![CHAPTER 1
Introduction to nanomaterials and
nanomanufacturing for nanosensors
Tariq Mahbuba
, Md Enamul Hoqueb
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology,
Dhaka, Bangladesh
b
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST),
Dhaka, Bangladesh
1.1 Nanosensors
Sensors are devices used to detect the presence of a specific substance or to measure a physical
property such as temperature, mass, or electrical or optical characteristics and produce a
signal for recording or further postprocessing. The history of sensors is a long one. The first
thermostat came into existence in the 1880s, and the first infrared sensor was developed in
1940. Nanosensors are similar to macrolevel sensors but have at least one dimension in
nanoscale and can be used to measure signals available at that scale. Nanotechnology, with its
rapid developments in recent years, has shown great potential in almost all industries.
Various electronics industries have fueled these developments to satisfy their need for
miniaturization, and the nanosensor field has taken advantage of these advances for its own
development. A large volume of research has been conducted over the last two decades in
the area of nanomaterials for wider applications, including nanosensors [1–10]. Since
nanosensors can deal with signals produced at the nanoscale, the sample quantities needed are
quite small and detection is very rapid. All of these qualities have helped the applications
of various types of nanosensors in different fields, especially in the medical and homeland
security fields. Gaining a clearer understanding of the special properties offered at the
nanoscale by nanomaterials, evolution of the various techniques for nanomaterial production,
and exploitation of the special properties of nanomaterials have all advanced nanosensor
development.
Nanofabrication for Smart Nanosensor Applications. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820702-4.00001-5
# 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-14-320.jpg)
![1.1.1 Types of nanosensors
During the short history of nanosensors, this technology has experienced substantial
developments. Since a variety of nanosensors are available today, classification can be
somewhat difficult. However, nanosensors can be classified based on two general
factors: (1) structure and (2) application.
Based on structure, nanosensors can be further classified into two groups:
Optical nanosensors: Optical nanosensors use the sensitivity of fluorescence for qualitative
and quantitative measurement.
Electrochemical nanosensors: This class of nanosensor mainly detects electronic or chemical
properties of a respective substance and transduces a signal. Recently, major developments
have taken place in this type of nanosensor technology.
Based on application, nanosensors can be classified into chemical nanosensors, nanoscale
electrometers, nanobiosensors, deployable sensors, and so on.
1.1.2 Applications of nanosensors
Nanosensors are gradually assuming roles in almost every aspect of human life. A number of
sensors can detect the presence of hazardous materials or microorganisms in food, water, and
air. These sensors are saving lives in different corners of the world. In the medical field
nanosensors are having a huge impact: for example, a variety of nanosensors are being used in
cancer detection, DNA and protein detection, and targeted drug delivery. Deployable sensors
have found applications in homeland security. Various chemical sensors are now added to
unmanned aerial vehicles to detect the presence of poisonous gas on the battlefield, to save the
lives of soldiers. Various tagging systems employ RFID chips, which are also an application of
nanosensors.
1.2 Nanomaterials for nanosensors
For centuries the beauty of the 400 CE Lycurgus Cup and the strength and beauty of a
Damascus steel blade have amazed people, but it has been only decades since we discovered the
secret behind these extraordinary ancient artifacts: nanomaterials [11,12]. Nanomaterials
are defined as those nanoparticles (NPs) that have at least one dimension in nanometer scale and
that exhibit some special property that is not available in the bulk form of the same
material. Though unknowingly used in several ancient artifacts, the modern-day extensive
research, informed fabrication, and utilization of nanomaterials began in 1857, when Michael
Faraday reported the synthesis of so-called “activated gold,” which was a colloidal solution
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![of Au NPs [13]. Since that time, the use of nanomaterials has slowly but surely spread,
due to their extraordinary properties associated with their size. Nanomaterials show
extraordinary properties different than their bulk size because of their nanoscale dimension.
The surface-to-volume ratio of nanomaterials is very high, which results in variations in
chemical, mechanical, optical, and magnetic nature [14]. To explore the properties and
applications of nanomaterials properly, it is judicious to classify them. However, several factors
can be considered in classifying nanomaterials, such as physical and chemical properties,
manufacturing process, dimensionality, uniformity, composition, and so forth [15]. From the
point of view of this chapter, we classify nanomaterials into four classes based on their
chemical composition: (1) carbon-based, (2) organic-based, (3) inorganic-based, and (4)
composite-based nanomaterials. In the following sections, we discuss different nanomaterials
that fall within these four categories and their applications, especially as nanosensors.
At this point, a brief introduction to nanosensors may be very helpful for those new to this
field. A sensor is a device that detects and responds to any change in its environment.
Daily life is full of sensors, such as light sensors, rain sensors, lane assist in automobiles,
smoke and fire alarm sensors, electrical sensors, and so forth. Nanosensors perform the
same function, but on a much smaller scale (1–100 nm), capable of sensing pathogens,
viruses, molecules, or even a single chemical element. The main advantages of nanosensors
are the minute sample quantities required, speed, portability, and low cost in mass
production, among others.
The history of nanosensors is only decades old. Since the beginning of the current century, the
world has experienced a rapid escalation of production and use of nanosensors as a consequence
of two factors. First, nanosensors, due to their excellent performance, have convinced the
world that they can be successfully used in different applications varying from the food
industry, fire and hazardous gas detection, to various critical fields like military and advanced
medical applications. Secondly, there is a tremendous advancement of different
manufacturing processes used for manufacturing nanosensors, increased availability, and
development of new nanomaterials and more clear understanding of nanoscale
phenomena [16].
1.2.1 Properties of nanomaterials for nanosensors
Nanomaterials, due to high surface-to-volume ratio and the manufacturing process, offer some
extraordinary properties that can be explored to produce various applications in drug
manufacturing, environmental sensing and protection, materials and manufacturing industries,
electronics, energy harvesting, etc. A few properties that are relevant to nanosensors are briefly
described in the following sections.
Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 3](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-16-320.jpg)
![1.2.1.1 Optical properties
Nanomaterials offer some excellent optical properties, such as light absorption, color, light
emission, and magnetooptical properties due to their sizes; these properties are quite different
from their bulk properties and make nanomaterials a good choice for optical nanosensors. One
of the first nanosensors devised to measure inhomogeneous pH distribution in three-
dimensional resolution was fluorescein-based, using a polyacrylamide nanoparticle
incorporated with pH-sensitive fluorescein-acrylamide [17]. Fluorescent nanosensors can
respond to some specific stimuli provided by the surrounding environment and transduce a
fluorescence signal to the detector to sense environmental changes. These nanosensors are used
to make oxygen sensors [18] and temperature sensors. The localized surface plasmon (LSP)
effect of the noble metal nanoparticle is a current active field of research for making
nanosensors (Fig. 1.1). When a nanoparticle confines surface plasmon, due to its dimension,
comparable to the wavelength of light, the free electron of the nanoparticle participates in
the collective oscillation. This phenomenon is called localized surface plasmon (LSP) [19].
