Mark2051 Notes

Mark2051 Notes
MARK2051 What is marketing strategy? The process of matching the organisation's strengths to the
customer needs, with the aim of achieving a competitive advantage in the market. The combination
of product, price, distribution and promotion most suited to a particular group of consumers. Goal:
the create a sustainable competitive advantage in the market All the elements of the marketing
strategy that lead to the development of the competitive advantage require good understanding of
consumer behaviour Marketing strategy process: 1. Segment: understand consumers a. Determine
the dimensions (age, geography, subculture) b. Determine the heterogeneity c. Define the needs &
goals 2. Target: choose consumers a. Evaluate each segment in ... Show more content on
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Reducing the need gap below the point motiving change in behaviour for habitual buyers Gestalt
psychology: the name given to the school of psychology that examines the process by which
information about a stimulus is organised and categorised by the human brain into patterns. Th ink
sw ap Do cu me nt Cognitive interpretation: a process whereby stimuli are placed in existing
categories of meaning Affective interpretation: the emotional or feeling response triggered by a
stimulus Lecture 4 – Stimulus Perception Stimulus: an object or an event in the external
environment becomes a stimulus when it comes into contact with the consumer's sense organs
Sensory organs Eye Principles of visual perception o Trichromatic theory There are 3 cones: 1. S
cones – sensitive to blue 2. M cones – sensitive to green 3. L cones – sensitive to red o Opponent
process theory There are 3 mechanisms that respond to a pair of opposites: Blue–yellow Green–red
Black–white o Gestalt Ears Senses airborne chemical molecules Related to memories & emotions
Consists of 10 million rods embedded in the olfactory epithelium – responding to different
chemicals Th Olfactory ink sw Detects different physical characteristics of pressure waves: Pitch:
perception of the frequency of sound waves (umber of wavelengths that pass a fixed point in a unit
of time) Loudness: the perception of the intensity of sound (the pressure exerted by sound
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To What Extent Do Cognitive and Biological Factors...
To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?
Example exam approach: In this answer I will discuss the interaction of cognitive and biological
factors with reference to three theories.
Psychologists have long debated the role physiological, cognitive and behavioural factors play in
emotions. Originally believed to be a physiological experience, research now suggests that emotions
are an interaction of both physiological and cognitive factors. Different theories debate the role and
primacy of each.
Schacter (1964) Two – factory theory
Schacter (1964) was the first theorist to bring together the two elements of physiological arousal and
cognition. It is sometimes known as the two–factor theory of ... Show more content on
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Such results seem to support Lazarus's theory that it is not the events themselves that elicit
emotional stress but rather the individual's interpretation or appraisal of those events. However, as it
was a lab experiment the videos were an artificial test of emotional reaction. It may also be unethical
to expose participants to high levels of discomfort.
Le Doux (1996) Biological factors
Le Doux mapped out the biological circuitry of emotions through work on rats. In his experiments,
rats are exposed to a tone and mild electric shock at the same time. Later, at the sound of the tone by
itself, they freeze, as if frightened. They have been conditioned to fear the noise.
By using tracers, chemicals that stain neurons LeDoux found a direct pathway from the ear to a
two–way station called the sensory thalamus that led directly to the amygdala, an almond–shaped
structure in the forebrain.
So the emotional stimulus is first processed in the sensory thalamus which sends a signal to the
amygdala. This is a short–route. The amygdala triggers a flight or fight physiological reaction.
When this pathway was cut, rats could not be conditioned to fear a sound.
At the same time the sensory thalamus sends the information via the indirect pathway (long route) to
the cortex which results in an appraisal of the stimulus and the outcome of this is sent to the

amygdala. According to LeDoux the advantage of having a direct and indirect route to the amygdala
is

Underlying Neurobiological Processes
It has been agreed in the literature that memories can generally be defined in terms of time (Nader,
Schafe & LeDoux, 2000). Memory is sensitive to disruption soon after learning as it is in a labile
state of short–term memory (STM). Conversely, memory enters a stable form and is less sensitive to
such disruptions in long–term memory (LTM) at a later stage after learning (Nader et al.). Research
has argued that the process in which labile new memories transform into stable long–lasting
memories is known as consolidation (Nader et al.). After memories are consolidated, they can re–
enter states of transient instability, making them vulnerable to disruption immediately after retrieval
(Yue et al., 2012; Si et al., 2012). This is known as memory reconsolidation (Yue et al.; Si et al.).
Finally, the re–exposure to a particular context without reinforcement can lead to memory extinction
(Merlo & Romano, 2008).That is, the temporary weakening of an earlier conditioned response can
lead to extinction (Merlo & Romano). However, the number of events or duration of a single event
in that exposure will determine whether memory extinction or reconsolidation is activated (Merlo &
Romano).
Although learning to fear danger is essential to survival, many anxiety disorders are underpinned by
the dysregulation of the fear system (Oyarzún et al., 2012). Accordingly, much research has been
dedicated to developing strategies for supressing fear memories in maladaptive cases (Oyarzún et
al.;

The Censorship Of The Hip Hop Culture
The Oppressive Language Leading to the Degradation of Woman via The Hip Hop Culture Today
There's a powerful source brainwashing young minority women today, specifically the language
expressed in Rap lyrics which is often embraced by the Hip Hop Culture recently. These young
gems are being conditioned to value their worth centered around hollow, vain, and degrading
measures. The lead directors of these measures are strong, empowered, talented men who come
across as if they detest woman. They disclose and describe detail stories of lifestyles involving
"model chicks" who degrade themselves for acceptance, money, and opportunity. Consequently, this
behavior leaves impressions for young ladies to follow after; because most young ladies of minority
tap into the hip hop culture as a guide for social behavior. Although, the Hip Hop culture allows a
window into the challenges faced by the black community it has also been the lead contributor to the
desensitization of exploitation towards women due to the negative messages and images portrayed
in music lyrics and music videos today. Symbols of Sexuality Gone Wrong Adams and Fuller(2006)
define''misogyny as the hatred or disdain of women. It is an ideology that reduces women to objects
for men's ownership, use, or abuse. This ideology is widespread and common throughout society''
(p. 939). The devaluation of young minority women through the hip hop culture is an epidemic. The
word choices conveyed in

Ap Psychology Review Packet
1.Absolute Threshold: the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the
time.
2.Accommodation: the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far images on
the retina.
3.Acetylcholine: neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning and memory.
4.Achievement Motivation: desire for accomplishment.
5.Achievement Test: an exam designed to test what a person has earned.
6.Acoustic Encoding: encoding of sound, especially words.
7.Acquisition: the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
8.Action Potential: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
9.Activation Synthesis: theory that REM sleep triggers neural firing that evokes ... Show more
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41.Broca's Area: controls language expression; area of the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere.
42.Cannon–Baird Theory: emotion arousing stimulus triggers physiological response and subjective
experience of emotion.
43.Case Study: an observational technique in which one person id studied in depth in the hope of
revealing universal principles.
44.Central Nervous System: the brain and spinal cord.
45.Cerebellum: the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; processes sensory input and
coordinates movement output and balance.
46.Cerebral Cortex: the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral
hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information–processing center.
47.Change Blindness: failing to notice changes in the environment
48.Charles Darwin: argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies.
49.Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
50.Circadian Rhythm: the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24–hour cycle
51.Classical Conditioning: one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate future events.
52.Clinical Psychology: a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats psychological
disorders.
53.Cochlea: a coiled, bony, fluid–filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger
neural impulses.
54.Cochlear Implant: device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the
auditory nerve through

