Mod 19 learning by observation
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Observational learning is an important way that humans and other animals learn new behaviors and skills. Key points: 1) Studies by Bandura and others showed that children imitate behaviors they observe in others, whether prosocial or antisocial behaviors. 2) Mirror neurons in the brain help explain how observational learning works on a neural level. 3) Research also links viewing media violence with increased aggression in children, though parental monitoring can reduce these harmful effects.
Mod 19 learning by observation
- 1. Learning Learning by Observation: Module 19 Bandura’s Experiments Applications of Observational Learning
- 2. Learning by Observation Among higher animals, especially humans, learning does not occur through direct experience alone. Observational learning also plays a part. The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior is often called modeling. Mirror neurons, located in the brain’s frontal lobes, demonstrate a neural basis for observational learning.
- 3. Learning by Observation Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing © Herb Terrace and imitating others. The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in ©Herb Terrace a certain order to obtain a reward. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQwJXvlTWDw
- 4. Mirror Neurons Mirror neurons help give rise to children’s empathy and to their ability to infer another’s mental state (aka theory of mind). As adults, we often feel what another feels, and we find it harder to frown when viewing a smile than when viewing a frown.
- 5. Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004) © 2004 AAAS. Here you see the pain imagined by an empathic romantic partner triggers some of the same brain activity experienced by the one actually having the pain. Brain activity related to actual pain is mirrored in the brain of an observing loved one. Empathy in the brain shows up in emotional brain areas, but not in the somatosensory cortex, which receives the physical pain input. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sv1qUj3MuEc
- 6. 14-month-old child in pulling a toy apart. begins early in life. This imitates the adult on TV Learning by observation Imitation Onset Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants. Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.
- 7. Bandura's Experiments Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments. Bandura found Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University that we are likely to imitate actions that go unpunished. We tend to imitate models that we perceive to be successful, admirable or similar to us.
- 8. Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies also show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects as well. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxvfwTmkyqQ&feature=related
- 9. Positive Observational Learning Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects which can counteract the antisocial ones. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
- 10. Prosocial Models Prosocial models have prosocial effects. People who show nonviolent, helpful behavior prompt similar behavior in others. Models are most effective when their actions and words are consistent. Exposed to a hypocrite, children tend to imitate the hypocrisy by doing what the model did and saying what the model says.
- 11. Albert Bandura has shown how modeling can eliminate undesirable behaviors. In one study nursery school children, chosen because they were terrified of dogs, merely watched a little boy playing happily with a dog for 20 minutes. As a result of this experience, 67 percent were willing to climb into a playpen with a dog and remain confined there petting and scratching the dog while everyone else left the room. Their observations seemed to have a lasting positive effect. One month later the children were more willing than ever to approach dogs. Subsequent research has indicated that filmed models have the same effect. The greatest reduction in fear occurred when the film clips depicted a variety of other children interacting with their dogs. Observational learning may be strongest when we perceive many performing the same action.
- 12. Filmed models have been used in therapy for diverse problems. Socially withdrawn children watched a variety of scenes in which a clearly shy child is treated positively when he interacts in a social activity. The impact was obvious. After watching the film, the shy children began to interact with their peers at a level equal to that of other children in the school. Our tendency to imitate the behavior of others is exploited in a variety of settings. For example, television executives seem to know what they are doing when they use canned laughter. Experiments indicate that the technique causes an audience to laugh louder and more often when humorous material is presented. Advertisers love to tell us that their product is the “fastest growing” or “largest selling.” The fact that many others are using it prompts us to buy it. Bartenders salt their tip jars with a few dollar bills to demonstrate appropriate customer behavior. The producers of charity telethons devote a great deal of time to listing the viewers who have already pledged contributions on the premise that others will follow suit.
- 13. Television and Observational Learning Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression. Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images
- 14. Correlational studies that link viewing violence with violent behavior do not indicate the direction of influence. Those who behave violently may enjoy watching violence on TV, or some third factor may cause observers both to behave violently and to prefer watching violent programs. To establish cause and effect, researchers have designed experiments in which some participants view violence and others do not. Later, given an opportunity to express violence, the people who viewed violence tend to be more aggressive and less sympathetic. In addition to imitating what they see, observers may become desensitized to brutality, whether on TV or in real life.
- 15. Modeling Violence Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Glassman/ The Image Works Children modeling after pro wrestlers
- 16. Parental Monitoring of Media Violence In a review of the research literature, Craig Anderson and colleagues highlight the important role of parental monitoring and guidance in reducing the harmful effects of media violence. They conclude that the impact of media violence can be reduced “if parents guide their children’s media exposure and discuss their interpretation of media violence with their children.” Research suggests that when parents speak negatively about violent TV or restrict viewing of violent television content, children show less aggressive attitudes. On the other hand, if parents watch TV with their children and say nothing about the violent content, children demonstrate stronger aggressive attitudes.
- 17. Parental Monitoring of Media Violence This analysis clearly reaffirms the importance of the following guidelines for parents that an American Psychological Association task force on television issued in 1992: • Maintain an activities time chart, including TV viewing, playing with friends, and homework. Discuss what to eliminate as well as its substitute. • Establish a weekly viewing limit. Have children select programs from television schedules at the beginning of the week. Assign points to specific programs and set a point total for the week. Less desirable programs may cost more to watch. • Rule out TV at certain times, say, at mealtimes or on school nights. • Encourage the entire family to make a program choice before turning on the TV. • Remember that you provide a model. If you watch a lot of TV, chances are that your children will, too.
- 18. Parental Monitoring of Media Violence In monitoring the violence children see, the task force suggests that caregivers: • watch at least one episode of the programs their children watch to know the frequency and degree of violence. • when viewing violence with children, discuss why it occurs and how painful it is. Ask how conflict might be resolved without aggression. • explain how violence on programs is faked. • encourage children to view programs with characters who cooperate and care for each other. Something not so violent … http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kU9MuM4lP18
Editor's Notes
- #4: Preview Question 12: What is observational learning?