The LSP effect greatly enhances the electric field near the nanoparticle surface and at the
plasmon resonant frequency the particle shows maximum optical extinction. A number of gas
sensors [20,21] and pH sensors [22,23] are manufactured using LSP.
1.2.1.2 Electronic properties
Nanomaterials can offer quite exceptional electronic properties that originate from the shape
and structure of the nanomaterial. When talking about exceptional electronic properties, the
name that comes to mind first is graphene. Graphene has a single-layer 2D honeycomb
structure in which both surfaces are available for molecule absorption. The structure causes the
electron seemly to be massless [24] and the electron moves at an average speed which is
300 times less than the speed of light at vacuum. This allows many relativistic events to be
e-
e- e- e-
e- e- e-
e- e- e-
e-
Electron cloud
Light wave
Electric
field
e-
Fig. 1.1
Schematic diagram of localized surface plasmon effect.
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![observable without a particle accelerator [15]. The carbon nanotube (CNT) in which graphene
acts as a building block also offers some excellent electronic properties. The sp2
hybridization
of the carbon orbitals in the CNT leaves free electrons at the surface of the tubes, which
yields these excellent properties. CNT can show metallic, semiconducting, or insulating
behavior, which can be controlled by controlling the diameter, chirality of the CNT, and any
functionalization or doping done on CNT [25]. Nanosensors using these properties detect using
two methods: (a) current enhancement, and (b) current inhibition. Various electrochemical
sensors have been developed for different purposes, such as detecting dopamine [26], histamine
[27], bacteria [28], glucose [29], and so forth, using the electronic properties of nanomaterials.
1.2.1.3 Magnetic properties
Due to the uneven arrangement and orientation of electrons in nanomaterials, and their size,
nanomaterials exhibit excellent magnetic properties too. Magnetic properties of nanomaterials
are becoming a center of interest in different branches of engineering, including but not limited
to different types of catalysis, biomedicine for cancer treatment, magnetic fluids, nuclear
magnetic resonance imaging (NMR), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and environmental
remediation [30]. Magnetic nanosensors use different techniques to perform detection, like the
effect magnetic particles exert on water proton relaxation rates, by determining the relaxation
of the magnetic moment within the magnetic particle, by detecting the presence of a magnetic
particle using magnetoresistivity, etc. Koh et al. explain different biosensors using the
previously mentioned methods. The following figures show schematic representations of the
three procedures [31]. Fig. 1.2A represents how magnetic nanoparticles dephase the protons of
water for a better MRI scan. Magnetic particles generally stay dispersed in a liquid solvent. But
when a target analyte (triangle in Fig. 1.2A) appears, the dispersed nanoparticles produce an
aggregate around it and eventually this aggregate dephases the spins of water protons more
efficiently than the dispersed state. This reduces the spin-spin relaxation time T2 to produce a
better MRI image. Fig. 1.2B shows the application of magnetic moment relaxation within a
magnetic nanoparticle for bacterial detection. The type of relaxation used here is Neel
relaxation. In the upper figure A, a magnetic field is applied to the nanoparticles and they orient
themselves along the applied field. Some of the nanoparticles are bonded with the target
bacteria. Later, in figure B, the field is removed and many of the particles experience Brownian
relaxation and randomly orient in a different direction. But the nanoparticles bonded to the
bacteria cannot undergo Brownian relaxation and rather show Neel relaxation, which is
comparatively slower and detectable. The superconducting quantum interference devices
(SQUIDs) detect the slower Neel relaxation and bacterial detection is performed. Fig. 1.2C
shows the operation of a magnetoresistive sensor. The basic principle that a magnetoresistive
sensor applies is that the magnetic particle bonds to the surface of the sensor and eventually
alters its magnetic field. This causes a change in sensor current and the detection is performed.
There are two mechanisms through which magnetic particles bind to the sensor surface: (i) direct
labeling, and (ii) indirect labeling. In the case of direct labeling, magnetic nanoparticles directly
Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 5](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-18-320.jpg)
![Sensor functionalization
Linker incubation
Capture antibody BSA Analyte Biotinylated antibody
Magnetoresistive Sensor
Streptavidin-coated magnetic nanotag
Nanotag-based quantification
Analyte incubation
Capture antibody BSA
Control
Control
Control
Control
Probe
Target bacterium
Magnetic particle
A
A
C
B
D
(A)
(B) (C)
B
Antibody
Probe
Probe
Probe
Fig. 1.2
(A) Magnetic property of nanomaterials used for sensing applications [31]. (B) Magnetic property of nanomaterials used for sensing
applications (working principle of SQUID) [31]. (C) Schematic diagram of giant magnetoresistive sensor application [31].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-19-320.jpg)
![bindtothesurfacefunctionality,whileforindirectlabelingasandwichassayiscreated.Fig.1.2C
schematically shows the detection of protein by creating a sandwich assay.
Nanoparticles possess many more extraordinary properties including mechanical and thermal
properties, but these properties are not very important to the current subject point of view.
1.2.2 Different nanomaterials for nanosensors
To discuss and understand the use of nanomaterials in developing nanosensors, it is helpful to
classify them into different groups. But classifying nanomaterials into different groups is a
formidable job. Nanomaterials can be prepared using a number of bottom-up processes such as
cutting, ball milling, extruding, chipping, pounding, and many more [32] and top-down
approaches [33] resulting in different types of structures, with different surface coatings, which
can cause the classification to be obscure. For that reason, here we do not put too much
concentration on classifying nanomaterials, but rather we shed some light on some commonly
used nanomaterials. A schematic representation of carbon-based nanomaterials is provided in
Fig. 1.3 for a better understanding of the diverse nature of nanomaterials.
Fig. 1.3
Different carbon-based nanomaterials [34].
Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 7](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-20-320.jpg)
![1.2.2.1 Carbon nanotube
First developed in 1991 by Iijima, the carbon nanotube (CNT) is by far the most-used carbon-
based nanomaterial. It is a cylinder having diameters from fractions to tens of nanometers and a
length up to several micrometers. There exist both single-walled (SWCNTs) and multiwalled
(MWCNTs) nanotubes that are formed by single and multiple layers of graphene lamella,
respectively, seamlessly rolled up [14]. The CNT is commonly produced by a chemical vapor
deposition (CVD) technique or vaporization of graphite in a furnace in an inert (argon gas)
atmosphere. The CNT possesses some excellent properties, such as high strength caused by its
hexagonal structure, exceptional electronic properties caused by the free electron available
after sp2
hybridization, and ease of functionalization with different organic molecules that
provide a means to interact selectively with different analytes. This easy-to-functionalize
property enables CNTs to be used as probe tips for a wide range of chemical and biological
applications.
