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Multiple User Interfaces
Cross-Platform Applications and
Context-Aware Interfaces
Edited by
Ahmed Seffah and Homa Javahery
Concordia University, Department of Computer Science, Canada

Copyright  2004 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester,
West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England
Telephone (+44) 1243 779777
Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk
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Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Multiple user interfaces : cross-platform applications and context-aware interfaces / edited by
Ahmed Seffah & Homa Javahery.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-470-85444-8
1. Computer interfaces. I. Seffah, Ahmed. II. Javahery, Homa.
TK7887.5.M86 2003
004.6 – dc22
2003057602
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0-470-85444-8
Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India
Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International, Padstow, Cornwall
This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry
in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production.

Contents
Acknowledgements xv
About the Editors xvii
Contributors xix
PART I BASIC TERMINOLOGY, CONCEPTS, AND CHALLENGES 1
1 Executive Summary and Book Overview 3
1.1 Motivation 3
1.2 A Few Deﬁnitions 4
1.3 Challenges 5
1.4 Speciﬁc Objectives 5
1.5 Audience 6
1.6 Overview 6
References 9
2 Multiple User Interfaces: Cross-Platform Applications and
Context-Aware Interfaces 11
2.1 MUI: Characterization and Evolution 11
2.1.1 Interaction Styles 13
2.1.2 Fundamental Characteristics 15
2.1.3 Vertical versus Horizontal Usability 16
2.1.4 Related Work 16
2.2 Fertile Topics for Research Exploration 18
2.2.1 Context-Aware Development 18
2.2.2 Model-Based Development 20

vi CONTENTS
2.2.3 Pattern-Driven Development 22
2.2.4 Device-Independent Development 23
2.3 Concluding Remarks 24
Acknowledgements 25
References 25
PART II ADAPTATION AND CONTEXT-AWARE USER INTERFACES 27
3 A Reference Framework for the Development of Plastic User Interfaces 29
David Thevenin, Joëlle Coutaz, and Gaëlle Calvary
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Terminology: Context of Use, Plastic UI and Multi-Target UI 30
3.2.1 Context of Use and Target 30
3.2.2 Multi-Target User Interfaces and Plastic User Interfaces 31
3.2.3 Terminology: Summary 32
3.3 The “Plastic UI Snowﬂake” 32
3.3.1 Target Sensitivity 33
3.3.2 Classes of Software Tools 33
3.3.3 Actors in Charge of Adaptation 34
3.3.4 Computation of Multi-Target and Plastic User Interfaces 35
3.3.5 User Interface Software Components 35
3.3.6 User Interface Migration 37
3.4 The Process Reference Framework for Multi-Target and Plastic UIs 37
3.4.1 General Description 38
3.4.2 The Process Reference Framework in the Design Phase 39
3.4.3 Instantiations of the Process Reference Framework 41
3.5 ARTStudio: An Application of the Process Reference Framework 43
3.5.1 The EDF Home Heating Control System 43
3.5.2 ARTStudio 43
3.6 Conclusion 49
Acknowledgement 49
References 49
4 Temporal Aspects of Multi-Platform Interaction 53
David England and Min Du
4.1 Introduction 53
4.2 Temporal Contexts of Multiple Platforms 55
4.2.1 Fitts’ Law and the Control:Display Ratio 55
4.2.2 Computation Speed of the Platform 56
4.2.3 Support for Task Switching on Platforms 56
4.3 Modelling Temporal Contexts 57
4.3.1 Action Selection Pattern 58
4.3.2 Progress Monitoring Pattern 59

CONTENTS vii
4.3.3 Task Management Pattern 61
4.3.4 Platform Interaction Pattern 62
4.4 The Temporal Constraint Engine 63
4.5 Discussion 64
4.6 Conclusions 65
References 65
A. The PUAN Notation 66
5 The PALIO Framework for Adaptive Information Services 69
Constantine Stephanidis, Alexandros Paramythis, Vasilios Zarikas,
and Anthony Savidis
5.1 Introduction 69
5.2 The PALIO System Architecture 71
5.2.1 Overview 71
5.2.2 The PALIO Adaptation Infrastructure 75
5.3 PALIO as an Adaptive Hypermedia System 76
5.3.1 Adaptation Determinants 77
5.3.2 Decisions on the Basis of Adaptation Determinants 78
5.3.3 Adaptation Actions 80
5.4 PALIO in the Context of MUI 83
5.4.1 PALIO as a Web UI 83
5.4.2 A Brief Example 88
5.5 Summary and On-Going Work 89
Acknowledgements 90
References 90
Footnotes 91
PART III DEVELOPMENT TECHNOLOGY AND LANGUAGES 93
6 Building Multi-Platform User Interfaces with UIML 95
Mir Farooq Ali, Manuel A. Pérez-Quiñones, and Marc Abrams
6.1 Introduction 95
6.2 Terminology 97
6.3 Related Work 98
6.4 UIML 100
6.4.1 Language Overview 101
6.4.2 The <interface> Component 101
6.4.3 The <peers> Component 102
6.4.4 A Sample UI 102
6.5 A Framework for Multi-Platform UI Development 104
6.5.1 Task Model 105
6.5.2 Generic Description of Device Families 106
6.5.3 Abstract to Concrete Transformations 109

viii CONTENTS
6.6 Transformation-Based UI Development Environment 111
6.6.1 TIDE Version 1 112
6.6.2 Goals for TIDE 2 112
6.7 Conclusions 115
Acknowledgements 116
References 116
7 XIML: A Multiple User Interface Representation Framework
for Industry 119
Angel Puerta and Jacob Eisenstein
7.1 Introduction 119
7.1.1 Special Challenges for MUI Solutions for Industry 120
7.1.2 Foundation Technologies 121
7.1.3 Summary of Chapter 121
7.2 The XIML Representation Framework 121
7.2.1 Target Computing Model 122
7.2.2 XIML Requirements 123
7.2.3 Structure and Organization of XIML 124
7.2.4 Validation Exercises 127
7.3 An XIML Pilot Application 133
7.3.1 MANNA: The Map Annotation Assistant 134
7.3.2 The MANNA Abstract XIML Components 136
7.3.3 XIML-Based Middleware for MANNA 139
7.4 Discussion 144
7.4.1 The XIML Roadmap 144
7.4.2 Related Work 145
7.4.3 Summary of Findings 146
References 146
8 AUIT: Adaptable User Interface Technology, with Extended Java
Server Pages 149
John Grundy and Wenjing Zou
8.2 Case Study: A Collaborative Job Management System 151
8.3 Related Work 152
8.4 Our Approach 154
8.5 Design and Implementation 156
8.6 Job Management System Examples 161
8.7 Experiences 164
8.8 Summary 166
References 166

CONTENTS ix
PART IV MODEL-BASED DEVELOPMENT 169
9 Adaptive Task Modelling: From Formal Models to XML
Representations 171
Peter Forbrig, Anke Dittmar, and Andreas Müller
9.2 Model-Based Software Development 172
9.2.1 Models Used in the Design Process 172
9.2.2 Task Modelling 172
9.2.3 New Challenges for Modelling 175
9.3 Adaptive Specification Techniques 176
9.3.1 Adapted Task Models 177
9.3.2 Specification of Device Features by XML 179
9.4 Example of an Electronic Shop 181
9.4.1 The Task Model of E-Shopping 181
9.4.2 The Generation of Specific User Interfaces 183
9.5 Conclusions 191
References 191
10 Multi-Model and Multi-Level Development of User Interfaces 193
Jean Vanderdonckt, Elizabeth Furtado, João José Vasco Furtado,
Quentin Limbourg, Wilker Bezerra Silva, Daniel William Tavares Rodrigues,
and Leandro da Silva Taddeo
10.2 Related Work 194
10.3 Definition of Model 195
10.4 Conceptual Level 198
10.4.1 Definition 198
10.4.2 Case Study 199
10.5 Logical Level 201
10.6 Physical Level 205
10.7 Summary of the Development Process 210
10.8 Conclusion 213
References 215
11 Supporting Interactions with Multiple Platforms Through User
and Task Models 217
Luisa Marucci, Fabio Paternò, and Carmen Santoro

