Mining

Charge Calculations in Pyrometallurgical Processes

Smelting
It is a unit process similar to roasting, to heat a mixture of ore concentrate above the melting
point
The objective is to separate the gangue mineral from liquid metal or matte
The state of the gangue mineral in case of smelting is liquid which is the main difference
between roasting and smelting
Inputs – Ore, flux, fuel, air
Output – Metal or Matte, slag, off-gas
When metal is separated as sulphide from smelting of ore, it is called Matte smelting
e.g. Cu2S and FeS
When metal is separated as liquid, it is called reduction smelting
e.g. Ironmaking
Density of liquid metal or matte is around 5-5.5 g/cm3
Density of slag is around 2.8-3 g/cm3
The additives and fluxes serve to convert the waste or gangue materials in the charge into a
low melting point slag which also dissolves the coke ash and removes sulphur

Matte Smelting
Advantages of matte smelting
• Low melting point of matte so that less amount of thermal energy is required by converting
the metal of the ore in the form of sulphide and then extracting the metal
e.g. melting point of Cu2S and FeS is around 1000 degrees Celsius
• Cu2S which is contained in the matte, does not require any reducing agent
It is converted to oxide by blowing oxygen
• Matte smelting is beneficial for extraction of metal from sulphide ore, particularly when
sulphide ore is associated with iron sulphide which forms eutectic point with Cu and Ni
The grade of the matte is defined as the copper grade of matte
A matte of 40 percent means, it has 40% copper, so matte is always given in terms of copper,
because it is used to produce copper not iron
Slag in matte smelting is mixture of oxides
e.g. in smelting of copper ore concentrate the slag may contain SiO2, Al2O3, calcium oxide, FeO,
Fe2O3, Fe3O4
The desirable properties of slag are low viscosity, solubility, low melting point

Typical reactions in Cu matte smelting:
6CuO + 4FeS = 3 Cu2S + 4FeO + SO2
or if the O2 pressure is high 6CuO + 4FeS = 2CuSO4 + 2FeS
2CuSO4 + 2FeS = Cu2S + 2FeO + 3SO2
Cu2O + FeS = Cu2S + FeO
Oxygen has greater affinity for iron than copper:
10Fe2O3 + FeS = 7Fe3O4 + SO2
3Fe3O4 + FeS = 10FeO + SO2
In the ideal condition matte contains only Cu2S and FeS, plus little amount of Fe3O4 if oxygen is
dissolved
Higher oxides of iron are difficult to remove by the slag
Roasting has to be controlled in order to minimize the formation of Fe2O3 or Fe3O4, which may
enter the matte during smelting
Off-gas consists of SO2, nitrogen, oxygen if excess amount of air is used and sometimes SO3
depending on the reaction
If fuel is used, CO and CO2 may also be present depending upon the state of combustion

Flash Smelting
Conventionally smelting is carried out in reverberatory furnaces, fired with coal or oil
Nowadays reverberatory furnaces are being replaced by flash smelting furnaces that have been
developed in recent years
The advantages of flash smelting is that it combines both roasting and smelting, whereas in the
reverberatory furnace the ore has to be roasted first and then it is transferred to reverberatory
furnace for smelting purposes
The reason for this combination is the economical processing of large amount of sulphur
dioxide that is created especially in roasting
Collecting the concentrated off-gas from flash smelting and converting to H2SO4 is much more
feasible
Other advantages of flash smelting:
• Very fine particles of ore concentrates are injected, so the reaction is extremely rapid and
very high temperatures are created
• Heat generated is sufficient to carry out the smelting