The main application of the CNT as a sensor is in the field-effect transistor (FET). Though
the CNT is robust and inert in nature, it is highly sensitive to chemical doping. A wide variety of
FETs are manufactured by chemical doping of CNTs. Fig. 1.4 shows a schematic diagram
of CNT-FET.
CNT-FETs are used to detect different types of gases like CO2, NH3, O2 [35], NO2, N2 [36], and
so forth. CNT-FETs are also used for detection in biological science. A variety of sensors
have already been developed by researchers for detecting proteins [37], enzymes, and β-D
glucose [38], among others.
1.2.2.2 Nanowires
Nanowires are also commonly used in making nanosensors, just like CNTs. Nanowires are
produced through a variety of processes such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), laser
ablation, alternating current electrodeposition, and thermal evaporation [25]. Nanowires can be
made up of different materials but silicone nanowires have drawn recent interest. The electrical
properties and sensitivity of silicon nanowires can be tuned properly and reproducibly by
Si
SiO2
Gate
Drain
Source
CNT or net of CNTs
Fig. 1.4
Schematic diagram of CNT-FET [25].
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![controlling the nanowire diameter and dopant concentration [39]. Hahm et al. produced a
SiNW-based sensor to detect DNA and DNA mismatches [40] in which the silicon nanowire
devices were modified with peptide nucleic acid receptors. The gold nanocluster catalyzed
chemical vapor deposition technique was employed to prepare the nanowires used in this
sensor. The nanowires were assembled on the sensor along with peptide nucleic acid.
A schematic diagram of the device is given in Fig. 1.5 [40]. When a wild type or mutant DNA is
introduced to the sensor via the microfluidic channel, peptide nucleic acid binds with the DNA
and creates a tiny change of the conductance of the silicon nanowire. This change of
conductance enables the sensor to differentiate between fully complementary or
mismatched DNA.
Nanowires are also used to make gas sensors that can qualitatively detect NH3.
1.2.2.3 Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are a commonly used nanomaterial not only in sensor manufacturing but also in
many other engineering applications. Although the name suggests a nanoparticle is a single
molecule, NPs are not just simply one molecule but rather a combination of three layers. These
layers are (a) the surface layer, which can be used to functionalize the nanoparticle; (b) the shell
layer; and (c) the core, which is essentially the central portion of the NP [41]. Nanoparticles are
PNA
(B) (C)
(A)
PNA-DNA
Fig. 1.5
(A) Schematic of a sensor device consisting of a SiNW (yellow) and a microfluidic channel (green),
where the arrows indicate the direction of sample flow. (B) The SiNW surface with PNA receptor.
(C) PNA-DNA duplex formation [40].
Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 9](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-22-320.jpg)
![prepared using various approaches like bottom-up synthesis, including but not limited to
chemical vapor deposition (CVD), spinning, plasma spraying synthesis, and laser pyrolysis,
and top-down approaches, including but not limited to mechanical milling, sputtering, and laser
ablation. Nanoparticles can be classified into various classes, for example (a) carbon-based
nanoparticle, (b) metal nanoparticle, (c) ceramic nanoparticle, (d) semiconductor nanoparticle,
and (e) polymer nanoparticle. Fig. 1.6 shows the SEM and TEM images of different
nanoparticles (NPs). Nanoparticles offer exceptional electronic, optical, magnetic, mechanical,
and thermal properties. Among these, the first three properties are exploited to produce many
sensors. Metallic nanoparticles are used to enhance surface plasmon resonance sensitivity. The
surface plasmon resonance technique is used in many optical sensors described in the previous
section. Palladium nanoparticles deposited on etched porous silicon are used to detect hydrogen
in the environment, while carbon electrodes with deposited gold nanoparticles are used to
detect copper in water [16].
Fig. 1.6
SEM image of (A) nonporous MA-SiO2 NPs, (B) mesoporous MA-SiO2 NPs. TEM images of
(C) nonporous MASiO2 NPs and (D) mesoporous MA-SiO2 NPs [18].
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![1.2.2.4 Fullerenes
Due to their unique properties, fullerenes are now receiving major attention from the scientific
community. Fullerenes have a hexagonal ground state with sp2
hybridization and are highly
symmetric with 120 symmetry operations. Fullerenes are very strong and bounce back to their
initial shape after deformation [15]. Among other properties, fullerenes have high surface-to-
volume ratio, high electron affinity, and a hydrophobic surface. A good number of sensors have
been developed using fullerenes along with other nanomaterials to form nanocomposites.
Brahman et al. developed a C60-MWCNT nanosensor for detecting pyruvic acid [42]. Another
electrochemical sensor was developed by the same researcher that uses a fullerene, copper
nanoparticle-fullerene, MWCNT composite to detect paracetamol [43]. Here they used a
pretreated carbon paste electrode (CPE) on which fullerene-C60 and multiwalled carbon
nanotubes (MWCNTs) were dropped to produce a modified CPE. Later copper nanoparticles
(CuNPs) were deposited electrochemically on the modified CPE and a nanocomposite film of
CuNPs/C60-MWCNTs/CPE was formed. This composite showed excellent performance in
paracetamol recognition and determination.
1.3 Nanomanufacturing
Nanomanufacturing is the process of manufacturing nanomaterials or various structures in
nanoscale for different applications. This can be considered an updated version of
micromanufacturing/microfabrication in which the dimension at which the manufacturing is done
is several orders smaller. The term nanofabrication is sometimes used as analogous to
nanomanufacturing,butsometimesnanofabricationrefersmore toa nanoscalefabricationprocess
that is used in funded research work and nanomanufacturing is used to refer to manufacturing
productsforrevenuegeneration[44].However,inthischapter,wearenotveryconcernedaboutthe
lack of a specific definition for the term nanomanufacturing; rather, we provide a general idea of
current prevailing nanomanufacturing processes for manufacturing nanosensors.
A schematic diagram of an ultrasonic assisted nanomanufacturing process is shown in Fig. 1.7.
In the figure, various possible types of vibration configurations are shown for the machining
process. The research group reported that this method can be successfully applied to produce
3D nanoobjects of discrete height levels and also of continuously varying height [45].
1.3.1 Nanomanufacturing processes
The main drive behind the nanomanufacturing process is the ever-increasing hunger of the
electronics industry to obtain smaller sizes. Currently, a microchip that we can hold on our
fingertips can store gigabytes of data. To satiate this hunger, different types of
nanomanufacturing processes have been developed that can be classified into three broad
Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 11](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-24-320.jpg)
![approaches: (1) top-down approach, (2) bottom-up approach, and (3) molecular assembly.
These three approaches are briefly described in the following sections.
