially
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for the environmental or climate change projects where the changes can be visually well
represented by animated graphs and charts. This would be more useful for the data
representation and to generate the modeling results for the reports.

Maps
A research project report can also have maps. Maps depict, most commonly on a flat
surface, the spatial organization of any part of the physical universe at any scale, and at
the same time symbolize a wide variety of information, both static and temporal (related
to time). Whether it be a chart of outer space, city/taluka/district/state map or a plan of a
university campus, maps play an essential role in our everyday lives.
Cartography is the art and science of map production. It applies the fundamental
scientific procedures of accurate measurement, classification, and the identification of
relationships, to create visual models of our complex world.
The first known map dates to about 4500 years ago. However, it wasn't until 500 years
ago that humans discovered a way to accurately and quickly duplicate maps. As late as
the 1400's, all maps were still painstakingly reproduced by hand, so there were very few
maps in existence. Beginning in the latter part of the Renaissance, maps began to be
printed in Europe. The development of printing meant that maps could be easily
reproduced while being faithful to the original. It also meant that more people had the
opportunity to see and use maps.
The impact of printing on mapping has a good analogy in the present transition to the
distribution of maps through computer networks. Like the printing of maps, computer
networks have increased the distribution of maps. Printing made it possible to produce
thousands of identical maps in a short amount of time. The Internet has made it possible
to simultaneously "print" and distribute thousands of maps every second.
Globes and Maps
A globe is a true representation or model of the Earth's surface, but its use has limitations.
You can view only one side of the Earth at a time. Usually the size or scale is too small to
be useful and large globes are difficult to handle. Maps, however, are much more
versatile. Flat maps can be rolled or folded and are, therefore, portable. Maps are
reproducible in large quantities. When in digital form, they can be displayed on a
computer.
The Classification of Maps
There are many ways to classify maps, based on different criteria, such as scale,
projection, or content. However, in the field of cartographic production, maps usually fall
into two categories: (A) Base Maps and (B) Thematic Maps.
(A) Base Maps depict fundamental information about the Earth's surface such as
landforms and drainage. They also symbolize landmark features like roads, railways,
populated places and buildings. Many features are also identified by geographical names

and labels. Maps that provide only 2-dimensional information are called plan metric,
whereas those that also depict elevation are called topographic.
Elevation on topographic maps can be indicated in various ways. The most commonly
used method is to plot contour lines joining points of equal height or depth. The
difference in elevation between contour lines is known as the contour interval. Specific
points of known elevation, called spot heights, are often included to provide more
information that is accurate. Another method of showing topography is relief shading, an
artistic impression of elevation, which creates a 3-dimensional view. The addition of
colour between selected contour intervals also serves to highlight elevation or depth.
These colours are called hypsometric tints.
Base maps are produced at various scales, covering a wide range of areas, such as
districts, Statea, countries, continents or the entire world. Often, maps are available as a
series, such as the 1:25,000, 1:50 000 and 1:250 000 scale Topographic Maps, produced
by Survey of India, in our country. For city/town, maps are prepared by city or revenue
survey departments using Cadastral/Tika Maps up to a scale of 1:12500.
(B) Thematic Maps show the spatial distribution of a wide variety of qualitative and
quantitative information. In fact, almost any subject that can be expressed as a
geographical distribution can be mapped.
Qualitative thematic maps depict the distribution of nominal data (data which is
classified without hierarchy). Examples of this type of map would show the
location of different types of precipitation (e.g., rain, snow, hail, etc.), vegetation
or employment.
Quantitative thematic maps are more complex, and involve the location of
ordinal, interval, and ratio data. Ordinal data provides the map user with
information about rank or hierarchy, for example, a map showing populated
places classified as city, town or village. Maps symbolizing interval or ratio data
provide information that is more precise. They employ a scale of measurement,
usually described in the map legend. For example, a rainfall map indicating the
number of millimeters per year in different locations, would illustrate interval
data.
Map Representations
The map can be colour or B/W depending on the purpose of the maps the representation
on the maps can be;
(a) Pictorial maps (representation of variables by picture/diagram to show density)
(b) Graduated Value or Choropleth Maps (grading of the single patterns according to
Value)
(c) Unique Value Maps (putting unique value to each variable such as state, crops,
etc)

(d) Graduated Colour or Chorochromatic (Grading of single colours according to
Value)
(e) Proportional Maps (representation on Map of Variable through Circle/Square etc)
Thematic Map Generation
Following are the thematic map generations possible with any standard Geographical
Information System Software.
Single Symbol: All the features of a map variable are displayed with the same colors
and symbols. This is useful when you only need to show where a variable in the map are
located.
Graduated Color: The variable represented in the map is displayed with the same
symbol type, but the colors represent the progression of values for a data attribute you
specify from the table.
Graduated Symbol: The map
features are displayed with the same
colors and symbols, representing a
progression of values. This is the
best way to symbolize data that
expresses size or magnitude.
Graduated symbol can only be applied for point and line features in a map representing
the values from the attribute data.