x CONTENTS
11.2 An Illustrative Scenario 219
11.3 General Description of the Approach 221
11.4 Role of the Task Model in Design 223
11.4.1 From the Task Model to the Abstract User Interface 225
11.4.2 The Language for Abstract User Interfaces 226
11.4.3 From the Abstract User Interface to its Implementation 228
11.5 Relations between Task Model and User Model 228
11.6 The User Model 229
11.7 Adaptive Rules 232
11.7.1 Navigation as a Function of Task Frequency 232
11.7.2 Navigation as a Function of Task Performance 234
11.7.3 Modification of Presentation 235
11.7.4 Modification of Content Presentation 235
11.8 Conclusions 237
References 238
PART V ARCHITECTURES, PATTERNS, AND
DEVELOPMENT TOOLKITS 239
12 Migrating User Interfaces Across Platforms Using HCI Patterns 241
Homa Javahery, Ahmed Seffah, Daniel Engelberg, and Daniel Sinnig
12.2 A Brief Overview of HCI Patterns 243
12.3 Redesigning User Interfaces with Pattern Mapping 245
12.3.1 The Effect of Screen Size on Redesign 245
12.3.2 Pattern-based Redesign: A Case Study with Navigation
Patterns 247
12.3.3 Architecture Size as an Added Variable in Redesign 248
12.4 Research Directions for the Use of Patterns in Reengineering User
Interfaces 254
12.4.1 Pattern-Assisted Reengineering 255
12.4.2 Comparing Reengineering to Redesign 256
12.5 Conclusion and Future Investigations 257
References 259
13 Support for the Adapting Applications and Interfaces to Context 261
Anind K. Dey and Gregory D. Abowd
13.2 Why Context is Difficult to Use and Why Support is Needed for it 264
13.2.1 Separation of Concerns 264
13.2.2 Context Interpretation 265

CONTENTS xi
13.2.3 Transparent, Distributed Communications 265
13.2.4 Constant Availability of Context Acquisition 266
13.2.5 Context Storage and History 266
13.2.6 Resource Discovery 266
13.3 Basic Component-Based Architecture and the Conference Assistant
Application 267
13.3.1 Context Widgets 268
13.3.2 Context Aggregators 268
13.3.3 Context Interpreters 269
13.3.4 Services 269
13.3.5 Discoverers 270
13.3.6 Conference Assistant Application 270
13.3.7 Summary 276
13.4 Situation Support and the CybreMinder Application 276
13.4.1 Implementation of the Situation Abstraction 277
13.4.2 CybreMinder: A Complex Example that Uses the Situation
Abstraction 278
13.4.3 Summary 283
13.5 Fusion Support and the In/Out Board Application 284
13.5.1 The Architecture of the Location Service 285
13.5.2 Representing Location 286
13.5.3 Details on Positioning Systems 287
13.5.4 Fusion and Aggregation of Location 289
13.5.5 Accessing, Interpreting and Handling Location Data Within
an Application 289
13.5.6 Sample Application Development 291
13.5.7 Summary 292
References 294
14 A Run-time Infrastructure to Support the Construction of Distributed,
Multi-User, Multi-Device Interactive Applications 297
Simon Lock and Harry Brignull
14.2 MUI Interaction Scenario 298
14.3 Requirements for Infrastructure 299
14.4 Existing Approaches 301
14.5 Design of Infrastructure and Development Framework 303
14.5.1 Design of Interaction Metaphor 305
14.5.2 Bubble Glosses 307
14.6 Implementation of Infrastructure and Development Framework 310
14.7 Operation of the Infrastructure 311
14.7.1 Dynamic Device Service Registration 311

xii CONTENTS
14.7.2 Dynamic Device Service Selection 311
14.7.3 Application Service Linkage 312
14.7.4 Bubble Synchronisation 313
14.8 Infrastructure Utilisation 314
14.9 Application Usage Scenarios 316
14.10 Discussion 320
References 322
PART VI EVALUATION AND SOCIAL IMPACTS 325
15 Assessing Usability across Multiple User Interfaces 327
Gustav Öquist, Mikael Goldstein and Didier Chincholle
15.2 Multiple User Interfaces: Multiple Contexts
of Use 328
15.3 Multiple Contexts of Use: Multiple Factors
of Usability 330
15.3.1 Portability 330
15.3.2 Attentiveness 331
15.3.3 Manageability 333
15.3.4 Learnability 334
15.3.5 Indexical Factors of Usability for Different Contexts of Use 335
15.4 Assessing Usability of Mobile Interfaces 336
15.4.1 Mobile Input Interfaces 337
15.4.2 Mobile Output Interfaces 341
15.5 Discussion 346
References 348
16 Iterative Design and Evaluation of Multiple Interfaces for a Complex
Commercial Word Processor 351
Joanna McGrenere
16.2 Design Solutions to Complex Software 353
16.3 Study One 355
16.3.1 Methodology 355
16.3.2 Selected Results 356
16.4 Pilot Study 359
16.4.1 Implementation 360
16.4.2 Objectives and Methodology 361

CONTENTS xiii
16.5 Study Two 363
16.5.1 Methodology 365
16.6 Summary and Conclusions 369
References 371
Footnotes 372
17 Inter-Usability of Multi-Device Systems – A Conceptual Framework 373
Charles Denis and Laurent Karsenty
17.2 Inter-Usability: A Conceptual Framework 374
17.2.1 Principal Processes Involved in Transitions between Devices 374
17.2.2 Requirements for Knowledge Continuity 376
17.2.3 Requirements for Task Continuity 379
17.3 Design Principles for Inter-Usability 380
17.3.1 Inter-Device Consistency 381
17.3.2 Transparency 382
17.3.3 Adaptability 383
17.4 Conclusion 384
References 384
Subject Index 387

Acknowledgements
The help of many people made this book possible, and we are grateful to all of them. We
thank our editor Birgit Gruber, at John Wiley & Sons Ltd., who guided us throughout
this project.
Daniel Engelberg and Jonathan Benn were indispensable for the editing process, and
we thank them for their help in editing various chapters. Daniel Sinnig patiently helped
with revising various chapters. Rozita Naghshin, our digital art expert, was a great source
of help for advice on image layout and creation. To all the members of the HCSE (Human-
Centered Software Engineering) Group, we thank you for participating in the discussion
and brainstorming of this project.
We thank FCAR (Le Fonds québécois de la recherche sur la nature et les technologies),
NSERC (National Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada), and the Faculty of
Engineering, Concordia Research Chair programs, for their ﬁnancial support.
We are grateful to all the reviewers of this book. We were lucky enough to have a
wide spectrum of international reviewers, who patiently reviewed all chapters and gave
us crucial feedback. We thank John Grundy from the University of Auckland, who gave
us sound advice and feedback for a number of chapters.
Above all, we thank the contributors of this book. Without them, this book would not
have been possible. We thank them for patiently modifying chapters, rewriting passages,
and putting up with our requests. We acknowledge all of them for their efforts in making
this book a success.
Ahmed Seffah Homa Javahery

About the Editors
Ahmed Seffah is a professor in the department of Computer Science at Concordia Uni-
versity. He is director of the Human-Centered Software Engineering Group and the
co-founder of the Concordia Software Usability and Empirical Studies Lab. He holds
a PhD in software engineering from the Ecole Centrale de Lyon (France). His research
interests are at the crossroads between software engineering and Human-Computer Inter-
action (HCI), including usability measurement, user interface design, empirical studies
on developer experiences with CASE tools, human-centered software engineering, and
patterns as a vehicle for integrating HCI knowledge in software engineering practices.
Dr. Seffah is the vice-chair of the IFIP working group on user-centered design method-
ologies. During the last 10 years, he has been involved in different projects in North
America and Europe.
Homa Javahery is a researcher and project manager with the Human-Centered Soft-
ware Engineering Group, including the Usability and Empirical Studies Lab, in the
department of Computer Science at Concordia University. She holds a Master’s degree
in Computer Science from Concordia University, and a Bachelor of Science degree from
McGill University. She is combining different design approaches from human sciences
and engineering disciplines to develop a pattern-oriented framework for designing a large
variety of interfaces. She has been involved in different collaborative projects at the
INRIA Research Institute in Nancy, France and the Daimler-Chrysler Research Institute
in Ulm, Germany.