Examples – In a copper ore, chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is 34%, pyrite (FeS2) is 30% and SiO2 is 36%
a) Determine the % Cu and % gangue in the ore
b) What % Fe in the ore concentrate is to be removed to make 40% matte? Consider Cu2S
c) If only excess S is eliminated in the ore concentrate, what is the composition of the
resulting matte?
AWCu= 64, AWFe= 56, AWS= 32
a- ore = Cu2S + gangue
% Cu = 34 * (64/184) = 11.83 %
Gangue = 100 – 11.83*(160/128) = 85.21 %, % Cu2S = 14.78 %
b –
40
100
=
11.83%
14.78%+%𝐹𝑒𝑆
0.4(14.78+%FeS) = 11.83, % FeS = 14.795 after removal of FeO, % Fe = 14.795*(56/88) = 9.415
Initial % Fe = 34*(56/184)+30*(56/120) = 24.35 %
% Fe to be removed = 24.35 – 9.415 = 14.935 %
c – CuFeS2 decomposes according to the reaction 2CuFeS2 = Cu2S + 2FeS + S
FeS2 decomposes according to the reaction FeS2 = FeS + S
% FeS = 24.35*(88/56) = 38.26 %
Matte grade =
% 𝐶𝑢
% 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆+% 𝐹𝑒𝑆
∗ 100 = 22.2 %

Examples – A copper matte may be represented as mCu2S.nFeS with no fixed values of m and n
Calculate m and n for a matte grade of 38 %
0.38 =
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢2 𝑆 + 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑒𝑆
=
160𝑚 ∗ 128/160
160𝑚 + 88𝑛
60.8𝑚 + 33.44𝑛 = 128𝑚
𝑚
𝑛
=
33.44
67.2
≈ 0.5
Matte may be represented as Cu2S.2FeS or 2Cu2S.4FeS or 3Cu2S.6FeS

Example – Copper ore is smelted in a reverberatory furnace together with a copper
concentrate. The fluxes are pure CaCO3 and iron ore
Reaction: CaCO3 = CaO + CO2
Rational Analysis wt%
Material Cu2S FeS2 SiO2 Fe2O3
Copper ore 17.5 67.5 15
Copper concentrate 35 25 40
Iron ore 20 80
Slag
Matte
Reverberatory furnace
Flux: CaCO3
Iron ore
Copper ore
Copper concentrate

Reaction: CaCO3 = CaO + CO2
Calculate the quantities of concentrate, iron ore and flux in order to smelt 1000 kg of
copper ore and obtain a matte grade of 30% Cu and a slag with the composition 35% SiO2 , 20%
CaO, 45% FeO
Let X be the quantity of Cu concentrate
Let Y be the quantity of matte
Let Z by the quantity of iron ore
Let U be the quantity of slag
Four equations are needed to solve for the four variables X, Y, Z, U
Slag
35% SiO2
20% CaO
45% FeO
Matte
37.5% Cu2S
62.5% FeS
Flux: CaCO3
Iron ore (80% Fe2O3, 20% SiO2)
1000 kg Copper ore
17.5% Cu2S
15% SiO2
67.5% FeS2
Copper concentrate
35% Cu2S
40% SiO2
25% FeS2

Cu2S balance: SiO2 balance:
Cu2S(in ore) + Cu2S(in Cu conc.) = Cu2S(in matte) SiO2(Cu ore) + SiO2(Cu conc.) + SiO2(iron ore)=
Cu2S(in ore) = 17.5% * 1000 = 175 kg SiO2(slag)
Cu2S(in Cu-conc.) = 0.35 * X 0.15% * 1000 + 0.40X + 0.20Z = 0.35U
Cu2S(in matte) = 37.5% * Y = 0.375 Y Equation 2: 0.40X + 0.20Z – 0.35U = -150
Equation 1: 175+ 0.35X = 0.375Y
Fe Balance:
Fe(Cu ore) + Fe(Cu conc.) + Fe(iron ore) = Fe(matte) + Fe(slag)
Fe(Cu ore) = 67.5% * 1000 * (56/120) = 315 kg Fe(Cu conc.) = 25% * X * (56/120) = 0.117X kg
Fe(iron ore) = 80% * Z * (112/160) = 0.56Z kg Fe(matte) = 62.5% * Y * (65/88) = 0.398Y kg
Fe(slag) = 45% * U * (56/72) = 0.35U kg Equation 3: 315+0.117X+0.56Z=0.398Y+0.35U
U kg Slag
35% SiO2
20% CaO
45% FeO
Y kg Matte
37.5% Cu2S
62.5% FeS
Flux: CaCO3
Z kg Iron ore (80% Fe2O3, 20% SiO2)
1000 kg Copper ore
17.5% Cu2S
15% SiO2
67.5% FeS2
X kg Copper concentrate
35% Cu2S
40% SiO2
25% FeS2