Correlation Between Motivation And Other Behavioral Processes
One can define motivation in terms that make a clear distinction between other concepts or
processes, and it is important not to simply subsume motivation into other constructs such as
emotion. Nevertheless, it also is useful to consider the relation between motivation and other
behavioral processes. The neural representation of behavioral functions is highly complex, and it is
problematic to try and neatly place core psychological functions into distinct neural systems that do
not overlap (Salamone 2010; Salamone et al., 2007). Thus, when discussing motivation it is
important to consider the relation between motivational processes and other important processes
such as emotion and reinforcement, because in several ways, motivational ... Show more content on
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The modern study of instrumental conditioning, and thus the conceptualization of reinforcement,
was established by the seminal work of Thorndike and Skinner. Thorndike (1911) formulated the
"Law of Effect" to describe the processes involved in instrumental conditioning. Several years later,
Skinner (1938) composed what he termed "The Empirical Law of Effect", which focused on the
relation between response output and the stimulus events that followed these responses. As
described by Skinner, positive reinforcement occurs when a response is followed by a stimulus, and
response probability increases. The stimulus that leads to such an outcome is known as a positive
reinforcer. Clearly there is an associative learning component to the reinforcement process. There is
a complex associative structure involving S–S and S–R associations (Colwill & Rescorla 1986),
with the core being the action–outcome association based upon the contingency between the
response and the reinforcer. As described by Timberlake & Allison (1974) and Allison (1993), for
instrumental learning to occur, an organism must learn "what leads to what". Nevertheless, there
also is a key motivational component to instrumental behavior (Dickenson & Balleine 1994;
Salamone & Correa 2002). Cofer (1972) stated that "motivation provides the conditions for
reinforcing behavior or weakening it". As stated by Salamone & Correa (2002) "The reinforcer can
be described as a goal, a

Are Humans Inherently Violent?
Are humans inherently violent is a question that has been asked throughout history. Its existence
started with the wars, the murders, the attempted genocide and the countless acts of violence and
death portrayed in written and spoken history. Human's inability to understand our own nature is
what drives this question and many like it. They want to know what drives them, as an individual, as
a society and as a race. Humans wish to know what needs are the most important, what needs are
unnecessary, what needs are actually wants, what needs aren't part of nature but what is given
through nurture and so on. These questions allow for humans to better understand their own mind
and body. The question really being asked is why do I do the things I do? This question leads to the
creation of other questions about human action, thought process and the follow through measure. In
wondering about violence, there is a distinctive fear that humans are inherently bad, which is what
violence is considered to be. There is a great deal of evidence for both sides, though most historical
and older scientific evidence supports the yes sides of the argument. While the no side is more often
than not portrayed by newer evidence given in studies, psychological data and observations of the
human race. This evidence allows for humans to make arbitrary conclusions about human nature, it
does not necessarily make a solid factual statement. It all depends on one's own interpretation.
For the yes side, the

Negative Effects Of Video Games
A major development in mass media over the last 25 years has been the advent and rapid growth of
the video game industry. From the earliest arcade– based console games, video games have been
immediately and immensely popular, particularly among young people. According to Gentile,
"Additionally, the introduction of video games to the home market only served to further elevate
their prevalence" [Gentile, 2009]. Because of their widespread popularity, social scientists, parents,
and politicians have been concerned with the potential effects of video games, focusing particularly
on games with violent content and their harmful effects on children. Although there is an extensive
base of scientific literature on the negative effects of violent video games, research on prosocial
games is much more limited. Few empirical studies have tested the effect of prosocial video game
content on helpful and hurtful behaviors and results from these studies suggest that prosocial content
in games can in fact increase prosocial behavior in the short and long terms. Additionally, recent
studies have started to explore the causal mechanisms responsible for the effects of prosocial video
games on helpful and hurtful behaviors. Results from some studies suggest that these effects may be
due to changes in cognitive beliefs, whereas other studies suggest these effects are due to changes in
affect. Overall, both types of effects are consistent with social–cognitive models of social behavior,
including

The Theory of Behaviorism
A significant piece of several psychological theories in the late nineteenth century was introspection,
which is "the examination or observation of one's own mental and emotional processes" (Press,
2013). In retort to this theory behaviorism came about. Behaviorism is predominantly concerned
with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. In other words behaviorism does not
look at the biological aspects but it suggests that all behaviors are learned habits and changes in
response to the environment. It endeavors to explain how these particular habits are formed.
Behaviorism claimed that the causes of behavior was not necessarily found in the complexities of
the mind but could be observed in one's immediate environment, from stimuli that produced,
reinforced, and punished certain responses also known later on as conditioning. It wasn't until the
twentieth century that the scientist began to discover the actual systems to learning, thereby laying a
foundation for behaviorism. A theorist by the name of Ivan Pavlov was a major contribution to the
discovering of significant behavioral theories.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born on September 14, 1849 in the small village of Ryazan, Russia. He
was the son of Peter Dmitrievich Pavlov, who was the village's own priest. As the son of a priest,
Ivan went to church school and attended the theological seminary. The family hoped that Ivan would
follow in his father's footsteps and become a priest as well, but Ivan had other plans.

Reconsolidation Of Memory
The following experiment was preformed by Marieke Soeter and Merel Kindt. Their research tested
if the disruption of reconsolidation of memories also lowers fear in an individual who has an
ongoing fear of spiders in their everyday life. Studies over the past years have found that retrieving
previously consolidated memories may signal a process known as reconsolidation (restabilization
due to proteins). In the lab setting, a process known as Pavlovian fear conditioning can be used to
train the mind to fear a stimulus. This conditioned fear can then easily be used to test the
neurobiology of associative fear learning and memory. Fear conditioning is also a great method to
be used in studying new treatments for anxiety disorders focused around ... Show more content on
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The independent variable was the propranolol HCl or placebo and the dependent variable was the
reactions and ratings from the subjects due to exposure to a tarantula. The subjects for the
experiment were chosen from an initial group of 45 healthy individuals. From this original group, 41
women, aged 18–32, scored high enough on a spider phobia questionnaire (>17) to qualify for the
study. The 41 participants were then randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups:
propranolol HCl (13 participants), pill placebo (14 participants) and another propranolol HCl group
to accompany for any possible nonspecific dampening effects brought on by the propranolol HCl.
Once the participants were chosen, they were given information on the experiment to read and learn
about the study. The first task for the participants was to take the initial spider phobia questionnaire.
The questionnaire contained 31 true or false statements and asked participants to rank (on a 0–8
scale) the standard treatment for spider phobia as well as the propranolol HCl treatment. They also
took several other tests to measure levels of anxiety and depression: State–Trait Anxiety Inventory,
Anxiety Sensitivity Index and the Beck Depression Inventory. Next, behavioral approach tests
(BATs) were used to see how each participant would react behaviorally to