Contributors
Gregory D. Abowd
College of Computing
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0280
USA
abowd@cc.gatech.edu
Marc Abrams
Harmonia, Inc.
PO Box 11282
Blacksburg, VA 24062
USA
marc@harmonia.com
Harry Brignull
University of Sussex
Room 5A3, Interact Lab
School of Cognitive
and Computing Sciences
Falmer, Brighton BN1 9QH
UK
harrybr@cogs.susx.ac.uk
+44 (0) 1273 877221
Gaëlle Calvary
IIHM Group, CLIPS-IMAG Lab
BP 53, 385 rue de la Bibliotheque
38041 Grenoble Cedex 9
France
Joelle.Coutaz@imag.fr
+33 4 76 51 48 54
Didier Chincholle
Ericsson Research ERA/TVU/U
Torshamnsgatan 23, 164 80 Kista
Sweden
didier.chincholle@era.ericsson.se
+46 8 585 303 76
Joëlle Coutaz
France
+33 4 76 51 48 54
Charles Denis
INTUILAB
Prologue 1, La Pyrénéenne,
BP 27/01, 31312 Labège Cedex
France
denis@intuilab.com
Anind K. Dey
Senior Researcher, Intel Research
2150 Shattuck Ave, Suite 1300
Berkeley, CA 94704
USA
anind@intel-research.net
+1-510-495-3012

xx CONTRIBUTORS
Anke Dittmar
University of Rostock
Department of Computer Science
Albert-Einstein-Str. 21
D-18051 Rostock
Germany
ad@informatik.uni-rostock.de
Min Du
Liverpool John Moores University
School of Computing
and Mathematical Sciences
Byrom St, Liverpool
L3 3AF UK
edcmdu@livjm.ac.uk
+44 (0) 151 231 2271
Jacob Eisenstein
CEO – RedWhale Software
277 Town & Country Village Palo Alto
CA 94303
USA
jacobe@mit.edu
+1 650 321-3425
Daniel Engelberg
CGI Group Inc.
1130 Sherbrooke West, 7th ﬂoor
Montreal, Quebec H3A 2M8
Canada
dan.engelberg@sympatico.ca
+1 514-281-7000, local 5820
David England
Liverpool John Moores University
School of Computing
and Mathematical Sciences
Byrom St, Liverpool
L3 3AF UK
d.england@livjm.ac.uk
+44 (0) 151 231 2271
Mir Farooq Ali
Virginia Technology Institute
Department of Computer Science (0106)
660 McBryde Hall
USA
mfali@cs.vt.edu
1(540) 231 1927
Peter Forbrig
D-18051 Rostock
Germany
pforbrig@informatik.uni-rostock.de
Elizabeth Furtado
Universidade de Fortaleza
NATI – Célula EAD
Washington Soares, 1321
Bairo Edson Queiroz
Fortaleza (Ceará), BR-60455770
Brazil
elizabet@unifor.br
João José Vasco Furtado
Bairo Edson Queiroz
Brazil
vasco@unifor.br
Mikael Goldstein
Ericsson Research ERA/TVU/U
Torshamnsgatan 23
164 80 Kista
Sweden
mikael.goldstein@era.ericsson.se
+46 8 757 3679
John Grundy
University of Auckland
Private Bag 92019
Auckland

CONTRIBUTORS xxi
New Zealand
john-g@cs.auckland.ac.nz
+64-9-3737-599 ext. 8761
Homa Javahery
Faculty of Engineering
and Computer Science
1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd West
Montreal, Quebec H3G 1M8
Canada
h javahe@cs.concordia.ca
+1 514-848-3024
Laurent Karsenty
INTUILAB
Prologue 1, La Pyrénéenne,
BP 27/01, 31312 Labège Cedex
France
karsenty@intuilab.com
Quentin Limbourg
Université catholique de Louvain (UCL)
Information System Unit (ISYS-BCHI)
Institut d’Administration et de Gestion
(IAG)
Place des Doyens, 1
B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve
Belgium
limbourg@isys.ucl.ac.be
+32-10.47.85.25
Simon Lock
Lancaster University
Computing Department
Lancaster LA1 4YR
UK
lock@comp.lancs.ac.uk
+44-1524-592795
Luisa Marucci
ISTI-CNR
Via G. Moruzzi 1
56100 Pisa
Italy
luisa.marucci@guest.cnuce.cnr.it
+39 050 3153066
Joanna McGrenere
University of British Columbia
201–2366 Main Mall
Vancouver, BC V6J 2E2
Canada
joanna@cs.ubc.ca
604-827-5201
Andreas Müller
D-18051 Rostock
Germany
Xray@informatik.uni-rostock.de
Gustav Öquist
Bollhusgränd 7
113 31 Stockholm
Sweden
gustav@stp.ling.uu.se
+46 8 739 417 783
Alexandros Paramythis
Foundation for Research and
Technology – Hellas
Institute of Computer Science
Science and Technology Park of Crete
Heraklion, Crete
GR – 71110 Greece
cs@ics.forth.gr
+30-810-391741
Fabio Paternò
ISTI-CNR
Via G. Moruzzi 1
56100 Pisa
Italy
fabio.paterno@cnuce.cnr.it
+39 050 3153066

xxii CONTRIBUTORS
Manuel Pérez-Quiñones
Virginia Technology Institute
Department of Computer Science (0106)
660 McBryde Hall
USA
perez@cs.vt.edu
1(540) 231 2646
Angel R. Puerta
CEO – RedWhale Software
277 Town & Country Village Palo Alto
CA 94303
USA
puerta@redwhale.com
+1 650 321-3425
Carmen Santoro
ISTI-CNR
Via G. Moruzzi 1
56100 Pisa
Italy
C.Santoro@cnuce.cnr.it
+39 050 3153066
Anthony Savidis
Foundation for Research
and Technology – Hellas
Heraklion, Crete,
GR – 71110 Greece
cs@ics.forth.gr
+30-810-391741
Ahmed Seffah
Concordia University
Canada
seffah@cs.concordia.ca
+1 514-848-3024
Wilker Bezerra Silva
Bairo Edson Queiroz
Brazil
wilker@unifor.br
Daniel Sinnig
Concordia University
Canada
+1 514-848-3024
Constantine Stephanidis
Science and Technology Park of
Crete
Heraklion, Crete, GR – 71110
Greece
cs@ics.forth.gr
+30-810-391741
Leandro da Silva Taddeo
Bairo Edson Queiroz
Brazil
taddeo@unifor.br
Daniel William Tavares Rodrigues
Bairo Edson Queiroz

CONTRIBUTORS xxiii
Brazil
danielw@unifor.br
David Thevenin
France
+33 4 76 51 48 54
Jean Vanderdonckt
Université catholique de Louvain (UCL)
Information System Unit (ISYS-BCHI)
Institut d’Administration
et de Gestion (IAG)
Place des Doyens, 1
B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve
Belgium
vanderdonckt@isys.ucl.ac.be
+32-10.47.85.25
Vasilios Zarikas
Heraklion, Crete, GR – 71110
Greece
cs@ics.forth.gr
+30-810-391741
Wenjing Zou
University of Auckland
Private Bag 92019
Auckland
New Zealand
wenjingzou@hotmail.com
+64-9-3737-599 ext. 8761

Part I
Basic Terminology, Concepts,
and Challenges

1
Executive Summary and Book
Overview
Human-Centered Software Engineering Group, Department of Computer Science,
Concordia University, Canada
1.1. MOTIVATION
In recent years, a wide variety of computer devices including mobile telephones, personal
digital assistants (PDAs) and pocket PCs has emerged. Many existing devices are now
being introduced as an alternative to traditional computers. Internet-enabled television
(WebTV), 3D-interactive platforms with voice capabilities, and electronic whiteboards
attached to desktop machines are among the many examples. In addition, we are moving
away from the dominance of the WIMP (Windows, Icons, Mouse, and Pointer) system as
a main metaphor of human-computer interaction. Novel interaction styles are emerging.
These include web applications where users interact with the content, interactive television
controlled by hand-held remotes, and PDAs with small screens and styli for gesture-based
interaction.
All these variations in devices and interaction styles require changes in design, devel-
opment and testing frameworks. This book aims to introduce the reader to the current
research trends and innovative frameworks being developed to address these changes.
Multiple User Interfaces. Edited by A. Seffah and H. Javahery
 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd ISBN: 0-470-85444-8