1.3.1.1 Top-down approach
David, the famous statue created by Michelangelo, is one of the most notable sculptures of all
time. However, if someone asks how David or any other stone or wooden sculpture is made, the
answer is simple: a large block of stone or wood is gradually trimmed to the final shape. This is
a top-down approach. In nanomanufacturing, this approach is used when a large block of
material is taken and, by machining, the material is removed little by little till the final shape is
obtained. The top-down approach consists of two steps: (1) nanolithography and (2) transfer of
pattern.
In nanolithography, the desired pattern is created on a special type of sacrificial layer called a
resist. There are a number of nanolithography techniques, such as photolithography,
electron beam lithography, X-ray lithography, soft lithography, and so forth. The basic idea in
every case is similar. First, a layer of resist is applied to the substrate. Then with the help
of a pattern the photoresist is exposed to an energy source: for example, photolithography uses
ultraviolet rays while electron beam lithography uses an electron beam and X-ray
lithography uses an X-ray. Due to this patterned exposure, the resist undergoes a chemical
process and the chemical and mechanical properties vary throughout the whole coating.
Later, some part of the resist (exposed or unexposed part) is removed, depending on the
positive or negative resist, and a pattern is created. Now the metal layer (SiO2 in Fig. 1.8)
is ready for the etching process. After etching the pattern created by the resist is removed
mechanically or chemically. The simplified process is graphically represented in Fig. 1.8.
Circular vibration
Feed
(A)
(B) (C)
(D)
Ultrasonic
vibration
f < fr
f >> fr
Fig. 1.7
(A) Ultrasonic assisted AFM-based nanomanufacturing process. (B) Low-frequency tip-sample
interacting. (C) Ultrasonic tip-sample interaction while the tip is stationary. (D) SEM image of AFM
tip [45].
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![properties, charge, polarizability, and magnetic dipole of the molecule to drive them to
assemble together to form a particular structure. This is still a growing field and various
developments are required before this approach is used in industry.
Fig. 1.9
Bottom-up approach used in tissue engineering. (A) Complementary oligonucleotides were covalently
coupled to the surfaces of different cells by click chemistry. (B–E) Two nonadherent cell types were
mixed, and did not aggregate if their surfaces were modified with: (B) no oligonucleotides,
(C) noncomplementary oligonulceotides. However, specific aggregation was observed if the cell
surfaces were modified with complementary oligonucleotides (D, E). (F) Aggregation of DAPI stained
cells (blue), with the central cell modified with fluorescein-conjugated oligonucleotides (green). (G) 3D
reconstruction of an aggregate of Texas Red-labeled (red) and fluorescein-labeled cells (green) [46].
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![1.4.1 Electron beam lithography
Lithography is the technique of transferring patterns from one medium to another medium with
the help of a material called resist. Previously, different particle beams were used in
lithography, but with the application of the electron beam, nanometer-sized features have
become possible. Due to its precious pattern-making capability, electron beam lithography
(EBL) is frequently used in sensor manufacturing. Among various electron beam lithography
technologies, here we will discuss direct writing EBL technology due to its simplicity and
frequent use. In direct writing EBL, a finely focused Gaussian round beam is used that moves
with the wafer and a single pixel of the wafer is exposed at a time (Tseng et al., 2003). The basic
setup for direct writing EBL is shown in Fig. 1.11. The beam creates a desired pattern on
the wafer and, supported with the etching and deposition process, a very complicated
nanostructure can be produced. Though this technique is very cheap and popular, its main
drawback is the large time requirement. However, researchers are trying to improve the
technology to make this process more applicable.
1.4.2 Focused ion beam lithography
Focused ion beam lithography is another nanomanufacturing technique similar to electron
beam lithography, but here ions are used to perform the lithography instead of an electron
beam (Fig. 1.12). Since the ions are much heavier than electrons, focused ion beam
lithography can be more efficient than electron beam lithography. The focused ion beam
lithography technique also has some different classifications, but direct writing is the
simplest and cheapest one and hence that is the one discussed here. In this method, a resist is
not used and by varying the distance of the wafer, the dose of ions can be controlled, resulting
1
2
3
6
5
(A) (B)
NA
+ +
-
4
Fig. 1.11
(A) Conceptual diagram of DiVa: 1. Planar cathode, 2. Shaping apparatus, 3. Shaping apparatus
second set, 4. deflector, 5. Wafer, 6. Deflection plates; (B) Experimental DiVa apparatus at Stanford
University [47].
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![in a trench of different depth on the wafer. Heavy-ion species such as Ga+
and Au+
can also be
used in this lithography to produce a stronger effect. When a beam is passed over the wafer, a
trench having inverse Gaussian shape is obtained. With increase in strength, the trench
becomes more sharp, narrow, and V-shaped [48]. Multiple passes are also possible to create
complicated shapes.
1.4.3 X-ray lithography
X-ray lithography (XRL) is an advanced version of optical lithography in which shorter
wavelengths are used. In this method, a special type of mask is used with different local X-ray
absorption areas to define the pattern. This pattern is replicated on an X-ray sensitive material
called a resist, which is previously deposited on a substrate (usually a silicon wafer). When the
X-ray passing through the pattern falls on the resist, it may cause cross-linking (for negative
resists) or bond breaking (for positive resists), depending on the chemical nature of the resist.
After exposure, the whole thing is dipped in a specific solvent and, depending on its nature,
either the exposed area resist will dissolve and create a pattern or vice versa. The other part of
the resist will stay intact [49]. This is how X-ray lithography creates nanopatterns on the
substrate.
1.5 Conclusions and future directions
The beginnings of nanotechnology are popularly dated back to the famous lecture given by
Nobel laureate Richard Feynman, “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom,” in 1959. But the
application of this technology became evident at the beginning of 1980. Since then,
nanotechnology has gained huge momentum and currently is being applied in various aspects of
Fig. 1.12
Schematic diagram of focused ion beam lithography.
Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 17](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-30-320.jpg)
![our daily life. In this chapter, we mainly focused on different nanomaterials that are used in
making nanosensors, along with different nanomanufacturing processes used to develop those
sensors. In nanoscale, materials exhibit some extraordinary properties that are not visible in
bulk form and nanosensors take advantage of those properties. Nanosensors are gradually
making their way into various fields, including but not limited to biomedicine and
biotechnology, hazardous material detection, water purification, food industry, electronics and
optoelectronics, and forensics. The main advantages of nanosensors include (a) rapidness,
(b) low quantities of samples required, (c) robustness, (d) point of care capability, and (e) cost-
effectiveness. More and more research is being conducted to improve the current
nanomanufacturing methods, create new nanomaterials, and develop new sensors using the
properties of nanomaterials.