Sulphur balance:
S(Cu ore) + S(Cu conc.) = S(matte), S(flue gas)≈0
S(Cu ore) = (0.175 * (32/160) * 1000) + (0.675 * (64/120) * 1000) = 395 kg
S(Cu conc.) = (0.35 * X * (32/160)) + (0.25 * X * (64/120)) = 0.203X kg
S(matte) = (0.375 * (32/160) * Y) + (0.625 * (32/88) * Y) = 0.3023Y kg
Equation 4: 395+0.203X = 0.3023Y
Equation 1: 175+ 0.35X = 0.375Y
Equation 2: 0.40X + 0.20Z – 0.35U = -150
Equation 3: 315+0.117X+0.56Z=0.398Y+0.35U
CaO in slag: 20% * 7463.4 = 1492.7 kg CaO, 1492.7 * (100/56) = 2665.5 kg CaCO3
U kg Slag
35% SiO2
20% CaO
45% FeO
Y kg Matte
37.5% Cu2S
62.5% FeS
Flux: CaCO3
Z kg Iron ore (80% Fe2O3, 20% SiO2)
1000 kg Copper ore
17.5% Cu2S
15% SiO2
67.5% FeS2
X kg Copper concentrate
35% Cu2S
40% SiO2
25% FeS2
X=3210.2 kg Cu conc.
Y=3462.7 kg Matte
Z=589.6 kg Iron ore
U=7463.4 kg Slag

Converting
Liquid metal or matte coming from the smelting furnace with impurities is converted to high
purity metal in oxidizing environments
Either steady air, blown air or blown oxygen are utilized to oxidize the gangue species
Gangue oxide minerals are removed with the initially forming slag
Inputs – Pig iron, cast iron for steel converting, Cu-Fe matte for copper converting, flux, air
Outputs – Slag, steel or blister copper, off-gas
Furnaces used
Hearths
Puddling furnaces
Cementation furnaces
Bessemer furnaces
Open Hearth furnaces
Basic oxygen furnaces
Electric arc furnaces

Converting Pig Iron
Wrought or worked iron was the main malleable iron used in rails and structures until large
scale, commercial production of steel
It contained low amount of carbon (0.04 to 0.08%) and was worked by hand into bars and
various shapes due to its malleability
Slag up to 2% is mixed in its microstructure in the form of fibrous inclusions like wood
Pig iron and cast iron were initially converted to wrought iron in hearths in ancient times then
in puddling furnaces during 18th century
In these processes the charge was heated to melting temperature by burning charcoal and
oxidized by air
Puddling process involves manually stirring the molten pig iron, which decarburerizes the iron
As the iron is stirred, globs of wrought iron are collected into balls by the stirring rod and those
are periodically removed by the puddler
Horizontal (lower) and vertical (upper) cross-sections of a single puddling furnace.
A. Fireplace grate; B. Firebricks; C. Cross binders; D. Fireplace; E. Work door;
F. Hearth; G. Cast iron retaining plates; H. Bridge wall

Commercial production of low carbon, low impurity steel was limited to inefficient and
expensive process of adding carbon to carbon-free wrought iron between 17th and 19th
centuries
The manufacturing process, called cementation process, consisted of heating bars of wrought
iron in a furnace in between powdered charcoal layers at about 7000 C for about a week to
Carbon slowly diffuses into iron and dissolves in the iron, raising the carbon percentage
Steel obtained from this process is called “blister steel” due to the blister-like marks formed on
the surface due to the evolved gases during the manufacturing process
Up to 3 tons of coke was burnt for each ton of steel produced
The fuel and labor costs resulted in a small scale
production of steel that was about 8 times more expensive
The Bessemer process reduced the time needed to make
steel of this quality to about half an hour while only
requiring coke to melt the pig iron initially

The Bessemer process - Henry Bessemer patented the process in 1855
The process is carried on in a large ovoid steel container lined with clay or dolomite
The capacity of a converter is from 8 to 30 tons of molten iron
The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown
through the molten iron
The oxidation process removes impurities such as silicon, manganese, and carbon as oxides
These oxides either escape as gas or form a solid slag
The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten
The refractory lining of the converter also plays a role in the conversion—the clay lining is used
in the acid Bessemer, in which there is low phosphorus in the raw material
Dolomite, limestone or magnesite are used when the phosphorus content is high in the basic
Bessemer