4 AHMED SEFFAH AND HOMA JAVAHERY
1.2. A FEW DEFINITIONS
This book refers to several context-specific terms including:
• Multi-device user interfaces: These allow a user to interact using various kinds of
computers including traditional office desktop, laptop, palmtop, PDA with or without
keyboards, and mobile telephone.
• Cross-platform user interfaces: These can run on several operating systems including
Windows, Linux and Solaris, if the user interface (UI) code is portable. For example,
Java runs a virtual machine called JVM, and code is compiled into an intermediate
format known as Java byte code, which is platform independent. When Java byte code
is executed within the JVM, the JVM optimizes the code for the particular platform on
which it is running. Microsoft’s latest technology,. NET follows the same principles.
Code is compiled into Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL) and is then executed
within the. NET framework as an application domain.
• Mobile versus stationary/fixed user interfaces: A mobile platform gives users seamless
access to information and services even when they are moving. Mobile computing
includes a large variety of mobile phones and PDAs, as well as new devices such as
wireless MP3 music players, digital cameras and personal health monitors.
• Context-aware applications: These refer to the ability of computing devices to detect,
sense, interpret and respond to aspects of a user’s local environment and the computing
devices themselves.
• User interface plasticity: The term plasticity is inspired from the property of mate-
rials that expand and contract under natural constraints without breaking, thus
preserving continuous use. Applied to HCI, plasticity is the capacity of an inter-
active system to withstand variations of contexts of use while preserving usability
properties.
• Universal user interfaces: These can support a broad range of hardware, software and
network capabilities with the central premise of accommodating users with a variety of
characteristics. These characteristics include diversity in skills, knowledge, age, gender,
disabilities, disabling conditions (mobility, sunlight, noise), literacy levels, cultures,
income levels, etc. [Hochheiser and Shneiderman 2001].
• Multiple user interfaces (MUI): These provide different views of the same information
and coordinate the services available to users from different computing platforms. By
computing platform, we refer to a combination of hardware, computing capabilities,
operating system and UI toolkit. The hardware includes traditional office desktops,
laptops, palmtops, mobile telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and interac-
tive television. In a larger sense, computing platforms include wearable computers
and any other real or virtual objects that can interact with the services and informa-
tion. MUIs can support different types of look-and-feel and offer different interaction
styles. These different types of look-and-feel and interaction styles should take into
account the constraints of each computing platform while maintaining cross-platform
consistency.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND BOOK OVERVIEW 5
1.3. CHALLENGES
Olsen et al. [2000], Johnson [1998] and Brewster et al. [1998] highlight the design chal-
lenges associated with the small screen size of hand-held devices. In comparison to
desktop computers, hand-held devices always suffer from a lack of screen real estate.
Therefore, new interaction metaphors have to be invented for such devices.
Many assumptions about classical stationary applications no longer apply for hand-
held devices due to the wide range of possibilities currently available. This wide range of
possibilities is due to hand-held devices having constantly updated capabilities, exploiting
additional features of novel generations of networks, and often being enabled for mobile
users with varying profiles.
Furthermore, many web-based UIs adapt to client devices, users and user tasks [see
Chapters 8 and 10]. This adaptation provides interfaces that run on conventional web
browsers using HyperText Markup Language (HTML), as well as on wireless PDAs,
mobile phones and pagers using Wireless Markup Language (WML) [see Chapter 5]. In
addition, it is important to adapt UIs to different users and user tasks [see Chapters 7
and 8]. For example, it is necessary to hide “Update” and “Delete” buttons if the user is
a customer or if the user is a staff member performing only information retrieval tasks.
Building such interfaces using current web-based system implementation technologies is
difficult and time-consuming, resulting in hard-to-maintain solutions.
Universal design is emerging as an approach where user interfaces of an interactive
application have to be designed for the widest population of users in different contexts
of use. In particular, the multiplicity of parameters dramatically increases the complexity
of the design phase by adding many design options from which to choose. In addition,
methods for developing UIs do not mesh well with this variety of parameters as they are
not identified and manipulated in a structured way, nor truly considered in the design
process [see Chapter 10].
1.4. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Even if the software tools for developing a large variety of interfaces on each computing
platform are already available or will be in the near future [Myers 2000], the following are
the major development issues that need to be addressed by both academic and industrial
researchers:
• Building the ability to dynamically respond to changes in the environment such as
network connectivity, user’s location, ambient sound and lighting conditions: How can
we adapt the UI to the diversity of computing platforms that exists today? How can
we maintain or adapt the high level of interactivity of the traditional office desktop in
small devices without a keyboard and mouse? How can we make it possible for users
to customize a device? When a single device is customized, how can this customization
be reflected on all of the other devices available to the user?

• Designing for universal usability: What kinds of design methods are needed for design-
ing for diverse users and a large variety of technologies? Are the design techniques for
UI modelling suitable for addressing the problems of diversity, cross-platform consis-
tency and universal accessibility?
• Checking consistency between versions for guaranteeing seamless interaction across
multiple devices: Should we strive for uniformity in the services offered, dialogue
styles and presentation formats, or should we adapt the interfaces to the constraints and
capabilities of each device and/or each context of use? When designing MUIs, what is
the best way to take into account the constraints related to each type of device while
ensuring maintainability and cross-platform consistency of interfaces?
• Implementing and maintaining versions of the user interface across multiple devices:
How can we implement and validate a MUI for d devices without writing p programs,
training an army of developers in l languages and UI toolkits, and maintaining l*p
architectural models for describing the same UI? Are the content markup languages
adequate for device-independent authoring?
The book also introduces a variety of development frameworks that have been investigated
over the last few years:
• Conceptual and adaptation frameworks for interacting with multiple user interfaces,
including visual and awareness metaphors, and speciﬁc interaction styles;
• Design frameworks and patterns including widgets, toolkits and tools for multi-device
development and in particular for mobile devices;
• Application frameworks that use multi-devices or multiple user interfaces, in particu-
lar collaborative work environments, distance education systems and remote software
deployment systems;
• Validation frameworks including usability techniques for testing multiple user inter-
faces, as well as empirical tests and feedback.
1.5. AUDIENCE
This book introduces design and development frameworks for multi-device, context-aware
and multiple user interface systems. These frameworks are valuable to researchers and
practitioners in usability and software engineering, and generally to anyone interested in
the problem of developing and validating multi-devices or cross-platform user interfaces.
User interface developers, students and educators can use these frameworks to extend and
improve their HCI methodologies, and to learn techniques for developing and evaluating
a multiple user interface.
1.6. OVERVIEW
This book is divided into 6 parts:
Part I discusses “Basic Terminology, Concepts, and Challenges”. Following the execu-
tive summary, in Chapter 2 Ahmed Seffah and Homa Javahery, the co-editors of this book,

present a broad overview of multiple user interfaces. They discuss promising development
models that can facilitate MUI development while increasing cross-platform usability. This
chapter is highly speculative and will provide questions for basic research. This is a selec-
tive list of topics, and not exhaustive. The goal is to give researchers and practitioners a
glimpse of the most important problems surrounding MUI design and development. The
editors’ opinions expressed in Chapter 2 do not necessarily reflect all of the contributors’
ideas. Complementary and differing opinions are presented by other contributors in their
own chapters. After exploring these first two chapters, the reader should have an increased
awareness of the diversity of computing platforms and devices, a deeper understanding
of the major development challenges and difficulties, and a familiarity with the basic
terminology used.
Part II is entitled “Adaptation and Context-Aware User Interfaces”, and provides three
traditional but comprehensive perspectives on adaptation and context-aware techniques.
David Thevenin et al. from the CLIPS-IMAG Laboratory in Grenoble, France, introduce
the novel concept of user interface plasticity in Chapter 3. This chapter also provides a
generous glossary of terms complementing the basic terminology presented in Chapter 2.
Chapters 4 and 5 examine two dimensions of multi-interaction and adaptation. David
England and Min Du, from Liverpool John Moores University, take a look at the dif-
ferent temporal characteristics of platforms that can affect user performance. They then
propose a framework taking into account temporal aspects of interaction in the use of
different devices. They describe how the temporal aspects should be incorporated into the
interaction design process. In Chapter 5, Constantine Stephanadis et al., from the Institute
of Computer Science of the Foundation for Research and Technology – Hellas, Greece,
introduce their framework called PALIO (Personalized Access to Local Information and
services for tourists), focusing on its extensive support for adaptation. They demonstrate
how PALIO has been successfully used in the development of a real-world context-aware
information system for tourists using a wide range of devices.
Part III is on “Development Technology and Languages” and consists of three differ-
ent XML-based development frameworks. In Chapter 6, Mir Farooq Ali et al. (from the
Virginia Technology Institute and Harmonia Inc.) describe a high level XML-based User
Interface Markup Language (UIML) for the development of cross-platform user interfaces.
In Chapter 7, Angel Puerta and Jacob Eisenstein, from RedWhale Software, discuss the
rationale of XIML, another XML-based language for developing multiple user interfaces
by transforming and refining tasks and UI models. These modelling and programming
languages distinguish the concrete aspects of a user interface such as presentation and
dialogue from its abstract aspects including the context and the tasks. They are consid-
ered by the research community to be a bridge across the gap between the design and
development of user interfaces. John Grundy and Wenjing Zou, from the University of
Auckland in New Zealand, go a step further by showing how a UI markup language can
be interfaced with existing programming languages. They describe how scripts written in
their device-independent markup language (AUIT) can be embedded in conventional Java
server pages to provide a single adaptable thin-client interface for web-based systems. At
run-time, AUIT uses a single interface description to automatically provide an interface
for multiple web devices such as desktop HTML and mobile WML-based systems, while
highlighting, hiding or disabling the interface elements depending on the current context.