Phobias and the Brain Essay
Phobias and the Brain
You are in an airport waiting for your plane to arrive. You've never flown before, and are more
terrified than you can ever remember being. Everyone has told you the supposedly comforting
statistics – "millions of planes take off each day and there's only a handful of crashes," "flying is
safer than driving." You know rationally that there is no reason to be so scared, but regardless your
heart is racing, your palms are sweating, and you're light–headed. Simply the thought of being up in
the air, out of control, makes you feel faint. Finally the flight attendant announces that your plane
has arrived. But as all the other passengers line up to get onboard, you grab your luggage and walk
straight out of the airport, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(3) Women are two to three times as likely to have phobias than men. There are three basic kinds of
phobias: agoraphobia (fear of situations in which escape may be difficult), social phobia, and
specific phobias. The DSM–IV has separated phobic stimuli into four basic categories: animal,
situational, blood injury, and nature–environment. (3)
Though the experience of phobias is relatively common and their physical characteristics are
generally well understood, there is no real consensus on the neurobiological basis of phobias.
Instead, there are currently several different models and theories that work to try to understand how
and why phobias occur in the human brain. Most hypotheses regarding phobias take a different
approach, from biological to psychoanalytic to evolutionary. Is there one model that seems "less
wrong" or more satisfying in our efforts to understand the biology of phobias? Using the various
models, how do phobias seem to come about? How does thinking about phobias add to our
understanding of the brain and behavior?
The classical conditioning model was one of the first theories used to describe phobias. Many years
ago, scientists observed that one could willingly elicit a fear response in an animal or human
through systematic teaching. For example, if every time a rat is presented with a low buzzing noise,
it is electrically shocked, eventually, when it hears the noise alone (with no shock), it will exhibit
symptoms of fear. (3) Scientists

Do Pictures Scare People 's Attitudes?
Do pictures scare people's attitudes? According to one team of researchers they certainly do. While
researching ways to get people to change their minds on vaccine, Dr. Horne and his team discovered
that if people really want to change minds it's not with words or phrases or even statistics, these
people don't even flinch, but actual evidence or pictures of dead children that have had measles pop
up on their system and died. When shown gruesome photos the anti–vaccine group was so horrified
that most of they changed their minds almost instantly. Pictures evoke sadness, fear, and urgency
that even the most militant anti–vacciners can't ignore. A mother, whose child was absolutely
stripped of his life, was in front of the audience giving her heartbreaking story about how her child
got a case of the measles that she thought was controllable at first but then turned out to be
extremely deadly. She cried and cried, eventually showing pictures that reflected her mood. The
pictures were so horrific that the people who were not convinced by her story almost immediately
felt discomfort, and when interviewed after the proceeding they said the pictures specifically
"changed my mind more than anything." This of course makes sense the same way that smoking ads
help deter people from smoking. It does not help to bring facts and love for the person, but if shown
gruel pictures and disgusting diseases, most change their mind quickly. A sense of panic and fear
strung their emotional side.

John B Watson Biography
"John B. Watson was born in Travelers Rest, South Carolina on January 9, 1878 and died in
September 25, 1958 at the aged of 80 in New York City, New York."
(http://www.britannica.com/biography/John–B–Watson). He was the fourth child of six children in
his family. His family was very poor, but this did not stop him and he entered Furman College at age
16 and graduated in 1899. Then after, he decided to major in psychology in Chicago. As well,
Watson took neurology courses from the famous German biologist Jacques Loeb. He obtained a
Ph.D.; from the University of Chicago at age 21 in 1903 describing the neurological and
psychological development of the white rat. "His dissertation in "Animal Education: An
Experimental Study on the Psychical Development of the White Rat, Correlated with the Growth of
its Nervous System," described the neurological and psychological development of the white rat and
is the first modern scientific book on rat behavior"
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2741879/pdf/behavan00062–0074.pdf)
Watson was one of the most important American Psychologist who structure and brought to light the
term behaviorism. He was known as the Father of Behaviorism, because he stated that ... Show more
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These encourage him to study in deep the actions of people and their outcomes. He wanted to
compare the external behavior over internal what peoples' minds were thinking. Moreover, he
wanted to find out the relationship between their environment events and their behavior towards it.
This data revealed that external attributes true data of behaviorism. His main concern was the
condition, de–conditioning, re–conditioning and the behavioral outcome. The conditioning was to
manipulate or program the behavior, the re–conditioning was to negotiate the condition, re–
conditioning was to re–program as need to re–do things, in order to obtain a desire

Four Aspects Of The Four Elements Of Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning is the repeated use of stimuli in combination with a repeated significant
psychological event to train the one being conditioned to anticipate the event in response to the
stimuli. The most basic example of this type of conditioning is train an animal to expect treats by
making use of their sense of sound and blowing a whistle or ringing a bell just before you give them
a treat each time. This will train the animal to associate the sound of the whistle or bell with the
reception of the forthcoming treat, and it will begin to salivate in anticipation of getting the treat
whenever it hears the sound.
There are four elements of classical conditioning. These elements of classical conditioning include
unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
These four elements make up the classical conditioning procedure. An unconditioned stimulus in an
experiment is a stimulus that elicits a response from the subject of the experiment without any
previous conditioning. This can be anything that elicits an instinctual response that an organism
might have, such as the treat that the animal salivates over as described in the experiment in
paragraph one. An unconditioned response in any response regarding an unconditioned stimulus. In
the case stated in paragraph one, the unconditioned response would be the salivating of the animal in
anticipation of the treat. A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that would have no

General Psychology Pre Test Fall 2014 Name
General Psychology Pre–test–Fall 2014 Name: Camille Dickerson
KU ID: 2753680
Please answer each of the questions below to the best of your ability based on your own knowledge.
Do not to leave any questions blank and please do not look up any answers. Even if you are not
confident in your answer, please give us your best guess. Use only the space provided for your
answer.
Have you ever had a Psychology class? Yes No If so, where did you take this class? __High
School_____
1) Jean Piaget argued that children pass through a series of cognitive stages as they grow, each of
which must be mastered in succession before movement to the next cognitive stage can occur. Is this
statement a theory, hypothesis or operational definition?
This statement is a theory.
2) A psychologist discovers that the more people spend time with their friends outside of work, the
happier
they are when they are at work. The psychologist has discovered a __Positive__ correlation between
the variables of "time with friends" and work place happiness.
3) What is a synapse?
A synapse is a link where neurons communicate with other cells across narrow gaps using
neurotransmitters or pulses (I learned this in my biology course last semester).
4) What is one of the oldest (evolutionarily) structures in the human brain? What does this structure
do?
One of the