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![CHAPTER 2
Features and complex model of gold
nanoparticle fabrication for nanosensor
applications
Norma Alias, Hazidatul Akma Hamlan
Center for Sustainable Nanomaterials, Ibnu Sina Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia
2.1 Introduction
In recent years, many researchers and engineers have been shifting the focus of their studies
toward nanosensors because of their unique sensitivity and selectivity, which mostly originate
from modifications and reactions that occur at nanoscales [1]. Due to their unique features,
nanosensors are widely chosen for detecting chemical and physical properties in many fields
such as environmental, biomedical, and food processing.
Dahman [2] expressed that nanosensors have a plethora of environmental applications. The
ability to detect chemical components of air and water strengthen the choice of nanosensors in
the environmental field. Nanosensors are mainly used in water monitoring quality [3],
monitoring plant signaling pathways [4], and detecting and determining quantities of
acetamiprid (insecticide) in food and the environment [5] and agriculture [6]. Vikesland [3]
stated that an abundance of existing nanosensors can be developed into consumer- and
operator-friendly tools. The author emphasized that nanotechnology-enabled sensors or
nanosensors can provide extensive and potentially low-cost monitoring of chemicals, microbes,
and other analytes in drinking water. Meanwhile, Kwak et al. [4] discussed how nanosensors
can act as monitoring tools to observe and monitor plant signaling pathways and metabolism.
Verdian [5] highlighted a current major concern of food safety experts, which is pesticide
residues. Despite the small amounts of toxicity from pesticide residues, insecticides that contain
acetamiprid can represent a health risk to human beings who are exposed to polluted food and
environments. Hence, nanosensors can be used in detecting and determining amounts of
acetamiprid in food and the environment.
Nanofabrication for Smart Nanosensor Applications. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820702-4.00002-7
# 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
21](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-34-320.jpg)
![Srivastava et al. [6] explained applications of nanosensors in agriculture in which wireless
nanosensors are used to monitor the soil fertility, moisture level, insects, temperature, crop
nutrient status, and diseases of crops. Using advances in nanotechnology, crop growth can be
monitored by employing networks of wireless nanosensors across cultivated fields. The
network can provide crucial data for agronomic intelligence processes such as optimal times for
crop planting and harvesting.
One of the most popular nanosensor technologies makes use of gold nanoparticles [7], whose
flexible surface chemistry allows them to be coated with biological recognition molecules,
polymers, and small molecules, hence broadening their range of applications. Gold
nanoparticles as substrates can also be used as a nanosensor technology for the detection of
pollutants and label-free detection of other molecules and proteins [8]. Based on the facts
described, this chapter presents established mathematical modeling based on partial differential
equations (PDEs) for nanoparticle materials fabrication, to control the process of gold
nanoparticle manufacturing. The modeling is created to investigate the feature properties and
boundaries in the development process. One-dimensional PDEs with respect to time and space
are employed to visualize the growth of gold nanoparticles (AuNPS).
An accurate and precise result can be achieved by governing complex mathematical modeling
and obtaining a large sparse matrix of linear system equations (LSEs). Meanwhile, the
parallelization of LSE is chosen in order to accelerate and speed up the simulation for a large
sparse matrix. Therefore, the main focus of this chapter is the parallelization of a mathematical
model of the fabrication of nanoparticles.
Nanoparticles have played an important role in advanced catalysts, ceramics, and electronic
devices as well as polymer composites and coatings for the last two decades [9]. Their physical
and chemical properties are different from those of conventional materials. A nanoparticle can
best be defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit with regard to its properties, and is
classified according to its diameter.
Schmid [10] defined nanoparticles as nanomaterials with an average diameter that is less than
100 nm. Nowadays, nanoparticle technology plays an important role in providing opportunities
and possibilities for the development of a new generation of sensing tools. The targeted sensing of
selective biomolecules using functionalized gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) has become a major
research thrust in the last decade [11]. Researchers normally use gold nanoparticles due to their
stability and unique optical, electronic, biolabeling, and molecular-recognition properties.
In fabricating gold nanoparticles, several features need to be controlled – for example, size,
shape, and structure. The parameters will be changed according to functionality. This is due to
the strong correlation between the parameters and optical, electrical, and catalytic properties
[12]. Nanoparticles with controlled size and shape are of great interest because of their
morphology-dependent properties [10] and potential applications in a variety of fields.
22 Chapter 2](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-35-320.jpg)
![The application of gold growth is so significant that, in recent years, some researchers have
been reporting mainly on the analysis of gold growth, especially chemical properties. However,
only a few studies focus on mathematical modeling and simulation in visualizing the growth of
gold nanoparticles [13]. Due to this situation, this research investigates the rate of growth for
gold nanoparticles using a one-dimensional parabolic PDE approach.
Since nanoparticle fabrication is being dealt with through nanoscale approaches, the focus of
this chapter is on fine-grain parallelism involving a large-scale matrix from the mathematical
model discretization. In solving the problem of a large-scale matrix, parallel computing systems
with huge memory space are needed to produce a good result. Therefore, parallel computing
systems are employed throughout this study. The parameter change from phase change
simulation is the code from the Linux operating system using DPCS based on the
approximation of numerical scheme and parallel algorithms, as well as their sequential flows.
The PVM software integrated with the C language is used to support the message passing
paradigm and simulation for the parallel algorithm program.
2.1.1 Applications of nanoparticles
Nanotechnology deals with the particular technological goal of specifically manipulating atoms
and molecules for fabrication of macroscale merchandise. Nowadays, this is also known as
molecular nanotechnology [14]. In nanotechnology, sensitivity experiments are carried out for
various physical processes, involving a large-scale structure of modeling and reformation of the
nanoscale system, which appearance as nanoparticles [15].
Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) display irreplaceable properties that make them a very attractive
material for nanosensing applications, especially in the environmental field. Besides that, the
“additional attractive feature of AuNPs is their interaction with thiols, providing effective and
selective means of controlled intracellular release” [16]. Liu et al. [17], Park et al. [18], and
Rejiya et al. [19] have investigated the application of gold particles as nanoparticles. Various
sizes of gold nanoparticles and their morphologies have attracted considerable interest for
researchers, especially in medical applications [20] and [21].
2.1.2 Growth of gold nanoparticles
As mentioned, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have attracted much attention among researchers,
due to their unique properties and encouraging applications in areas of biotechnology, catalysis
[22], and optoelectronics [23]. In preparing AuNPs, the homogeneous mixing of continuous
flows of an aqueous tetrachloroauric acid solution and a sodium borohydride solution is applied
using a microstructured static mixer [24]. Their studies have provided a profound
understanding of gold nanoparticle growth and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), combined
with X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES). In predicting the size, shape, and
Designing aspects of gold nanoparticles complex model investigation 23](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-36-320.jpg)
![polydispersity of gold nanoparticles, one paper [25] stressed that it is necessary to interpret the
underlying process using SAXS that offers integral information on the growth of nanoparticles.