Together, these three chapters show how XML-based markup languages, with the help
of model-based techniques, can lead to an advanced framework for the development of
multi-platform user interfaces.
Part IV, on “Model-Based Development”, includes three chapters describing the state
of the art and the needed evolution in model-based development approaches. The basic
purpose of model-based approaches is to identify useful abstractions highlighting the
main UI aspects that should be considered when designing effective interactive appli-
cations. In Chapter 9, Peter Forbrig et al. from the University of Rostock, Germany,
present two techniques for task modelling and specification. The first technique allows
separate descriptions of general temporal relations within a task model versus tempo-
ral constraints that are imposed by the target platform. The second technique helps to
distinguish between an abstract interaction and specific representations. Using these two
techniques, specific features of devices are specified by XML descriptions. In Chapter 10,
Vanderdonckt et al. (from the Université Catholique de Louvain, Belgium and Universi-
dade de Fortaleza, Brazil) use several models at different levels in their methodological
framework for universal design. First, the design process is instantiated at a conceptual
level where a domain expert defines an ontology of concepts, relationships and attributes
of the domain of discourse, including user modelling. Then at a logical level, a designer
specifies multiple models based on the previously defined ontology and its allowed rules.
The last step consists of using a physical level to develop multiple user interfaces from
the previously specified models, with design alternatives determined by characteristics in
the user models. Fabio Paternò, the father of CTT (ConcurTaskTrees) notation, and his
colleagues at ISTI-CNR, Italy, explain in Chapter 11 how the user model can be struc-
tured for a MUI. In particular, they show how information on user preferences and on the
mobile versus stationary environment (such as location and surroundings) can be used to
adapt a user interface at run-time and at design time.
Part V is dedicated to “Architectures, Patterns and Development Toolkits”. Homa
Javahery et al. from the Human-Centered Software Engineering Group at Concordia
University, discuss in Chapter 12 the role of HCI patterns and software reengineering
techniques in migrating traditional GUIs to web and mobile user interfaces. In Chapter 13,
Anind Dey, from Intel Research in California, and Gregory D. Abowd, from the Geor-
gia Institute of Technology, present the Context Toolkit, an innovative and integrative
infrastructure for the development of context-aware applications. Through the description
of a number of built applications, they discuss a low-level widget abstraction that mir-
rors the use of graphical widgets for building graphical user interfaces and a situation
abstraction that supports easier and higher-level application development. In Chapter 14,
Simon Lock from Lancaster University and Harry Brignull from Sussex University, UK,
describe a run-time infrastructure including a developer-level framework. This infrastruc-
ture supports the construction of applications that allow multiple users to interact through
a dynamic set of interaction devices.
“Evaluation and Social Impacts” are addressed in Part VI. In Chapter 15, Gustav Öquist
et al. (from Uppsala University in Sweden and Ericsson Research) discuss “Assessing
Usability Across Multiple User Interfaces”. They present their practical experiences with
stationary versus mobile usability evaluations. In particular, they outline four typical con-
texts of use that they characterized by monitoring four environmental usability factors. By

assessing these factors, it was possible to obtain a profile of how useful a given interface
can be in a certain context of use. The usability profiles for several different interfaces
for input and output are also presented in this chapter, partly to illustrate how usability
can be assessed over multiple user interfaces, and partly as an illustration of how differ-
ent interfaces have been adapted to mobile environment attributes. In Chapter 16, Joanna
McGrenere from the University of British Columbia summarizes her MUI evaluation
experiment combining three usability studies. In the first study, McGrenere conducted
a broad-based assessment of 53 users of MS-Word 97. Based on the findings from this
study, she developed a first multiple-interface prototype for MS-Word 2000 including
one personalizable interface. In the last study, personalization was achieved through the
Wizard of Oz technique. Even if McGrenere’s definition of a multiple user interface is
restrictive compared to the ones proposed in this book, her empirical results are very
promising. They demonstrate how users were better able to navigate through the menus
and toolbars and learn a multiple-interface prototype.
Continuing part VI, Charles Denis and Laurent Karsenty from IntuiLab Inc., argue in
chapter 17 that the usability of individual devices is not sufficient: a multi-device system
needs to also be inter-usable. They define inter-usability as the ease with which users
transfer what they have learned from previous uses of a service when they access the
service on a new device. Based on theoretical considerations and empirical observations
gathered from a study with France Telecom, they propose an analysis grid combining two
types of continuity, namely knowledge and task, with ergonomic design principles includ-
ing consistency, transparency, and dialogue adaptability. The concept of inter-usability is
very similar to the concept of horizontal usability introduced in Chapter 2 by the editors.
Inter-usability or horizontal usability is a new dimension for studying the usability of
MUIs and multi-device user interfaces.
REFERENCES
Brewster, S., Leplâtre, G. and Crease, M. (1998) Using Non-Speech Sounds in Mobile Comput-
ing Devices. Proceedings of the First Workshop on Human Computer Interaction with Mobile
Devices, May 21–23, 1998, Glasgow, UK.
Hochheiser, H. and Shneiderman, B. (2001) Universal Usability Statements: Marking the trail for
all users. ACM Interactions 8(2), March–April 2001, 16–18.
Johnson, P. (1998) Usability and Mobility: Interactions on the move. Proceedings of the First Work-
shop on Human Computer Interaction With Mobile Devices, May 21–23, 1998, Glasgow, UK.
Myers, B., Hudson, S. and Pausch, R. (2000) Past, Present, and Future of User Interface Software
Tools. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 7, 3–28.
Olsen, D., Jefferies, S., Nielsen, T. et al. (2000) Cross-modal Interaction using XWeb. Proceedings
of the 13th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, UIST’2000,
November 5–8, 2000, San Diego, USA.

2
Multiple User Interfaces:
Cross-Platform Applications and
Context-Aware Interfaces
Human-Centered Software Engineering Group, Department of Computer Science,
Concordia University, Canada
2.1. MUI: CHARACTERIZATION AND EVOLUTION
We introduced the concept of “Multiple User Interface” (MUI) at the IHM-HCI 2001
workshop [Seffah et al. 2001]. Others are also using the term MUI with varying definitions
[McGrenere et al. 2002; Vanderdonckt and Oger 2001]. For the purposes of this book, a
Multiple User Interface is defined as an interactive system that provides:
• access to information and services using different computing platforms;
• multiple views of the same information on these different platforms;
• coordination of the services provided to a single user or a group of users.
Each view should take into account the specific capabilities and constraints of the
device while maintaining cross-platform consistency and universal usability. By comput-
ing platform, we refer to a combination of computer hardware, an operating system and
Multiple User Interfaces. Edited by A. Seffah and H. Javahery
 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd ISBN: 0-470-85444-8

a user interface (UI) toolkit. Different kinds of computing platforms include traditional
office desktops, laptops, palmtops, mobile telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs),
and interactive television. A MUI provides multiple views of the same information on
these different platforms and coordinates the services provided to a single user or a group
of users. Each view should take into account the specific capabilities and constraints of the
device while maintaining cross-platform consistency and universal usability. The informa-
tion and services can reside on a single server or computer, or can be distributed among
independent and heterogeneous systems. The desired views are made available on differ-
ent computing platforms via the traditional client/server protocol or a direct peer-to-peer
access. The concept of MUIs is highly promising in a variety of fields, such as cooperative
engineering, e-commerce, on-site equipment maintenance, remote software deployment,
contingency management and assistance, as well as distance education and telemedicine.
As an example of MUI use, a civil engineer can use a Palm Pilot on PalmOS for
gathering data when inspecting a new building. He/She can then use a mobile telephone
to add comments, fax, or upload information to the office headquarters. Finally, the same
engineer or any other employee can use an office workstation under Windows/Linux to
analyze the data and prepare a final report. During this workflow, the engineer inter-
acts with the same information and services using different variations of the UI. These
variations can support differences in look-and-feel, and to a certain extent, differences in
interaction style. The following is a scenario that further clarifies the MUI concept and
its use, based on [Ghani 2001]:
You are riding in a car with your colleague who is driving. Suddenly, your mobile
phone comes on, asking if you can take a video conference call from your team in
Canada to discuss a project on which you are working. You take the call and as you
communicate with them via the integrated car video system, you find out that they
need one of the spreadsheets you have saved on your laptop, which is in the trunk
of the car. Using your wireless technology, you are able to transfer the file to your
PDA, and then send it to your team. A few minutes later your team will receive and
open your spreadsheet, using an office desktop and you can start discussing options
with them once again via your interactive television from your comfortable home.
A MUI includes the following characteristics:
• It allows a user to interact with server-side services and information using different
interaction/UI styles. For example, the civil engineer in our previous example could
use pen and gestures on a PDA, function keys or single characters on a mobile phone,
and a mouse for a desktop computer.
• It allows an individual or a group to achieve a sequence of interrelated tasks using dif-
ferent devices. For example, our civil engineer could use a mobile telephone on the road
to confirm an appointment, a desktop computer to email information about an interview,
and a PDA to gather information about the user needs when interviewing stakeholders.
Finally, a laptop/desktop computer can be used to synthesize the information and write
the requirements report.