Once the converter is charged with molten pig iron, a strong thrust of air is blasted across the
molten mass for about 20 minutes through tuyeres provided at the bottom of the vessel
The conversion process called the "blow" is typically completed in around twenty minutes
During this period the progress of the oxidation of the impurities is judged by the appearance
of the flame issuing from the mouth of the converter since there is not enough time to make
material analyses
The blow may be interrupted at certain periods to avoid the oxidation of certain impurities
Required amount of flux is added at the beginning of each period to produce the slag of
desired composition and amount
At the end of the process all traces of the silicon, manganese, carbon, phosphorus and sulphur
are oxidized, leaving the converter with pure iron
In order to give the steel the desired properties, other impurities can be added to the molten
steel when conversion is complete

Steel converter analysis
A basic pneumatic steel converter is charged with 25 tons of pig iron containing various
impurities
In addition to the removal of all of the C, Si, Mn and P, iron equivalent to 5% of the weight of
charged iron oxidizes at a constant rate throughout the bessemerizing operation
Enough lime is added to obtain a slag containing 35% CaO
2/3 of the carbon in steel oxidizes to CO and 1/3 goes to CO2
Air compressor delivers air at a rate of 500 m3/min for specific periods of time
Bessemer converter
Flux
CaO
Pig iron
Air
Flue gas
CO, CO2, N2
Slag
Fe2O3, P2O5, SiO2
MnO, CaO
Steel
Ultimate Analysis wt%
Material Fe C Si Mn P
Pig iron 91 3.5 2 1 2.5

Calculate the volume of air required for the operation
Basis 25 tons of pig iron
Oxidation step 1: Si + O2 = SiO2 Oxidation step 3: C + 1/2O2 = CO, C + O2 = CO2
Weight of Si in Pig iron = 0.02 * 25000 = 500 kg Weight of C in iron = 0.035 * 25000 = 878 kg
nSi= 500/28 = 17.857 kg-atom nC = 878/12 = 72.917 kg-atom
nO2= 17.857 kg-mole nC(for CO) = (2/3) * 72.917 = 48.611 kg-atom
nO2 = (½) * 48.611 = 24.306 kg-mole
Oxidation step 2: 2Mn + O2 = 2MnO nC(for CO2) = (1/3) * 72.917 = 24.306 kg-atom
Weight of Mn in Pig iron = 0.01 * 25000 = 250 kg nO2= nC(for CO2) = 24.306 kg-atom
nMn= 250/55 = 4.545 kg-atom
nO2= 4.545/2 = 2.273 kg-mole Oxidation step 4: 4P + 5O2 = 2P2O5
Weight of P in iron = 0.025 * 25000 = 625 kg
nP=625/31 = 20.161 kg-atom
nO2=(5/4) * nP=25.201 kg-mole
Bessemer converter
Flux
CaO
25 tons
Pig iron
91% Fe
3.5% C
2% Si
1% Mn
2.5% P
Air
500 m3/min
Flue gas
CO, CO2, N2
Slag
Fe2O3, P2O5, SiO2
MnO, 35% CaO
Steel

Calculate the volume of air required for the operation
Basis 25 tons of pig iron
Total O2 used during Si, Mn, C, P oxidation = 93.94 kg-mole
Considering small amount of Fe oxidizing in all steps:
nFe = 1137.5/56 = 20.312 kg-atom
2Fe + 3/2 O2 = Fe2O3
nO2 = (¾)*nFe = (¾)*20.312 = 15.23 kg-mole
Total O2 used = 2.273 + 17.857 + 24.306 + 24.306 + 25.201 + 15.23 = 109.17 kg-mole O2
Volume of air required = (109.17/0.21) * 22.4 = 11644.8 m3/25 ton of Pig iron
Total blowing time = 11644.8/500 = 23.29 minutes
Bessemer converter
Flux
CaO
25 tons
Pig iron
91% Fe
3.5% C
2% Si
1% Mn
2.5% P
Air
500 m3/min
Flue gas
CO, CO2, N2
Slag
Fe2O3, P2O5, SiO2
MnO, 35% CaO
Steel