However, Polte et al. [26], despite their widespread use, in countless cases and applications, a
deeper understanding and consideration of the underlying formation of the processes is missing.
Due to this phenomenon, the size and shape control of gold nanoparticles often remained.
Therefore, in this chapter, a great deal of attention has been focused on understanding the
process of gold nanoparticle formation pertaining to its growth rate. In predicting and
visualizing the growth of gold nanoparticles, mathematical modeling using one-dimensional
parabolic PDEs as the integrated methodology is proposed instead of conducting experimental
laboratory studies.
The gold nanoparticle fabrication correlates with longer systemic circulation and a high-cost
fabrication for small-scale limited process. Although the nanoparticles are small, mathematical
modeling and large sparse simulation can be presented in the fabrication process.
2.2 Mathematical model of gold nanoparticle fabrication
The focus of this chapter is on the application of one-dimensional parabolic equations from
PDEs to governing mathematical modeling. The prediction and visualization of the growth rate
of gold nanoparticles are obtained by employing one-dimensional parabolic PDEs with respect
to time, space, and some independent and dependent variables.
2.2.1 Governing equation of gold nanoparticle fabrication
This section deals with the mathematical modeling and simulation of one-dimensional
parabolic PDEs as an integrated methodology for predicting and visualizing the growth of gold
nanoparticles with respect to time and space. The modeling is formulated as a boundary value
problem of PDEs. The PDE modeling with significant features and its parameter identification
that influences on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) of diameter Φ, ultraviolet radiation λ, and rate of
gold growth U are investigated.
The integrated methodology for predicting and visualizing the growth rate of gold nanoparticles
for nanosensor applications with respect to time and space involves predicting and visualizing
using one-dimensional parabolic PDEs. The governing equation of the mathematical model for
this problem is:
∂U
∂t
¼ Φ
∂2
U
∂x2
þλ, 0 x 1, t 0: (2.1)
Initial and boundary conditions are given by [27].
U x, 0
ð Þ ¼ sin πx
ð Þ, 0 x 1,
24 Chapter 2](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-37-320.jpg)
![U 0, t
ð Þ ¼ 0, 0 t 1,
U 1, t
ð Þ ¼ 0, 0 t 1:
The exact solution is given by
U x, t
ð Þ ¼ eπt
sin πx
ð Þ, (2.2)
where λ represents the incoherent ultraviolet radiation (nm), Φ is the diameter of gold growth, U
is the rate of gold growth, t is time (duration taken for the growth rate), and x is the spatial
coordinate of direction.
2.2.2 Nondimensionalized parameter for governing equations
In mathematics, a transformation from dimensional to nondimensional variables is required so
the relevant parameter identification and changes of the required parameters for mathematical
modeling can be specified. However, for engineering applications, nondimensionalizing the
governing equation is not necessary since real physical quantities are dealt with as the solution
progresses. Since this study focuses on mathematical analysis, the nondimensional rule is
needed because the nondimensionalized variables reduce the complexity of solving the
governing equation.
Therefore, Eqs. (2.1), (2.2) are nondimensionalized using the following dimensional scaling
from Blest et al. [28]. The nondimensional scaling is denoted with a tilde:
~
Ti ¼
Ti Tini
Tc Tini
, ~
x ¼
x
d
, ~
y ¼
y
d
, ~
ui
¼
ui
d
, ~
vi
¼
vi
d
, ~
t ¼
Krt
d2
, ~
L ¼
L
d
,
~
hk ¼
hk
d
, and ~
δk ¼
δk
d
,
where i = r, f are the respective resin and saturated fiber layer. By applying these
transformations and omitting tildes for clarity, Eqs. (2.1), (2.2) can be simplified as
∂Tf
∂t
þPe uf ∂Tf
∂x
þvf ∂Tf
∂y
¼ D
∂2
Tf
∂x2
þ
∂2
Tf
∂y2
þJ1
∂α
∂t
, (2.3)
∂Tr
∂t
þPe ur ∂Tr
∂x
þvr ∂Tr
∂y
¼
∂2
Tr
∂x2
þ
∂2
Tr
∂y2
þJ2
∂α
∂t
, (2.4)
and
∂α
∂t
¼ C1 þC2α
ð Þ 1α
ð Þ 0:47α
ð Þ for α 0:3, (2.5)
Designing aspects of gold nanoparticles complex model investigation 25](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-38-320.jpg)
![2.2.4 Linear system equation formulation for gold nanoparticle fabrication
The next steps of the numerical solution involve formulation of the linear system equation
(LSE) for Eq. (2.8). In addition, three important solution tools for solving LSEs—Jacobi,
Gauss-Seidel, and Alternating Group Explicit (AGE) by Evans and Sahimi [29], Abdurrahman
et al. [30], Sahimi et al. [31], and Abu Mansor et al. [32]—are focused on in this chapter.
The standard scheme for the three-point discretization of a one-dimensional parabolic PDE can
be visualized in matrix form as
AU ¼ F (2.9)
where U and f are one-dimensional vectors defined as
U ¼ U1, j + 1, U2, j + 1, U3, j + 1, …, Um, j + 1
T
,
F ¼ F1, F2, F3, …, Fm
ð Þ:
Eq. (2.7) can be written in matrix form as:
a
c
0
b
a
c
b
a
⋱
b
⋱
c
⋱
a
c
0
b
a
2
6
6
6
6
6
4
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
mm
ð Þ
U1
U2
U3
⋮
Um1
Um
2
6
6
6
6
6
4
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
m1
ð Þ
¼
F1
F2
F3
⋮
Fm1
Fm
2
6
6
6
6
6
4
3
7
7
7
7
7
5
m1
ð Þ
(2.10)
where
a ¼ 1 + 2rθ, b ¼ c ¼ rθ
and
F1 ¼ r 1θ
ð ÞUj
0 + 12r 1θ
ð Þ
ð ÞUj
1 + r 1θ
ð ÞUj
2 + rθUj + 1
0 + λΔt
Fi ¼ r 1θ
ð ÞUj
i1 + 12r 1θ
ð Þ
ð ÞUj
i + r 1θ
ð ÞUj
i + 1 + λΔt, for i ¼ 2,3,…:m1
Fm ¼ r 1θ
ð ÞUj
m1 + 12r 1θ
ð Þ
ð ÞUj
m + r 1θ
ð ÞUj
m + 1 + rθUj + 1
m + 1 + λΔt (2.11)
2.2.5 Visualization of the mathematical model for gold nanoparticle fabrication
Visualization of the mathematical model of the one-dimensional problem of gold nanoparticles
is acquired based on a simulation using Microsoft Visual Studio 2012 and the visualization
graphs are plotted using Matlab R2013b and Comsol Multiphysics. The results obtained are
validated using experimental data for the one-dimensional problem.