MULTIPLE USER INTERFACES: CROSS-PLATFORM APPLICATIONS AND CONTEXT-AWARE INTERFACES 13
Figure 2.1. An example of a MUI.
• It presents features and information that behave the same across platforms, even though
each platform/device has its specific look-and-feel.
• It feels like a variation of a single interface, for different devices with the same capa-
bilities.
Figure 2.1 shows a MUI for an Internet financial management system. The interface
consists of three views: desktop, PDA with keyboard, and mobile phone. Ideally, from
the user perspective, these three different interfaces should be as similar as possible.
However, this is not realistic because of the capabilities and constraints imposed by each
platform. The MUI here can be seen as a compromise between customized and platform-
dependent UIs. The effort required to keep all interfaces consistent and to maintain them
increases linearly with the number of interfaces, while the functionality of the underlying
financial system is expanding.
The MUI provides multiple views of the same model and coordinates the user actions
gathered from different devices/computers. The model can reside on a single information
repository, or can be distributed among independent systems. Each view can be seen as
a complete UI for a specific combination of hardware, operating system, and UI toolkit.
All these interfaces form a unique and single MUI. The list of features, the interaction
style, and the displayed information and feedback can vary from one platform to another.
2.1.1. INTERACTION STYLES
A MUI can support different interaction styles for different computing platforms. The
following three styles are commonly used:

• Graphical User Interface (GUI) or WIMP interfaces. This style is the most popular and
generally used for the ofﬁce desktop. It employs four fundamental elements: windows,
icons, menus, and pointers.
• Web-based User Interface (WUI). The Web was originally conceived as a hypertext
information space. However, the development of increasingly sophisticated client and
server-side technologies has fostered its use as a remote software interface. A WUI
is generally a mixture of markup (i.e. HTML, XML syntax), style sheets, scripts (i.e.
ECMAScript, VBScript), as well as embedded objects such as Java applets and plug-
ins. An application using WUI style information is typically displayed in a single
GUI window called a browser, although multiple browser windows can be used by an
application to display information. The browser provides basic navigation. Different
browsers for small devices and mobile phones are being developed, and such browsers
are able to display a customized version of a WUI. The Yahoo Stock Manager is an
example of a WUI that has a customized version for mobile phones. The Web clipping
architecture and WAP framework provide basic services for dynamically generating
customized HTML documents that can be displayed on mobile phones.
• Handheld User Interface (HUI), such as on mobile phones and PDAs. There are two
major classes of PDAs and mobile phones in use today – those with a true GUI-style
appearance and behaviour, and those that use a GUI or WUI subset. Both classes of
UIs employ gesture-based interaction using a stylus and/or a touch screen. Even if it is
not yet clear what style of UI will dominate handheld computers, the use of GUI and
WUI styles should be re-evaluated due to lack of screen space and low bandwidth.
We expect that in the near future, designers will be asked to combine these three different
styles. Figure 2.2 shows an example of a MUI that combines the GUI and WUI styles.
Atomica Slingshot, formerly called GuruNet, is a pop-up application for retrieving refer-
ence information (dictionary, thesaurus and encyclopaedia) and real-time information such
Title Bar Find Field
Information
Tabs
Display
Section
What's
New
Status Bar
Browser
Buttons
Figure 2.2. GuruNet: An example of a MUI.

as news, weather, and stock quotes across the Internet from inside any application. Atom-
ica Slingshot (www.gurunet.com/us/products/slingshot/index.html) offers a WUI. There
also exists a GUI version for office desktops and an optimized HUI version for PDAs.
Dealing with different UI styles complicates both the development and validation of
a MUI. Making a trade-off between these different styles when they come into conflict
is not an easy task. Due to device constraints, especially bandwidth capability, the UI
on a wireless handset has to be fundamentally different from the UI on a PC. It is
more restrictive since it cannot replicate the rich graphics, content, and functionality
of the UI of a traditional GUI application. The device’s characteristics and constraints
also need to be considered with respect to their immediate effect on the task execution
time, in order to achieve the same usability for mobile UIs as for GUIs. In traditional
desktop UIs, the keyboard and the mouse are the primary input devices. Changing from
a mouse to a stylus on a touch screen requires different interaction techniques. Display
resolution and smaller design space are the mobile computing platform’s most limiting
constraints. Because of screen resolution differences, an optimal layout for one display
may be impossible to render on another device. Reducing the size of a graphic might
make it meaningless, while scrolling large graphics both horizontally and vertically is an
unwieldy, unusable approach.
For all these reasons, some of the current development techniques that make implicit
assumptions about device characteristics need to be rethought. New presentation and
interaction techniques for MUIs are needed.
2.1.2. FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS
The following are the major intrinsic characteristics of a MUI:
• Abstraction: All information and services should be the same across computing plat-
forms supporting the same level of interactivity, even if not all information and services
are shown or needed for all platforms. For example, a product listing might include
only the best-selling items on a handheld device, with the rest relegated to a secondary
“more products” page. For an office desktop, the product list includes all the items
for sale.
• Cross-platform consistency: A MUI can have a different look-and-feel while main-
taining the same behaviour over different platforms. For example, all user preferences
must be preserved across the interfaces. If the end-user has specified a particular access
mechanism using one interface, it should be used on all interfaces.
• Uniformity: A MUI should offer support for the same functionality and feedback even
if certain features or variations are eliminated on some platforms [Ramsay and Nielsen
2000]. For example, let us assume that an airline reservation system presents choosing a
flight and buying the ticket in two separate steps. This separation should be preserved
on all versions instead of unifying the two tasks into a single step on a simplified
version of the interface.
• User awareness of trade-off: It would be acceptable to have a simplified version of
a program that excludes certain less-important features (such as specifying a seating
preference) that are present in the more advanced version. Missing these features is a

trade-off that the user would be willing to make in return for the benefits of being able
to use the system in mobile contexts.
• Conformity to default UI standards: It is not necessary for all features to be made
available on all devices. For example, a PDA interface could eliminate images or it
might show them in black and white. Similarly, text can be abbreviated on a small
display, although it should be possible to retrieve the full text through a standard-
ized command.
These characteristics and constraints are not artefacts of current development technologies,
but are intrinsic to the MUI concept. Together, they characterize a MUI and complicate
its development.
2.1.3. VERTICAL VERSUS HORIZONTAL USABILITY
MUI usability issues can be considered to have two dimensions: vertical and horizontal.
Vertical usability refers to usability requirements specific to each platform while horizontal
usability is concerned with cross-platform usability requirements.
Many system manufacturers have issued design guidelines to assist designers in devel-
oping usable applications. These guidelines can be categorized according to whether they
advocate a design model (i.e. “do this”) or whether they discourage a particular imple-
mentation (i.e. “don’t do this”). For the PalmOS platform (www.palmsource.com), several
design guidelines address navigation issues, widget selection, and use of specialized input
mechanisms such as handwriting recognition. Microsoft Corporation has also published
usability guidelines to assist developers with programming applications targeted at the
Pocket PC platform. However, ‘give the user immediate and tangible feedback during
interaction with an application’ is either too general or too simplistic. In many cases,
the use of several different guidelines could create inconsistencies. Guidelines can come
into conflict more than usual, and making a trade-off can become an unsolvable task for
MUI developers.
Sun’s guidelines for the Java Swing architecture (http://java.sun.com) describe a look-
and-feel interface that can overcome the limitations of platform-dependent guidelines.
However, these guidelines do not take into account the distinctiveness of each device,
and in particular the platform constraints and capabilities. An application’s UI components
should not be hard-coded for a particular look-and-feel. The Java PL&F (Pluggable Look
and Feel) is the portion of a Swing component that deals with its appearance (its look);
it is distinguished from its event-handling mechanism (its feel). When you run a Swing
program, it can set its own default look by simply calling a UIManager method named
setLookAndFeel.
2.1.4. RELATED WORK
Remarkably, although research on MUIs and multi-device interaction can be traced to
the early 1980s, there are relatively few examples of successful implementations [Grudin
1994]. Perhaps the main cause of this poor success rate is the difficulty of integrating the
overwhelming number of technological, psychological and sociological factors that affect
MUI usability into a single unified design.