Unique Value: Each unique value in a theme is represented with a unique symbol. This
is the most effective method for displaying categorical data.
Dot Density Map: The features of a area thematic maps are
displayed with a number of dots corresponding to a value.
This method is good for showing how particular things are
distributed throughout an area. For instance, a dot map
depicting population will most likely have the strongest
concentrations of dots along rivers and near coastlines. See
Dot Density Maps to learn more.
Charts on Map: The maps can be
displayed with a chart. The
components of the chart correspond
to data attributes you specify, and the
size of each part in a chart is determined by the value of each data attribute. You can
specify whether the charts are pie charts or column charts. This is a good method for
displaying the values of many attributes.
Pictorial Maps
When exact number of the cattle, people, area under some crops, production of crops etc
are available, the quantitative distribution of these elements can be satisfactorily shown
on the map with the help of pictorials such as dots, squares or circles etc. Care should be
taken for deciding the suitable value for the pictorials to reduce the clutter. All the
pictures (for example –dots) should be of uniform size.
Choropleth: In this technique distribution of any quantity is shown on the map on the
basis of administrative divisions; since statistical data is generally available talukawise,
districtwise, statewise or countrywise. The given data can be divided into 5 to 6 even
class intervals. In order to differentiate among the distribution of the quantity to be
represented different grades are used. While using different grades the degree of number
of lines/dots increases with the increasing quantity to be represented as shown below;
Grading (Dot Density)
Grading-Lines

How Maps can be used?
Various spatial features on the earth surface and its variables can be shown on maps.
Researchers need to use maps for its information and data-depicting feature while
designing the report. This is even more feasible with digital cartography. By mapping
thematic information and overlaying these layers of data in a GIS (Geographical
Information System), we are able to analyze both spatial (related to place) and non-spatial
variables (attributes). Knowledge gained from this technology allows us to detect
problems and plan strategies to manage our environment more successfully.
Some maps are produced for specialized purposes. They usually occur in a series, often
with a common scale. Examples are:
 Hydrographic charts -- essential for the safe navigation of water transportation
routes.
 Aeronautical charts -- pilots rely on them for accurate information on flight paths
and approaches to airports.
 Electoral maps show the boundaries and names of districts or ridings, which are
determined by census data. The results of an election can be mapped at a national
scale, by indicating with different area colours, the political party that won each
district.
Atlases
Atlas provides base and thematic information about a particular country. The
fundamental characteristics of the maps, as well as their scales are usually the same,
thereby facilitating the comparison of different types of data. A world atlas of political
maps will include various scales, depending on the amount of detail required to depict
each region adequately. Finally, a gazetteer atlas shows detailed information about
populated places and geographical features, with names and locations.
Geographic information systems (GIS) emerged in the 1970-80s period. GIS represents
a major shift in the cartography paradigm. In traditional (paper) cartography, the map was
both the database and the display of geographic information. For GIS, the database,
analysis, and display are physically and conceptually separate aspects of handling
geographic data. Geographic information systems comprise computer hardware,
software, digital data, people, organizations, and institutions for collecting, storing,
analyzing, and displaying geo-referenced information about the Earth (Nyerges 1993).
This technology can help in providing the desktop maps to the researchers, which
facilitates the excellent integration of the map and database. The relational maps can be
prepared for most of the research variables related to surface. The technology can be
utilized for the Demographic Analysis, Agricultural Output Analysis, Location specific-
Industrial, Social and Amenity analysis can be performed.

Where to use the maps?
Some of the researchers traditionally used to utilize the maps for information providing
the location of the study areas. Recently you can use maps from assessing natural and
human resource to analytical maps for depicting your results. The digital maps make data
transfer easy between the regular desktop word and data processing software.
Finally, you must learn to read the maps before you use it in your research and represent
the maps in scientific mapping norms.
References:
Abler, Ronald, Adams, John S., and Gould, Peter. 1971. Spatial Organization. Englewood Cliffs,
N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Canada. Natural Resources Canada. Geomatics Canada, The National Atlas of Canada - 5th
Edition. Ottawa.
Raisz, Erwin. 1962. Principles of Cartography. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Robinson, Arthur H., and Sale, Randall D. 1969. Elements of Cartography. Third edition. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.

Use of Maps and Charts in Research

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