Psychology Midterm Study Guide
Psychology Study Guide Chapter 1: Different types of psychologists (clinical, forensic, social,
health, industrial etc) Clinical: aim to reduce psychological distress. Anxiety, depression,
relationship problems, addictions and relationships. Forensic: applying theory to criminal
investigations, understanding psychological problems associated with criminal behavior, and the
treatment of criminals. Social: The study of relations between people and groups. Thoughts, feelings
and behaviors altered by others. typically explain human behavior as a result of the interaction of
mental states and immediate social situations Health: relatively new. Principles are used to help
changes about people's attitudes about health and illness. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Stimulus Discrimination The tendency of a CR to be weaker or not occur to the CSs that are
dissimilar to the original CS or that have undergone extinction. Classical conditioning Establishing a
learned association between two stimuli. (Pavlov and dogs) Operant Conditioning The imposition of
a contingencies, either deliberate or natural. (reinforcer and punisher) Little Albert Experiment
Watson and Rayner 1920 When presented with a white rat, a disturbing noise. Became afraid of
other white colored things (white dogs, fur coats, santa claus) Negative reinforcement Something
unpleasant is moved away or doesn't happen when the desired behavior is performed. Chapter 5:
Acoustic encoding The process of remembering and comprehending something that you hear.
Repetition of words or putting information into a song or rhythm uses acoustic encoding. Semantic
encoding A specific type of encoding in which the meaning of something (a word, phrase, picture,
event, whatever) is encoded as opposed to the sound or vision of it. Research suggests that we have
better memory for things we associate meaning to and store using semantic encoding. Iconic
encoding Very brief sensory memory of some visual stimuli, that occur in the form of mental
pictures. Stored for shorter periods of time than echoic memories. Memory retrieval The process of
extracting knowledge fro long term memory. Curve of forgetting The

Stanley Milgram’s Behavioral Study of Obedience Essay
"The smart way to keep people passive and obedient is to strictly limit the spectrum of acceptable
opinion, but allow very lively debate within that spectrum...." ― Noam Chomsky, The Common
Good "Disobedience is the true foundation of liberty. The obedient must be slaves." ― Henry David
Thoreau In the early 1960's Stanley Milgram (1963) performed an experiment titled Behavioral
Study of Obedience to measure compliance levels of test subjects prompted to administer
punishment to learners. The experiment had surprising results. Purpose of the research. Stanley
Milgram's (1963), Behavioral Study of Obedience measured how far an ordinary subject will go
beyond their fundamental moral character to comply with direction from ... Show more content on
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The subjects were informed that the punishment would not cause permanent tissue damage,
however, could be extremely painful. The subjects observed the learner/accomplice being prepared
with electrodes strapped in a chair. The teacher/subjects read a series of word–pairs to the learner
then read the first word of the pair along with four terms. The learner's role was to pair the first word
with the correct term (Milgram, 1963). The learner would then press one of four switches attached
to an electrical shock generator indicating his response. Unknown to the teacher, "in all conditions
the learner gives a predetermined set of responses to the word pair test, based on the schedule of
approximately three wrong answers to one correct answer" (Milgram, 1963). To authenticate the
potential electrical intensity to the learner the teacher is sampled with a 45–volt shock to the wrist.
The teacher is then instructed to administer an incrementally increasing punishing electrical shock
for each incorrect answer. This follows several methods to inform the teacher of the potential impact
of the electrical shock that they will administer. These included, warnings listing the voltage range
of 15 to 450–volts labeled Slight Shock, Moderate Shock, Strong Shock, Extreme Intensity Shock,
Danger Severe Shock, and XXX, bright red

The Neurobiology of Fear: Emotional Memory and...
The Neurobiology of Fear: Emotional Memory and Post–Traumatic Stress Disorder
For survivors of traumatic events, the trauma itself is often only the beginning. While some are
relatively unaffected, many others will develop post–traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD, an
affliction that haunts its victims with terrifying memories, nightmares, and panic attacks. (For a
comprehensive list of symptoms and diagnostic criteria, the reader may refer to the DSM–IV,
relevant portions of which may be found online (7).) The National Institute of Mental Health
estimates that 3.6 percent of Americans between the ages of 18 and 54 suffer from PTSD; 30 percent
of those who have spent time in war zones – one million veterans of Vietnam alone – are ... Show
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The distinction between conscious and unconscious memory suggests – and it is generally accepted
– that emotional memory involves two brain systems. While conscious memory is mediated by the
hippocampus, the amygdala is implicated in emotional memory (1). A small collection of nuclei in
the center of each temporal lobe, the amygdala controls the fear response, receiving and integrating
sensory input to determine the level of threat. If the input is sufficiently intense to initiate an action
potential, the amygdala triggers other areas of the brain that induce the physiological response that
humans interpret as fear (3); the danger has been "recognized."
The amygdala, though, is involved not just in the fear response, but in the memory of fear, as well.
In one test, researchers used functional MRI scans to measure amygdala activity while showing
subjects a number of frightening and neutral images. They found that the degree of amygdala
activity was a good predictor of both fear level (as reported by the subject) and of the ability several
weeks later to recall having seen the image (1).
This evidence, along with other studies with similar findings, has made the amygdala the target of
much anxiety–disorder research (5), but it continues to raise the question of mechanism. The
answer, partial though it may be, appears to lie in classic

Taking a Look at Memory Consolidation
Since Nader, Schafe & LaDoux (2000), challenged the previously heralded definition of memory
consolidation, an influx of research addressing various theories of; consolidation, reconsolidation
and potential clinical implications have surfaced. This essay aims to conglomerate the current
understanding of memory reconsolidation, furthermore addressing the resonance upon clinical
psychology.
Neuroscience widely recognised that memories undertake the process of consolidation (Nader &
Einarsson, 2010). When memories are nascent, they are prone to interference and are considered
'labile'. However, through the ensuing process of protein synthesis, they later become stabilised.
Subsequently, the respective disruptions would initiate no detriment (Dudai, 2012). Historically,
consolidation was thought to be the process by which unstable short term memories are transferred
into fixed state long term memories (Nader & Einarsson, 2010). Nader Schafe & LaDoux (2000)
challenged this concept suggesting it is possible memories become once again unstable. This notion
facilitated a shift in research toward the inherent malleability of memories (Dudai, 2012). It is now
widely embraced in neuroscience that two consolidation processes exist; synaptic consolidation and
system consolidation (Nader & Einarsson, 2010). Synaptic consolidation refers to the process of
transforming a memory into long–term form at local nodes in the neural circuit that encodes the
memory (Dudai, 2012). This process