Designing aspects of gold nanoparticles complex model investigation 27](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-40-320.jpg)
![involved are alternating group explicit (AGE), red-black Gauss-Seidel (RBGS), and Jacobi (JB)
methods. These are then applied using sequential and parallel algorithms that are computed
using Parallel Virtual Machine (PVM) programming on a Linux platform by distributed parallel
computing systems. Numerical analysis and parallel performance evaluation based on
execution time, speed-up, efficiency, effectiveness, temporal performance, and granularity are
discussed at the end of this chapter.
2.3.1 Numerical implementation
This section is divided into three subsections: Section 2.3.1.1 discusses the alternating group
explicit (AGE) method, followed by the red-black Gauss-Seidel (RBGS) and Jacobi (JB)
methods for solving the LSE. In 1985, Evans introduced the AGE method for solving the
parabolic PDE problem [33]. It has been shown that this method is extremely powerful and
flexible, and provides users with many advantages. This so-called advanced iterative method
employs a fractional splitting strategy, which is applied alternately at each half time step on
tridiagonal systems of different schemes and which has proven to be stable. The Jacobi (JB) and
red-black Gauss-Seidel schemes represent basic numerical schemes and are the benchmarks for
simulating the AGE scheme.
2.3.1.1 Alternating group explicit (AGE)
As mentioned earlier, this iterative scheme employs a fractional splitting strategy which is
applied alternately at each half time step on tridiagonal systems of difference schemes. This
method has already proven to be stable. The linear system equation for the AGE scheme is
given by Au ¼ f, also illustrated.
The AGE method for obtaining the growth rate of a gold nanoparticle uses the Douglas-
Rachford (DR) variant instead of the Peaceman-Rachford (PR). This is so as to ensure its
unconditional stability [34] with stationary case (r is constant) and p 0 are given by the
following equations. The computational molecule for the AGE method in determining the value
of U at level p + 1
2 is (Fig. 2.4):
The molecule diagram of the AGE method for level p + 1 can be drawn as follows (Fig. 2.5):
2.3.1.2 Red-Black Gauss-Seidel method (RBGS)
The second iterative scheme of basic numerical analysis used for solving the linear system is the
Gauss-Seidel (GS) method. This method was modified and improved from the Jacobi method,
so it is no more difficult to apply and it often requires fewer iterations to produce the same
degree of accuracy.
When the Jacobi scheme is applied, the value of xi that is obtained in the nth
approximation
remains unchanged until the entire (n + 1)th
approximate has been calculated, while for the
30 Chapter 2](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-43-320.jpg)
![Gauss-Seidel scheme, new values of each xiwill be used as soon as they are known. Once x1 is
determined in the first equation, the value is then used in the second equation to obtain a new x2.
Similarly, the new x1 and x2 are used in the third equation to obtain the new x3 and so forth.
Tavakoli and Davami [35] considered a parallel Gauss-Seidel in solving a one-dimensional
elliptic partial differential equation with a Dirichlet boundary condition. The solution to the
linear system AU ¼ f can be obtained starting with U(0)
and using the iteration scheme
U k + 1
ð Þ
¼ MSUk
+ CS, (2.12)
where MS and CS are defined as
MS ¼ D + L
ð Þ1
U andCS ¼ D + L
ð Þ1
b:
This method is described using the formulae
U
k + 1
ð Þ
i ¼
1
aii
bi
X
ji
aijU
k
ð Þ
j
X
ji
aijU
k + 1
ð Þ
j
!
,i ¼ 1,2,3,…,m (2.13)
However, the GS scheme can only solve sequential algorithms of mathematical modeling, so
this scheme has been enhanced to solve algorithms in parallel, called the Red-Black Gauss-
Seidel (RBGS). The RBGS contains two subdomains ΩR
and ΩM
. The red point depends on the
black point, and vice versa. The loop starts by computing the odd points, from the bottom left,
and then going up to the next row and so on. As all of the odd points are finished, the
computation of the black ones continues. The red-black grid is illustrated in Figs. 2.6–2.8.
2.3.1.3 Jacobi method (JB)
The third numerical iterative method employed for solving LSEs is the Jacobi method (JB),
which is an algorithm for determining the solutions of a diagonally dominant system of linear
equations. Each diagonal element is solved and the approximate value is plugged in. The
Red point
Black point
Fig. 2.6
The grid for red and black points.
32 Chapter 2](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-45-320.jpg)
![chief opponents of the Reform bill; sec. of the Admiralty 9 Oct.
1809 to Nov. 1830 when he retired on a pension of £1500; P.C.
16 June 1828; one of founders of Quarterly Review 1809 in
which he wrote about 260 articles 1809–64; F.R.S. 5 July 1810;
friend and factotum of 3 Marquis of Hertford (the Marquis of
Steyne of Vanity Fair) who left him £21,000 and his cellar of
wine 1842; author of Familiar epistles to F. J[one]s, Esq. on the
present state of the Irish stage 1804 anon. 5 ed. 1804;
Talavera 1809; Essays on the early period of the French
revolution 1857 and other books; edited The new Whig guide
1819; Boswell’s Life of Dr. Johnson 4 vols. 1831 and other
books. d. at house of Sir Wm. Wightman, St. Alban’s Bank,
Hampton, Middlesex 10 Aug. 1857. bur. at West Moulsey.
Memoirs, diaries and correspondence of J. W. Croker edited by
L. J. Jennings, 2 ed. 3 vols. 1885, portrait; Quarterly Review
cxlii, 83–126 (1876); D. O. Madden’s Chiefs of parties ii, 81–
112 (1859); J. Grant’s Memoir of Sir G. Sinclair (1870) 213–28;
Mrs. Houston’s A woman’s memories i, 1–18 (1883); H.
Martineau’s Biographical Sketches, 4 ed. (1876) 376–85;
Maclise Portrait gallery (1883) 72–4, portrait.
Note.—D’Israeli ridiculed him very successfully in Coningsby under name of
Rigby, also in Vivian Grey under name of Vivida Vis; Lady Morgan depicted
him in her novel Florence Macarthy as Councillor Crawley, and Lord Brougham
in his novel Albert Lunel us La Croasse.
CROKER, Marianne (dau. of Francis Nicholson of Whitby,
Yorkshire, artist 1753–1844). b. Whitby; produced her first
drawing upon stone 1816; wrote The adventures of Barney
Mahoney 1832, and My village versus our village 1832, both of
which have the name of Thomas Crofton Croker on their title
pages; (m. 1830 T. C. Croker 1798–1854). d. 3 Gloucester
road, Old Brompton, London 6 Oct. 1854.