In the evolution of user interfaces, a multi-user interface has been introduced to support
groups of devices and people cooperating through the computer medium [Grudin 1994].
A single user in the context of a MUI corresponds to a group of users for a multi-user
interface. The user is asynchronously collaborating with himself/herself. Even if the user
is physically the same person, he/she can have different characteristics while working
with different devices. For example, a mobile user is continuously in a rush, impatient,
and unable to wait [Ramsay and Nielsen 2000]. This user needs immediate, quick, short
and concise feedback. In the office, the same user can afford to wait a few seconds more
for further details and explanations.
The MUI domain can benefit from the considerable number of studies done in the area
of context-aware (or context-sensitive) user interfaces. This is still an active research topic,
with many emerging models such as plastic user interfaces [Thevenin and Coutaz 1999]
and the moderator model [Vanderdonckt and Oger 2001]. In a recent essay, Winograd
[2001] compared different architectures for context of use. As characterized in the previous
section, a MUI is a context-sensitive UI. This does not mean that a MUI should adapt
itself magically at run-time to the context of use (and in particular to platform capabilities
and constraints). The MUI can be either adaptive or adaptable. As we will discuss in the
next section, the adaptation can be done during specification, design or development by
the developer. The adaptation can also occur before or after deployment, either by the
end-user or the developer.
The concept of a compound document is also a useful technology that can support
the development and integration of the different views that form a MUI. A compound
document framework can act as a container in which a continuous stream of various
kinds of data and components can be placed [Orfali et al. 1996]. To a certain extent,
a compound document is an organized collection of user interfaces that we consider as
a specialization of a MUI. Each content form has associated controls that are used to
modify the content in place. During the last decade, a number of frameworks have been
developed such as Andrew, OLE, Apple OpenDoc, Active X and Sun Java Beans.
Compound document frameworks are important for the development of a MUI for
several reasons. They allow the different parts of a MUI to co-exist closely. For example,
they keep data active from one part to another, unlike the infamous cut and paste. They
also eliminate the need for an application to have a viewer for all kinds of data; it is
sufficient to invoke the right functionality and/or editor. Views for small devices do not
have to implement redundant functions. For example, there is no need for Microsoft
Word to implement a drawing program; views can share a charting program. Compound
document frameworks can also support asynchronous collaboration between the different
views and computers.
McGrenere et al. [2002] illustrate the use of two versions of the same application with
two different user interfaces as follows:
One can imagine having multiple interfaces for a new version of an application;
for example, MS-Word 2000 could include the MS-Word 97 interface. By allowing
users to continue to work in the old interface while also accessing the new interface,
they would be able to transition at a self-directed pace. Similarly, multiple interfaces
might be used to provide a competitor’s interface in the hopes of attracting new

customers. For example, MS-Word could offer the full interface of a word processor
such as Word Perfect (with single button access to switch between the two), in order
to support users gradually transitioning to the Microsoft product.
Our definition of a MUI is different from McGrenere’s definition. The common basis
is the fact that the user is exposed to two variations of the same interface. McGrenere
considers only the variations, which are referred to as versions, for the same computing
platform; while in our definition, the two variations can be either for the same computing
platform or for different ones.
2.2. FERTILE TOPICS FOR RESEARCH
EXPLORATION
We will now discuss promising development models that can facilitate MUI development
while increasing their usability. This section of the paper is highly speculative and will
raise far more fundamental research questions than it will provide answers. Furthermore,
this is a selective list of topics, and not exhaustive. Our goal is to give researchers a
glimpse of the most important problems surrounding potential MUI development models.
In the migration of interactive systems to new platforms and architectures, many mod-
ifications have to be made to the user interface. As an example, in the process of adapting
the traditional desktop GUI to other kinds of user interfaces such as Web or handheld
user interfaces, most of the UI code has to be modified. In this scenario, UI model-based
techniques can drive the reengineering process. Reverse engineering techniques can be
applied, resulting in a high-level model of the UI. This model can then be used to help
reengineer the user interface.
2.2.1. CONTEXT-AWARE DEVELOPMENT
Context-aware UI development refers to the ability to tailor and optimize an interface
according to the context in which it is used. Context-aware computing as mentioned
by Dey and Abowd refers to the “ability of computing devices to detect and sense,
interpret and respond to, aspects of a user’s local environment and the computing devices
themselves” [Dey and Abowd 2000]. Context-aware applications dynamically adapt their
behaviour to the user’s current situation, and to changes of context of use that might
occur at run-time, without explicit user intervention. Adaptation requires a MUI to sense
changes in the context of use, make inferences about the cause of these changes, and then
to react appropriately.
Two types of adaptation have to be considered for MUIs:
• Adapting to technological variety Technological variety implies supporting a broad
range of hardware, software, and network access. The first challenge in adaptation
is to deal with the pace of change in technology and the variety of equipment that
users employ. The stabilizing forces of standard hardware, operating systems, network
protocols, file formats and user interfaces are undermined by the rapid pace of tech-
nological change. This variety also results in computing devices (e.g. mobile phones)

that exhibit drastically different capabilities. For example, PDAs use a pen-based input
mechanism and have average screen sizes around three inches. In contrast, the typ-
ical PC uses a full sized keyboard and a mouse and has an average screen size of
17 inches. Coping with such drastic variations implies much more than mere layout
changes. Pen-based input mechanisms are slower than traditional keyboards and are
therefore inappropriate for applications such as word processing that require intensive
user input.
• Adapting to diversity in context of use Further complications arise from accommodat-
ing users with different skills, knowledge, age, gender, disabilities, disabling condi-
tions (mobility, sunlight, noise), literacy, culture, income, etc. [Stephanidis 2002]. For
example, while walking down the street, a user may use a mobile phone’s Internet
browser to look up a stock quote. However, it is highly unlikely that this same user
would review the latest changes made to a document using the same device. Rather, it
would seem more logical and deﬁnitely more practical to use a full size computer for
this task. It would therefore seem that the context of use is determined by a combina-
tion of internal and external factors. The internal factors primarily relate to the user’s
attention while performing a task. In some cases, the user may be entirely focused
while at other times, the user may be distracted by other concurrent tasks. An example
of this latter point is that when a user is driving a car, he/she cannot use a PDA to
reference a telephone number. External factors are determined to a large extent by the
device’s physical characteristics. It is not possible to make use of a traditional PC as
one walks down the street. The same is not true for a mobile telephone. The challenge
to the system architect is thus to match the design of a particular device’s UI with the
set of constraints imposed by the corresponding context of use.
A fundamental question is when should a MUI be tailored as a single and unique
interface? The range of strategies for adaptation is delimited by two extremes. Interface
adaptation can happen at the factory, that is, developers produce several versions of an
application tailored according to different criteria. Tailoring can also be done at the user’s
side, for instance, by system administrators or experienced users. At the other extreme,
individual users might tailor the interfaces themselves, or the interface could adapt on
its own by analyzing the context of use. The consensus from our workshop was that the
adaptation of a MUI should be investigated at different steps of the deployment lifecycle
[Seffah et al. 2001]:
• User customization after deployment Here, tailoring operations are the entire responsi-
bility of the user. While this laissez-faire approach avoids the need for system support,
it lacks a central arbitrator to resolve incompatible and inconsistent preferences between
devices. The arbitrator should have the ability to make global changes (cross-platform
changes) based on local adaptations. This makes MUIs more difﬁcult to write, and the
adaptation fails to repay the development cost of support.
• Automatic adaptation at run-time The idea is to write one UI implementation that
adapts itself at run-time to any computing platform and context of use. The drawback
of this strategy is that there may be situations where adaptation performed by the system
is inadequate or even counterproductive.