Psychology : My View On Psychology
PSYCHOLOGY: MY VIEW 3
Psychology is often misconstrued as a form of diagnostic and treatment only for individuals who
have mental or emotional problems. However, this is just one form of psychology. The online
general psychology course at South University introduces the student to a more accurate notion of
psychology. The following essay will provide an overview of the material learned on the first two
weeks of the online class. As such, the reader will have a better understanding of psychology; its
historical development and impact in modern psychology; and how the scientific research applies in
psychology. PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
In our textbook, psychology is defined as ?the scientific study of thought and behavior? (Feist ...
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Therefore, the researchers conducted experiments on Albert to test their assumption consisting on
striking the hammer on the steel when they presented an animal or object. Finally, the researchers
interpreted Alberts reaction to the animal or objected after being conditioned to associate it with a
negative sensation and communicated their prediction was plausible. The fact that the researchers in
this case were able to observe, measure and manipulate a reaction on Albert to produce empirical
evidence needed to prove or disprove their theory is what makes psychology a science. HISTORY
OF PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS IMPACT ON MODERN PSYCHOLOGY
In the lecture and textbook, it is mentioned that psychology stems from two unrelated scientific
fields which are philosophy and physiology. Philosophy, as it is defined in our lecture, refers to ?the
pursuit of knowledge and wisdom? (South University, 2015). Physiology, on the other hand, refers
to ?the study of the functions of an organism?(South University, 2015). Although many individuals
contributed to the practice and development of psychology, only a handful of these contributors laid
the ground work that shaped psychology into a science. For instance, the philosopher John Locke
introduced the theory of empiricism. In his theory, Locke contended the mind begins as a?tabula
rasa, or blank

Biological Approach To Psychology Essay
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A lot has been said about behavioural and biological approaches in psychology i.e. the assumptions
of both approaches and how they influence disorders such as depression.
The behavioural theory states that personality is as a result of the interaction between an individual
and the environment (i.e. the society and the individual). It is focus on observable and measurable
behaviour rather than mental or emotional behaviours and different theories focus on one type of
behaviour over the other. On the contrary, the biological approach seeks to explain behaviour as a
result of interactions within the body. It is based on assumptions such as how the brain psychology
can influence behaviour and also how behaviour can be inherited ... Show more content on
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These are neurotransmitter dysfunction and inherited genes.
In neurotransmitter dysfunction, the biological approach to depression explains low levels of the
neurotransmitter serotonin. This has been linked with many forms of dysfunctional behaviour such
as anxiety, excessive anger, poor social functioning and other mood disorders.
Serotonin is understood to have a variety of roles and affects brain functioning; even though it is not
known if depression is caused by serotonin levels, or whether depression causes low serotonin, or if
there is another factor causing them both.
In regards to genes, depression could be explained in terms of genetic predispositions. Research in
the area of twin and adoption studies has shown that there is a genetic link to depression. As a result
it is being advocated some individuals may have genes that predispose them to depression and other
mood disorders.
7.0 CONCLUSIONS
Behaviorism assumes that we are born as a blank slate and so equal at birth. The theorists believe
that it is the environmental factors that shape our behaviour rather than genetic or biological
differences. Behaviorism very much represents the nurture aspect of the nature–nurture

Unconditioned Response In Psychology
Psychology 101
1)
(bell) neutral stimulus
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– no salivation
response
(food) unconditioned stimulus –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
unconditioned response
(bell)+(food) neutral and unconditioned stimulus–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
unconditioned response
(bell) conditioned stimulus –––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
conditioned response
2)
Emotional intelligence is the ability to better understand, recognize and evaluate emotions. Strong
emotional intelligence is to recognize, measure, discern and regulate emotions. This includes your
own emotions, emotions of those around you, and emotions of different people groups. While on the
other hand, poor emotional intelligence is the vagueness in discerning yours and others emotions. As
a whole, emotional intelligence is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Using words of affirmation can give other a sense of belonging and love.
Quality time consists of spending one on one time with another individual. Quality time can be done
through talking or in some cases through silence with another person. Quality time is important
because it gives a feeling of importance to one another.
In every love language there is two sides, the love we want to give and the love we want to receive.
Gift giving can be anything to show that other person that you thought and that you care bout them.
While on the other hand, gift receiving makes the receiver want to do an act of love to the giver.
An act of service is to do something for the other person. Whether it be easy or hard, it shows the
receiver that they matter to you.
Physical Touch is known to be a healthy way of showing emotional love. One thing that is unique
about this form of love is that both sides emotional benefit from physical touch. Through physical
touch, both sides may experience relationship

Classical Conditioning
Explain the initial pairing of the banging bar and the rat in terms of learning through classical
conditioning. The child interpreted the sound of the hammer hitting the steel bar in coincidence with
the visualization of the white rat. Even in nine months the child had been programmed by repeatedly
hitting the bar and visual stimulation of contact with the white rat, had now become an
unconditioned stimulus response by automatically changing physical and emotional outcomes from
the child (Porter, B., 2013). What are unconditioned response stimulus (US), Every time the child
would hear the noise of hammer hitting the steel bar it would automatically calls for the child to
have increased breathing patterns and showing fear from the initial ... Show more content on
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The second time they place the rabbit in front of him directly, he showed a negative response then
started to covered his head, in return started crying (Watson J. B., & Rayner, R., 2013). Fur Coats:
As the Coat was introduced to the child, he immediately pulled away and began to frat. As he was
introduced to the fur coat the second time, he wrinkled his nose and went through immediately by
calling off on all fours. He had attentively reached the direction of the coat but withdraw
immediately (Watson J. B., & Rayner, R., 2013). Cotton Wool: they initially presented the cotton to
him wrapped in paper, as the paper was open; the child was able to touch the wool for the first time.
He initially kicked the paper away, but he never did show the response or the fear that was produced
by the fur coat or the rabbit (Watson J. B., & Rayner, R., 2013). White Rat: as they began the test
with the white rat it seemed to be going in a forward direction, as the wrapped started crawling
towards him he showed very little stimulation. But as they introduce the rat the second time and let
it touch his hand he withdraws immediately leaned to one side but did not cry this

Fixing Alcoholism With Psychology Essay
Fixing Alcoholism with psychology
The subject that we will be fixing in this essay is 'Doug'. Doug has a problem with drinking. He had
an easy upbringing, but lived with a military father. Doug has been drinking since he was a teenager.
Doug realizes that if he continues to drink that it will continue to damage his life. His drinking has
caused major problems in his life already, he has gone through two divorces because he cannot stop
drinking, he has lost two children, and broken his family. Doug uses drinking as a crutch. By
helping Doug end his drinking habits, he could turn his life around for the better.
Part One; Behaviorist Perspective; Classical Conditioning
UCS→UCR (Unconditioned Stimulus→Unconditioned Response)
CS→CR (Conditioned Stimulus→Conditioned Response)
Classical Conditioning; "conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (as the sound of a bell) is
paired with and precedes the unconditioned stimulus (as the sight of food) until the conditioned
stimulus alone is sufficient to elicit the response (as salivation in a dog)" (Webster). The original
person that has been credited with this finding is Russian psychologist, Ivan Pavlov.
Applying this perspective to the problem behavior; Whenever Doug normally goes to get a drink,
there is nothing stopping him. If you were to snap, then hand Dug a non–alcoholic beverage every
time he went for an alcoholic beverage; after a month of continuing this behavior you would only
need to snap if he went for