Calculate the durations of each blowing period
Total O2 used = 2.273 + 17.857 + 24.306 + 24.306 + 25.201 + 15.23 = 109.17 kg-mole O2
Volume of air required for period 1= (2.273/0.21) * 22.4 = 242.45 m3/500 kg Si
Volume of air required for period 2= (17.857/0.21) * 22.4 = 1904.75 m3/250 kg Mn
Volume of air required for period 3= (48.162/0.21) * 22.4 = 5137.3 m3/878 kg C
Volume of air required for period 4= (25.201/0.21) * 22.4 = 2688.1 m3/625 kg P
Volume of air distributed in all periods= (15.23/0.21) * 22.4 = 1624.5 m3/1138 kg Fe
Total blowing time = 11644.8/500 = 23.29 minutes
Bessemer converter
Flux
CaO
25 tons
Pig iron
91% Fe
3.5% C
2% Si
1% Mn
2.5% P
Air
500 m3/min
Flue gas
CO, CO2, N2
Slag
Fe2O3, P2O5, SiO2
MnO, 35% CaO
Steel
FeFe2O3
SiSiO2 MnMnO CCO, CO2 PP2O5
0 4.43 4.99 17.04 23.29Time (min)
Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Period 4

Calculate the weight of CaO added to the converter
Si + O2 = SiO2 4P + 5O2 = 2P2O5
Weight of Si in Pig iron = 0.02 * 25000 = 500 kg Weight of P in iron = 0.025 * 25000 = 625 kg
nSi= 500/28 = 17.857 kg-atom nP=625/31 = 20.161 kg-atom
nSiO2= 17.857 kg-mole nP2O5= 20.161/2 = 10.081 kg-mole
Weight of SiO2 in slag = 17.857*60 = 1071.4 kg Weight of P2O5 in slag = 17.081*142 =
1431.5 kg
2Mn + O2 = 2MnO
Weight of Mn in Pig iron = 0.01 * 25000 = 250 kg 2Fe + 3/2 O2 = Fe2O3
nMn= 250/55 = 4.545 kg-atom nFe = 1137.5/56 = 20.312 kg-atom
nMnO= 4.545 kg-mole nFe2O3 = 20.312/2 = 10.156 kg-mole
Weight of MnO in slag = 4.545*71 = 322.7 kg Weight of Fe2O3 in slag = 10.156*160 =
1625kg
MnO + SiO2 + P2O5 + Fe2O3 = 4450.6 kg, 35% CaO= (4450.6/0.65)*0.35 = 2396.5 kg CaO in slag
Bessemer converter
Flux
CaO
25 tons
Pig iron
91% Fe
3.5% C
2% Si
1% Mn
2.5% P
Air
500 m3/min
Flue gas
CO, CO2, N2
Slag
Fe2O3, P2O5, SiO2
MnO, 35% CaO
Steel

Calculate the weight and composition of the slag
Component Weight (kg) Weight %
SiO2 1071.4 15.64%
MnO 322.7 4.71 %
P2O5 1431.5 20.90%
Fe2O3 1625 23.75%
CaO 2396.5 35.00%
Total 6848 100.00%
Bessemer converter
Flux
CaO
25 tons
Pig iron
91% Fe
3.5% C
2% Si
1% Mn
2.5% P
Air
500 m3/min
Flue gas
CO, CO2, N2
Slag
Fe2O3, P2O5, SiO2
MnO, 35% CaO
Steel

Calculate the weight of CaO added to the converter in each blowing period
Total CaO added as flux = 2396.5 kg CaO
CaO consumed each minute = 2396.5/23.29 = 102.9 kg
CaO consumed in period 1 = 102.9 * 4.43 = 455.8 kg
Bessemer converter
Flux
CaO
25 tons
Pig iron
91% Fe
3.5% C
2% Si
1% Mn
2.5% P
Air
500 m3/min
Flue gas
CO, CO2, N2
Slag
Fe2O3, P2O5, SiO2
MnO, 35% CaO
Steel
FeFe2O3
SiSiO2 MnMnO CCO, CO2 PP2O5
0 4.43 4.99 17.04 23.29Time (min)
Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Period 4