• Just-in-time customization during development or deployment Developers can use a
high-level language to implement an abstract and device-independent UI model. Then,
using a rendering tool, they can generate the code for a specific platform. The User
Interface Markup Language, UIML [Abrams and Phanouriou 1999], and the eXtensi-
ble Interface Markup Language, XIML [Eisenstein et al. 2001], aim to support such
an approach.
• Customization during design and specification This approach requires the development
of an appropriate design methodology and multi-platform terminology to properly build
a task model of a MUI. This model may be expressed in one or more notations. Tailoring
can be done at the stage of abstract interface specification where the dialogue gets
modified, for example to shortcut certain steps, to rearrange the order for performing
steps, etc.
Efforts have already begun to develop frameworks that support the building of context-
aware applications. The Context Toolkit [Dey and Abowd 2000] is an infrastructure that
supports the rapid development of context-aware services, assuming an explicit descrip-
tion of a context. This framework’s architecture enables the applications to obtain the
context they require without knowledge about how the context was sensed. The Context
Toolkit consists of context widgets that implicitly sense context, aggregators that collect
related context, interpreters that convert between context types and interpret the context,
applications that use context and a communications infrastructure that delivers context
to these distributed components. The toolkit makes it easy to add the use of context or
implicit input to existing applications.
2.2.2. MODEL-BASED DEVELOPMENT
Model-based approaches for UI development [Bomsdorf and Szwillus 1998; Müller et al.
2001] exploit the idea of using declarative interface models to drive the interface devel-
opment process. An interface model represents all the relevant aspects of a UI using a
user interface modelling language. Model-based development approaches attempt to auto-
matically produce a concrete UI design (i.e. a concrete presentation and dialogue for a
specific platform) from the abstract “generic” representation of the UI (i.e., generic task,
domain and dialogue model). This is done by mapping the abstract model onto the con-
crete user interface or some of its elements [Bomsdorf and Szwillus 1998]. For example,
given user task t in domain d, the mapping process will find an appropriate presentation p
and dialogue D that allows user u to accomplish t. Therefore, the goal of a model-based
system in such a case is to link t, d, and u with an appropriate p and D. Model-based UI
development could be characterized as a process of creating mappings between elements
in various model components. The process of generating the concrete interface and UI
model involves levels as shown in Figure 2.3.
Model-based approaches, in particular the related automatic or semi-automatic UI
generation techniques, are of interest to MUI development. UI modelling will be an
essential component of any effective long-term approach to developing MUIs. Increased
user involvement in the UI development process will produce more usable UI models.
Model-based UI systems take an abstract model of the UI and apply design rules and data

UI models
Generic UI specification
Concrete UI specification
Generic task, domain and dialog
models
Concrete task, domain and
dialogue models
Figure 2.3. Examples of models and mappings in model-based development.
about the application to generate an instance of the UI. Declarative model-based tech-
niques use UI modelling techniques for abstractly describing the UI. A formal, declarative
modelling language should express the UI model.
Current model-based techniques, which most frequently use task and domain models,
do not generate high-quality interfaces. Furthermore, task analysis is performed to obtain
a single UI that is adapted for a single context of use. We need to model tasks that can be
supported in multiple contexts of use, considering multiple combinations of the contextual
conditions. Knowledge bases for domain, presentation, dialogue, platform and context of
use need to be exploited to produce a usable UI that matches the requirements of each
context of use.
UI models that support mobility contain not only the visual look-and-feel of the UI,
but also semantic information about the interface. The model-based techniques proposed
for mobile UIs range from relatively low-level implementation solutions, such as the
use of abstract and concrete interactor objects, to high-level task-based optimization of
the interface’s presentation structure. UI models should factor out different aspects of UI
design that are relevant to different contexts of use and should isolate context-independent
issues from context-specific ones.
As a starting point for research in the field of model-based development for MUIs,
the focus should be on task-based models [Paternò 2001]. Such models can foster the
emergence of new development approaches for MUIs, or at least help us to better under-
stand the complexity of MUI development. A task model describes the essential tasks that
the user performs while interacting with the UI. A typical task model is a hierarchical
tree with sub-trees indicating the tasks that the user can perform. Task models are a very
convenient specification of the way problems can be solved.
Early investigations show that in the case of a MUI, we should make a distinction
between four kinds of task models [Müller et al. 2001]: general task models for the
problem domain, general task models for software support, device-dependent task models

and environment-dependent task models. The general task model for the problem domain
is the result of a very detailed analysis of the problem domain. It describes how a problem
can be tackled in general. All relevant activities and their temporal relations are described.
Such a model can be considered as the representation of an expert’s knowledge. The state
of the art for the problem domain is captured within this model.
Certain approaches transform whole applications from one platform to another one
without considering the tasks that will be supported. However, sometimes it is wise to
look at the tasks first and to decide which tasks a device can support optimally. This
information is captured in the device-dependent task model. The environment-dependent
task model is the most specific one. It is based on design decisions in previous models
and describes computer-supported tasks for a given device. This model describes the
behaviour of a system based on the available tools, resources, and the abilities of the
user. It can be interpreted statically (environmental influences are defined during design
time) or dynamically (environmental influences are evaluated during run-time).
2.2.3. PATTERN-DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT
In the field of UI design, a pattern encapsulates a proven solution for a usability problem
that occurs in various contexts of use. As an illustration, the convenient toolbar pattern
(used on web pages) provides direct access to frequently used pages or services. This
pattern, also called Top Level Navigation [Tidwell 1997], can include navigation con-
trols for News, Search, Contact Us, Home Page, Site Map, etc. UI design patterns can
be used to create a high-level design model, and can therefore facilitate the develop-
ment and validation of MUIs. Discussion of patterns for software design started with the
software engineering community and now the UI design community has enthusiastically
taken up discussion of patterns for UI design. Many groups have devoted themselves to
the development of pattern languages for UI design and usability. Among the heteroge-
neous collections of patterns, those known as Common Ground, Experience, Brighton,
and Amsterdam play a major role in this field and have significant influence [Tidwell
1997; Borchers 2000]. Patterns have the potential to support and drive the whole design
process of MUIs by helping developers select proven solutions of the same problem for
different platforms.
Pattern-driven development should not be considered as an alternative approach to
model-based and context-aware development. In the context of MUI development, patterns
can complement a task model by providing best experiences gained through end-user
feedback. Furthermore, patterns are suitable for transferring knowledge from usability
experts to software engineers who are unfamiliar with MUI design, through the use
of software tools. For instance, CASE tools have long been available to assist software
developers in the integration of the many aspects of web application prototyping [Javahery
and Seffah 2002].
However, the natural language medium generally used to document patterns, coupled
with a lack of tool support, compromises these potential uses of patterns, as well as the
pattern-oriented design approach. These well-known weaknesses of UI patterns should
motivate researchers to investigate a systematic approach to support both pattern writ-
ers and users alike by automating the development of pattern-assisted design. We should

also provide a framework for automating the development of pattern-oriented design. The
motivation of such automation is to help novice designers apply patterns correctly and effi-
ciently when they really need them. One approach to pattern-oriented design automation
is being able to understand during the design process when a pattern is applicable, how it
can be applied, and how and why it can or cannot be combined with other related patterns.
2.2.4. DEVICE-INDEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT
Currently, different development languages are available (Figure 2.4). Under the umbrella
of platform-dependent languages, we classify the wide variety of existing mark-up lan-
guages for wireless devices such as the Wireless Markup Language (WML) or the light
HTML version. These languages take into account the platform constraints and capabil-
ities posed by each platform. They also suggest specific design patterns for displaying
information and interacting with the user in specific ways for each device.
Platform-independent languages are mainly based on UI modelling techniques. Their
goal is to allow cross-platform development of UIs while ensuring consistency not only
between the interfaces on a variety of platforms, but also in a variety of contexts of
use. They provide support for constraints imposed not only by the computing platforms
themselves, but also by the type of user and by the physical environment. They should
help designers recognize and accommodate each context in which the MUI is being
used. Such languages provide basic mechanisms for UI reconfigurations depending on
variations of the context of use. They address some of the problems raised by context-
aware development.
XML-based languages such as XIML and UIML are promising candidates for MUI
development. Some of the reasons are that such XML-based languages:
• Can contain constraint definitions for the XML form itself, and also for the exter-
nal resources;
• Allow the separation of UI description from content, by providing a way to spec-
ify how UI components should interact and a way to spell out the rules that define
interaction behaviour;
Assembly language
High-level programming language (C, C++, etc.)
Platform-dependent mark-up language (WML, etc.)
Platform-independent markup and model-based
language (XIML, UIML)
Scripting language (VB, PERL, etc.)
Figure 2.4. Evolution of UI development languages.

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