The Theories Of Learning And Communication
In this essay I will discuss the theories of learning and communication and their application in my
own practice.
Behaviourism is usually linked to Pavlov (classical conditioning) and to Thorndike, Watson and
Skinner (operant conditioning).
Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment was to train a dog to respond to a bell; initially with food,
then both food and a bell and finally just the bell. It suggests the learner is passive and responds to
stimuli, it showed that behaviour was learnt by negative and positive reinforcement. Positive
reinforcement is the appliance of a stimulus and negative reinforcement is the removal of the
stimulus. It is essentially to change the behaviour of a learner to enable learning. Animals were used
in much of the behaviourist's experimentation. Classical conditioning's strength is that, it is arguably
scientific and based on observed evidence carried out by laboratory experiments. A problem with
this theory is that it is deterministic; it negates any freewill in the individual.
Operant conditioning is a change in the behaviour of an individual 's response to stimuli (event) that
occur in an environment. A response creates a consequence. When a particular stimulus to response
behaviour is reinforced (rewarded) as soon as possible, the individual becomes conditioned to
respond. Behaviour that is positively reinforced will be repeated. Presenting information in small
amounts so that responses can be reinforced frequently, reinforcements will

Mental Health Disorders Caused By Childhood Abuse Related...
Treating the many mental health disorders caused by childhood abuse–related trauma has proved to
be challenging. Long established therapies, such as trauma–focused cognitive–behavioral therapies
(TF–CBT) has been the typical choice of treatment for most clinicians (Raabe, Ehring, Marquenie,
Olff, & Kindt, 2015). TF–CBT is based on the theory that memories linked to traumatic events
create negative emotions that later on affect how the individual thinks about the traumatic event and
can eventually lead to post–traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Usually, the treatment for this mental
health disorder features flooding, also known as a prolonged exposure (PE) method. This method
involves having the patient face the negative emotions of the ... Show more content on
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This paper will explore two alternative methods of behavioral therapies that do not involve PE and
evaluate each treatment plan in terms of methodology and success rates.
The research done by Raabe, Ehring, Marquenie, Olff, and Kindt implemented a three–phased
stand–alone approach to treat traumatic childhood memories resulting in PTSD, known as Imagery
Rescripting (ImRs). This technique can be incorporated into cognitive behavioral therapy and was
developed by clinical psychologist Arnoud Arntz as a way to battle PTSD symptoms by targeting
the schemas and beliefs that sustain them (Spiegler, 2016).
The group of participants included six women and two men, for a total of eight participants. Their
ages ranged from 23 to 46 years, with an average age of 34.4 years for the group as a whole. All of
the participants had experienced childhood physical abuse, sexual abuse, or a combination of both;
starting at an average age of 4.5 years and lasting for 11.6 years on average. Before any data was
collected, each participant was screened for several different motivators, in both interview form and
self–report measures. First, childhood trauma was assessed with the Childhood Maltreatment
Interview Schedule. Then, a baseline of PTSD symptoms was developed through the Clinician–
Administered PTSD–Scale (CAPS). To document any other mental health disorders present in each
participant, each were screened with the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM–IV. Self–report
measures

Psychopath Brain Essay
The Psychopath's Brain Psychopathy is a personality disorder defined with symptoms that include
the inability to experience empathy or remorse, reduced concern for others and, antisocial behavior.
Psychopaths are thought to be loners and antisocial but most psychopaths can appear successful and
normal externally. Not all psychopaths grow into criminals or serial killers. An example of one of
the psychopaths turned serial killer is Jeffrey Dahmer. Dahmer's murders included violent sodomy,
necrophilia, dismemberment, and cannibalism. As Dahmer committed his horrendous crimes he
lacked remorse and acted on impulse, classic signs of psychopathy. Although it may seem obvious
to some that the brain of a psychopath functions differently, one important question to ask is how
exactly a psychopaths brain is different compared to a normal brain. The United States has a
prevalence of psychopathy of approximately 3% in males and 1% in females. In prisons
psychopathy has a prevalence from 2% – 78% among prisoners. Several studies have attempted to
figure out what makes a psychopaths brain different from a normal brain by using methods such as
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). An fMRI uses high–frequency magnetic waves to
measure active brains that take up more oxygenated blood than less active areas. The fMRI records
the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Grey matter consists of neurons (nerve cell bodies), which is used to transport information from
sensory and motor stimuli to the brain. While using fMRI's de Oliveira–Souza (2008) observed
decreased amounts of grey matter in areas of brain related with morality. de Oliveira–Souza (2008)
also observed structural irregularities that correlated with the emotional aspect of

Bowlby 's Evolutionary Theory Of Attachment
Bowlby defined attachment as "a lasting psychological integration bounded by human beings"
(Bowlby, 1969, p.194). However, attachment can also be described as a strong, mutual, emotional
connection or relationship formed between two people, mostly between infant and its caregiver.
According to Macoby (1988) attachment has four key characteristics which are: proximity; where an
infant always want to stay near the attached caregiver. Separation anxiety; is when the infant is
distressed when separated from the caregiver. Pleasure, when the infant and the caregiver feel
pleasure at reunion and lastly frequent contact; where the infant is always conscious of the caregiver
and desire to be in contact with caregiver.
The attachment theory on nativist debate emphases on nature or biological factors, for example
genes in developing attachment. Bowlby's evolutionary theory of attachment is an example that
support the nativist debate which recommends that children are present on this earth as a nativist
(biological) pre–planned to develop bond with other people, which enable them to survive in their
environments. He was greatly prejudiced by ethological theory in overall, but particularly by
Lorenz's (1935) study of imprinting; Lorenz displayed that "attachment was innate in young
ducklings. Lorenz believed the ability for animals to form an emotional bond is inborn and adaptive,
so he carried out a study to found out the natural behaviours in animals particularly in greylag geese
and

Gender And Gender Development
In reference to modeling a powerful tool in conveying attitude, morals, and patterns of behavior,
especially when it comes to gender development (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Gender identity,
another factor found within personality development, is enforced when one labels them self as a boy
or girl. This is an important step in recognition of development in gender orientation. Once this
gender is identified schemas progress expanding their knowledge of personality, interests, social
attributes, and gender like activities (Hooley, Butcher, Nock, & Mineka, 2017, p. 86). Nevertheless,
there is an indication that while a person may grasp the concept of either a male or female role it
does not mean one will conform (Bussey, Bandura, 1999).
Another important component of Bandura's social cognitive theory is the use of a self–regulatory
process one holds the ability to obtain control over their individual actions. These thoughts,
emotions, and motives are tailored to obtain personal goals (Piotrowski, 2005, p. 787). In addition,
self–efficacy plays a key role in self–regulation. It concerns a person's perception of their own
capabilities towards success in control or actions in an event (Piotrowski, 2005, p. 789). It is a belief
over a behavioral change, functioning as a source of influence in the motivation, thought processes,
and feelings in a way that they are either supporting or deterring to one's self (Piotrowski, 2005, p.
789). Through a high self–efficacy, one is willing to take on challenging circumstance where success
increases a person's perception. However, where an accomplishment enhances efficacy, failure
lowers one's ability to excel preventing them in attaining self–confidence. A further look into social
cognitive self–efficacy expectations differs from those of outcome expectancies. A person's belief
that they have the ability to bring about this outcome is self–efficacy. While the outcome expectancy
is in behavior that will bring about the outcome (Piotrowski, 2005, p. 788).
Next, each person's life experience creates an environment that is unique and incapable of
replication. Our circumstances influence our personality, for instance, a positive interaction between
parent and child promotes basic trust