Copper converting
Liquid matte from the smelting process is oxidized in a bessemer or basic oxygen furnace by
blowing air or oxygen
The difference between steel converting and copper converting is that the value mineral Cu2S
is oxidized as well in the latter process
Cu2S + O2 = Cu l + SO2
FeS2 in the matte is oxidized initially due to its higher oxidation free energy
Excess S in the matte may also oxidize preferentially prior to reduction of copper
Blowing, fluxing and slagging may be done periodically due to convenience
Flux is commonly added in batches due to the high amount of charge material and the limited
space of furnaces
The amount of flux batches and blowing rate affects the time taken to produce slag in periods
SO2 on the surface of the copper evaporate and form blisters on the solidifying copper
Blister copper purity is around 99% and electrolysis treatment is needed to obtain pure copper
Converted blister copper is considered as 100% pure for convenience in material balance

Copper converter analysis
40 tons of matte carrying 34% Cu is charged in a bessemer converter
The flux is added in batches of 3000 kg, the converter is blown after each addition to obtain
slag of the given composition
Blister copper is produced after the removal of slags formed using partially added fluxes
Air is blown at a rate of 100 m3/minute
Bessemer converter
Flux
Matte
Air
Slag
Blister copper
Rational Analysis wt%
Material FeO CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Cu2S FeS2
Slag 59 8 32 1
Flux ? 75 ? 2 5

Calculate the time of each partial blow
Cu2S in matte = 40000 * 0.34 * (160/128) = 17000 kg, FeS=23000 kg
Let X be the weight of slag Let Y be the weight of FeS oxidized in one blow
SiO2 balance: Fe balance:
75% * 3000 = 0.32 X (56/88) * Y + 5% * 3000 * (56/120) = 59% * 7031 * (56/72)
X = 7031 kg Y = 4963 kg = 56.4 kg-moles
Oxygen required for 1 blow:
FeS + 3/2O2 = FeO + SO2 FeS2 + 5/2O2 = FeO + 2SO2
O2 required = 56.4 * (3/2) = 84.6 kg-moles O2 required = 1.25 * (5/2) = 3.125 kg-moles
Total O2 required = 87.725 kg-moles
Time for 1 blow =
87.725
0.21
∗
22.4
100
= 93.57 minutes
Bessemer converter
3000 kg Flux
75% SiO2
2% Cu2S
5% FeS2
40 tons Matte
34% Cu
Air
100 m3/min
Slag 59% FeO, 8 CaO
32% SiO2, 1% Al2O3
Blister copper

Calculate the number of partial blows and the weight of flux to be added for the last partial
blow to completely remove FeO in the slag
Time for 1 blow =
87.725
0.21
∗
22.4
100
= 93.57 minutes
The weight of FeS oxidized in one blow = 4963 kg = 56.4 kg-moles
Number of partial blows = 23000/4963 = 4.63 ≈ 5
FeS oxidized in the 5th blow = 23000 – (4*4963) = 3148 kg
Let Z be the amount of flux batch added in the last period
O2 balance:
(3148/88) *(3/2) + (0.05Z /120) *(5/2) = 87.725 * 3148/4963
Z= 1903 kg
Bessemer converter
3000 kg Flux
75% SiO2
2% Cu2S
5% FeS2
40 tons Matte
17 tons Cu2S
23 tons FeS
Air
100 m3/min
7031 kg Slag 59%
FeO, 8 CaO
32% SiO2, 1% Al2O3
Blister copper

Calculate the total time for blowing the charge to convert to blister copper
Blow Period (min)
1 93.57
2 93.57
3 93.57
4 93.57
5 3148/4963 * 93.57 = 59.40 minutes
Total time to remove Fe in the matte and flux completely = 431.68 minutes
Cu2S + O2 = Cu l + SO2
Total Cu2S = 17000/160 = 108 kg-moles, Total O2 required = 108 kg-moles
Total air required = (108/0.21) * 22.4 = 11520 m3, Time required to convert Cu = 115.2 minutes
Total time of operation = 546.88 minutes
Bessemer converter
3000 kg Flux
75% SiO2
2% Cu2S
5% FeS2
40 tons Matte
17 tons Cu2S
23 tons FeS
Air
100 m3/min
7031 kg Slag 59%
FeO, 8 CaO
32% SiO2, 1% Al2O3
Blister copper

Mining

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