Watson's Classical Conditioning Research Essay
What is Watson's Classical Conditioning? Classical Conditioning was found by Dr. Ivan Pavlov.
Watson's research was influenced by Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Theory. Watson made a
research on children's emotions using the Classical Conditioning model. According to Watson, love,
fear, and anger are the three kinds of emotions inherited by humans (Hall 1988). He believed these
emotions could be learned through conditioning. He formed his hypothesis and carried out an
experiment. John B. Watson's classical condition experiment was on a child named Little Albert.
This experiment was while a child was playing with a rabbit, smashing two bars to make a loud
noise behind the child's head. After hearing the loud noise the child ... Show more content on
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I. Krasnogorskii (Lamal &Windholz, 1986, p. 192).
This article discusses the work of Krasnogorskii. According to Lamal & Windholz (1986)
Krasnogorskii work was based on Pavlov's method to condition children at a St. Petersburg pediatric
hospital and then published his findings (p. 192). Several of his studies were about the
developmental issues of children and animals. His experiences were done on animals and then he
replicated the experiences using children as his subject.
His first experiment was on a 3 year old child that was blindfolded. Lamal & Windholz (1986)
explained that he used a bell as the conditioned stimulus and honey as the unconditioned stimulus
(p. 193). After several dozen trials, the child responded to the bell conditioned stimulus with the
movement of his mouth and an increased rate of swallowing (Lamal & Windholz, 1986, p. 193). The
conditioned stimulus still occurred after a two week period. In his second experiment, he
conditioned a 6 year old child to respond to a bell and uses pieces of chocolate as the unconditioned
stimuli (Lamal & Windholz, 1986, p. 193). He also did experiments on generalization and
differentiation. His experiences were on sound and tactile stimuli.
The second article on classical conditioning was the "Vicarious Classical Conditioning of Emotional
Responses in Nursery School Children". This article was about the emotional response in nursery
school children. Short & Venn (1973) noted that nursery

The Amygdala Neural Study
The interpretation of stress is believed to occur in the cerebral cortex of the brain based upon
sensory and other input (such as from chemo–receptors). The two categories of stress act through
somewhat different neurological mechanisms, but the general features are similar. Cognitive
processes are involved in the assessment of the input for both categories as to whether the input
represents a potential threat in a routine manner. The amygdala appears to have a central role in the
stress response [46, 47]. Amygdala neurons release corticotropin–releasing hormone (CRH) which
has two major effects: it causes the brain stem (including the rostral ventrolateral medulla) to
stimulate the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) through spinal nerves, and ... Show more content
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They have become smaller and lighter (much less cumbersome), are much more accurate in their
measurement ability, and, as with all technological advancement, are significantly cheaper to use. To
begin the process of collecting ambulatory blood pressure data, the monitor is first initialized via a
computer, using manufactures–provided software. After initialization, the monitor should be
calibrated to a mercury column or gauge by taking simultaneous auscultatory measurements on the
study subject. There are two ways to determine what the specific conditions are during each
individual ambulatory blood pressure measurement. The first is through direct observation.
Specifically, a person other than the study subject continuously watches and records, either in a
journal or electronically, the extant conditions when the monitor goes off. The second method
involves having subjects self–report the ambient conditions in a diary. Specifically, subjects write
down or input in a computer the various parameters that are manifest when the blood pressure cuff
inflates, including both personal and environmental

The Theory Of Classical Conditioning
Jasmine Hatten
PSY 362–02
September 15, 2016
Discussion 1: Watson and Rayner– "Little Albert"
Watson and Rayner claim, "These experiments would seem to show conclusively that directly
conditioned emotional responses as well as those conditioned by transfer persist, although with a
certain loss in the intensity of the reaction, for a longer period than one month." The data reported in
this paper definitely supports this conclusion. The purpose of this experiment was to test the theory
of classical conditioning as well as transfer (stimulus generalization); and to see if they would be
able to successfully condition an emotional response of fear.
When this experiment began, Little Albert was 11 months and 3 days old. Watson and Rayner
exposed Little Albert to various forms of stimuli–a white rat, a rabbit, toy blocks, a dog, fur coat,
etc. Throughout different time frames, they took note of his reaction to each stimuli alone and paired
with the striking of a steel bar to produce a loud sound. On the first day, Little Albert reached out to
touch the white rat (no fear), however, when they struck the bar, he jumped in fear. This initial
activity eliminated Albert's receptiveness to the rat. For the first few trials, as the white rat and
sound were presented simultaneously, his reaction changed from being surprised to completely
afraid and crying. Then, when the rat was shown alone, Little Albert had a very negative reaction to
it.
One week later, the tests showed that the

Ivan Pavlov a Russian physiologist who lived from (1927–1960) first observed and conceived the
concept of Classical conditioning. The concept of classical conditioning is widely distinguished and
understood as the most basic form of cognitive learning. Even before Ivan Pavlov named the process
of conditioning, his work was considered ahead of his time (Feeser, 2002, p. 24). In fact, Pavlov was
presented a Nobel Prize in Physiology and Nero Medicine for his research on the digestion system
of dogs (Feeser, 2002, p. 24). To further his digestion research, Pavlov devised a medical procedure
for implanting a tube, called a fistula, into animals that were still alive. This allowed Pavlov to
collect digestive secretions, and measure them, such as those secreted in a dog's stomach or the
mouth (Feeser, 2002, p. 24). This was a dramatic first, because before Pavlov 's advancements,
almost everything that was understood or known about physiological processes was revealed from
studies involving severe (temporary or sacrificed animals) as opposed to operatic preparations
(long–term and in living animals). Pavlov was always interested mainly in the understanding of
reflexive occurrences when food was placed in the dog's mouth and as it passed through the other
parts of the digestive system, including the stomach (Feeser, 2002, p. 27). For example, Professor
Pavlov or one of his many personal assistants would put meat into the mouth of a dog or dogs and
then measure the amount of saliva

Psychology of Learning
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING Learning is a process that depends on experience and leads to
long–term changes in behavior potential. Behavior potential designates the possible behavior of an
individual, not actual behavior. The main assumption behind all learning psychology is that the
effects of the environment, conditioning, reinforcement, etc. provide psychologists with the best
information from which to understand human behavior. As opposed to short term changes in
behavior potential (caused e.g. by fatigue) learning implies long term changes. As opposed to long
term changes caused by aging and development, learning implies changes related directly to
experience. Learning theories try to better understand how the learning process works. ... Show
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In his initial experiments, Pavlov rang a bell and then gave the dog food; after a few repetitions, the
dogs started to salivate in response to the bell. Pavlov called the bell the conditioned (or conditional)
stimulus (CS) because its effects depend on its association with food. He called the food the
unconditioned stimulus (US) because its effects did not depend on previous experience. Likewise,
the response to the CS was the conditioned response (CR) and that to the US was the unconditioned
response (UR). The timing between the presentation of the CS and US affects both the learning and
the performance of the conditioned response. Pavlov found that the shorter the interval between the
ringing of the bell and the appearance of the food, the stronger and quicker the dog learned the
conditioned response. Forward conditioning Learning is fastest in forward conditioning. During
forward conditioning, the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US in order to signal that the US
will follow. Two common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning. Delay
conditioning: In delay conditioning the CS is presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the
US. The difference between Trace conditioning and Delay conditioning is that in the delayed
procedure the CS and US overlap.For example: We often hear the thunder before the lightning has
faded from view. Trace conditioning: During trace

Psychology : Psychology And Psychology
Psychology has been defined by many as the study of mental disorder or behavioral problems but
discoveries and developments, points to psychology as the study of human mind and its
functionality which includes the way we think, act, perceive things and be able to make decisions;
all these makes man a complex being.
Psychology isn't just a phenomenon; it is a scientific study. Psychology as a science answers the
question "why", proposes a theory and sets experiment to test the hypothesis. The research is geared
towards evidence–based strategies to solve problems and improve lives. As a science, it is
subdivided into various groups such as clinical psychology, counselling psychology, developmental
psychology, climate and environmental ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This has to do with Nature and Nurture. Nature refers to our DNA inheritance and how it contributes
to our existence while Nurture is the influence of the environment on human. We learn through
experience and exposure.
One of the prominent theorist of development psychology is Jean Piaget. His theory is called Piaget
theory of cognitive development. He proposed that children have cognitive ability which enables
them to learn from their environment. He believes that a child develops and acquire knowledge and
experience through different stages as he grows; which are sensorimotor, pre–operational, concrete
operational and formal operation.
Cognitive development is the study of the mind and brain functions, which makes up our ability to
think, perceive, and make decisions. It is also related to other fields like neuroscience, philosophy
and linguistic. There is a thin line between cognitive psychology and cognitive science. As earlier
defined, cognitive psychology is the study of the mind and its functions. Cognitive science is
gathering of information through research. It is the foundation on which all other works are built on.
Its involves a non–human experiment, unlike cognitive psychology which involves human
participants.
Behavioral psychology also known as Behaviorism, studies our outward behavior. It is based on the
fact that behaviors are taught, which can also be measured and changed. Behavioral psychologist
believe that behavior is acquired through

Classical conditioning was first observed and developed by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov who
lived from (1927–1960). The concept of classical conditioning is widely considered to be the most
fundamental form of learning. Even before Ivan Pavlov named the process of conditioning, his work
was considered ahead of his time (Feeser, 2002, p. 24). In fact, Pavlov was presented the Nobel
Prize in Physiology and Nero Medicine for his research on the digestion system of dogs (Feeser,
2002, p. 24). To further his digestion research, Pavlov devised a procedure for surgical procedure
implanting a tube, called a fistula, into animals that were still living. This allowed Pavlov to collect
digestive secretions, and measure them, such as those secreted in the stomach or the mouth (Feeser,
2002, p. 24). This was a monumental first, because up until Pavlov 's advancements, almost
everything that was known about physiological processes was revealed from studies involving acute
(temporary or sacrificed animals) as opposed to operatic preparations (long–term and in living
animals). Pavlov was always interested mainly in the understanding of reflexive occurrences when
food was placed into the mouth and as it passed through the other parts of the digestive system,
including the stomach (Feeser, 2002, p. 27). For example, Professor Pavlov or one of his many
personal assistants would put meat into the mouth of a dog or dogs and then measure the amount of
saliva that passed through a salivary

A Brief Note On Classical Conditioning And Fear
Classical Conditioning and Fear
Introduction
Fear is common in humans as well as in animals. Species that are thinking and learning have been
observed to respond to fear especially when they are subjected to something that caused them pain
and trauma, which will make them behave to prevent the exact or related thing/event. Learning how
fear accumulates and affects an individual has taken the interests of many studies. There are
research conducted to examine how species react to pain and how they behave when they encounter
the stimulus again. In studying fear, Pavlovian fear conditioning has been an important and well–
used model. It has been used in investigating rats in the laboratories and how they behave on
different stimuli and how they learn and remember each encounter. In one of the research works
done to investigate fear in rats, Maren (2008) describes the Pavlovian fear conditioning in
examining how the hippocampus and amygdala have been behaving in transgenic mouse models.
The essence of these two parts of the brain, however, has not been proved in contexts and discrete
use for fear conditioning. The recent work has been considered as unclear whether if the
hippocampus and the amygdala play an important role in fear learning, specifically in terms of
anatomical segregation of cue and context conditioning. There are also other non–associative factors
that affected the investigation and the results of the performance of fear responses, thus, more
research works are

Benzodiazepines Essay
of psychoactive drug that is used to treat insomnia, and anxiety. Benzodiazepines became one of the
main psycho–tropics, during the last 20 years. Recent work suggests that despite the
recommendation against their use, prescribing of Benzodiazepines for Veterans with PTSD remains
above 30%. In the VA, suggestion guidelines recommend actual clinical care (Lund, 2012). With the
new development of medications such as SSRIs, the use of SSRIs is recommended to use before the
Benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines are also commonly used adjunctively with SSRIs, and many
clinicians believe that they provide benefits in terms of both speed of response as well as an overall
response (Lader, 2011). In large part, the problem is that at a 3 to 4–week point, the patient typically
feels better, has improved sleep, and attributes. The improvement to the benzodiazepines and not the
SSRI (Lader, 2011). The chronic use of Benzodiazepines has become a problem in different
countries such as Europe for the way they were being used. According to Bernardy (2012), the
research noted that the number of Veterans being treated for PTSD in the ... Show more content on
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The history of diagnosing PTSD took years before understanding the disorder. In comparison to
PTSD, The policy on soldiers being diagnosed with a personality disorder classifies them as having
a pre–existing injury. Several military soldiers are being misdiagnosed, when they should be
diagnosed with PTSD. Pre–existing injuries leads to losing financial and health benefits after being
discharged from the military. PTSD occurs after serving in the war, usually being diagnosed six
months after returning home from deployment. Recommendations for military personnel would
benefit the soldiers who are in need of treatments after serving in the military. There are a various
amount of treatments used today such as Prolonged Exposure, Virtual Reality, and

Approaches To Language Development Essay
Approaches to language development
The learning theory (behaviorism) approach to language acquisition proposes that language is
learned through reinforcement and conditioning. An early explanation for the acquisition of
language was given by behaviorist and psychologist B. F. Skinner. Skinner explained the
phenomenon of language development as a result of environmental influence. He argued that
children learn language due to behaviorist reinforcement by associating words with meaning. He
attributed learning to positive reinforcement given to correct utterances, such as asking for milk and
receiving it. Children will find the outcome of receiving what they have asked for rewarding, which
will enhance their language development. Behaviorism does not fully explain language development
as children are able to come up with unique sentence structures on their own and not just those that
have been specifically reinforced. It is possible that reinforcement, imitation, and modeling are
supplementary to language acquisition instead of the rule.
The nativist approach to language development addresses some of the issues with the learning
theory approach to language development. It suggests that learning language is an in–born process
and that humans have an innate ability to learn and understand language as well as its more complex
structures. Neural cognitive research supports the nativist approach as it has found brain structures
related to and responsible for language as well as

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