CROKER, Thomas Crofton (only son of Thomas Croker, major in
the army who d. 22 March 1818). b. Buckingham sq. Cork 15
Jany. 1798; clerk in the Admiralty, London 1818 to Feb. 1850
when he retired as senior clerk of the first class on a pension](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33902-250403141703-8353bda5/85/Nanofabrication-for-Smart-Nanosensor-Applications-Micro-and-Nano-Technologies-1st-Edition-Kaushik-Pal-Editor-84-320.jpg)
Nanofabrication for Smart Nanosensor Applications (Micro and Nano Technologies) 1st Edition Kaushik Pal (Editor)
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- 6. Nanofabrication for Smart Nanosensor Applications
- 7. Nanofabrication for Smart Nanosensor Applications Edited by Kaushik Pal International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IIUCN), School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India; Wuhan University, Wuchang District, Wuhan, Hubei Province, Republic of China Fernando Gomes Macromolecule Institute Professor Eloisa Mano; Civil Engineering Program, COPPE, Technology Center - University City, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- 8. Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-820702-4 For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Matthew Deans Acquisitions Editor: Simon Holt Editorial Project Manager: Fernanda Oliveira Production Project Manager: Prem Kumar Kaliamoorthi Cover Designer: Greg Harris Typeset by SPi Global, India
- 9. Contributors M.M. Abdullah Promising Centre for Sensors and Electronic Devices (PCSED), Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Arts, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia Mostafa G. Aboelkheir Macromolecule Institute Professor Eloisa Mano, Technology Center - University City, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Gulzar Ahmad Department of Physics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan Mazhar S. Al Zoubi Department of Basic Medical Studies, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan Khalid M. Al-Batanyeh Department of Biological Sciences, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan Norma Alias Center for Sustainable Nanomaterials, Ibnu Sina Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia Alaa A.A. Aljabali Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan Lorca Alzoubi Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology; Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan Nidhi Asthana National Centre of Experimental Mineralogy and Petrology, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India Murthy Chavali Shree Velagapudi Rama Krishna Memorial College (PG Studies), Affiliated to Acharya Nagarjuna University, Nagaram; PG Department of Chemistry, Dharma Appa Rao College, Affiliated to Krishna University, Nuzvid; NTRC, MCETRC, Tenali, Andhra Pradesh, India Ramchander Chepyala FPC@DCU – Fraunhofer Project Centre for Embedded Bioanalytical Systems at Dublin City University, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland Shiplu Roy Chowdhury Tissue Engineering Centre, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Vı́tor Corr^ ea da Costa Macromolecule Institute Professor Eloisa Mano, Technology Center - University City, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Michael K. Danquah Chemical Engineering Department, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga, TN, United States Krishna Chitanya Etika Department of Chemical Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Rajasthan, India Irene S. Fahim Industrial Engineering Department, Smart Engineering Systems Research Center (SESC), Nile University, Giza, Egypt Romildo Dias Toledo Filho Civil Engineering Program, COPPE, Technology Center - University City, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Sanjeev Gautam Netaji Subhas University of Technology, Delhi, India Ganesh Gollavelli Centre of Excellence of Nanotechnology; Department of Industrial Chemistry, College of Applied Sciences, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia xv
- 10. Hazidatul Akma Hamlan Center for Sustainable Nanomaterials, Ibnu Sina Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia Ahmed M. Hassanein Nanoelectronics Integrated Systems Center (NISC), Nile University, Giza, Egypt Md Enamul Hoque Department of Biomedical Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Dhaka, Bangladesh Saiqa Ikram Bio/Polymer Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India Purnima Jain Netaji Subhas University of Technology, Delhi, India Yasir Javed Department of Physics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan Jaison Jeevanandam Department of Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia Rocktotpal Konwarh Department of Biotechnology, College of Biological and Chemical Engineering; Centre of Excellence of Nanotechnology, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Samo Kralj Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia Amit Kumar Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India Enamala Manoj Kumar Bioserve Biotechnologies (India) Private Ltd., Hyderabad, Telangana, India Ahmed H. Madian Nanoelectronics Integrated Systems Center (NISC), Nile University, Giza; Radiation Engineering Department, NCRRT, Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority, Cairo, Egypt Tariq Mahbub Department of Mechanical Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh Zaid Bin Mahbub Department of Mathematics and Physics, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh Ahmed Nawaz Department of Physics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan Somia Nawaz Department of Physics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan Mohammad A. Obeid Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan Kaushik Pal International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IIUCN), School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India; Wuhan University, Wuchang District, Wuhan, Hubei Province, Republic of China Periasamy Palanisamy Department of Physics, Gnanamani College of Engineering, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu, India Suresh Babu Palanisamy Department of Biotechnology, College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Mamun Rabbani Department of Biomedical Physics and Technology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh Lobna A. Said Nanoelectronics Integrated Systems Center (NISC), Nile University, Giza, Egypt M. Munir Sajid Department of Physics, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan Naveed Akhtar Shad Department of Physics, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan Bhasha Sharma Netaji Subhas University of Technology, Delhi, India Shreya Sharma Netaji Subhas University of Technology, Delhi, India xvi Contributors
- 11. Zayed Bin Zakir Shawon Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh Shashank Shekhar Netaji Subhas University of Technology, Delhi, India Asiya S.I. Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research (BIHER), Bharath University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India Preeti Singh Bio/Polymer Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India Fernando Gomes Macromolecule Institute Professor Eloisa Mano; Civil Engineering Program, COPPE, Technology Center - University City, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Murtaza M. Tambwala SAAD Centre for Pharmacy and Diabetes, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science Ulster University, Coleraine, United Kingdom Sabu Thomas International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IIUCN), School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India Contributors xvii
- 12. Editors’ biography Professor (Dr.) Kaushik Pal is an Indian citizen. He did his PH.D. in Physics (e.g. Nanotechnology, Multidisciplinary Sciences, Advanced Materials Science, Spectroscopy) from University of Kalyani, West-Bengal, India. Most recently he awarded with honorable DOCTOR OF SCIENCE (D.SC.) from Higher National Youth Skill Institute, Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia. He is the “Distinguish Research Professor” at Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and acting as “Chair Professor and Group Leader, (Chief-Scientist & Faculty Fellow)” position in Wuhan University, Wuchang Dist., Hubei Province, Republic of China. Most recently, he has been a visiting professor working and contributing at the International and Inter University Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IIUCN), School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala. He awarded international prestigious awards e.g. awarded the Marie-Curie Experienced Researcher (Postdoctoral Fellow) by the European Commission Network in Greece, and received the Brain Korea (BK-21) National Research Foundation Visiting Scientist Fellowship in South Korea. He was appointed Senior Postdoctoral Fellow at Wuhan University, China and within a year achieved the prestigious position of Chief-Scientist and Faculty (CAS) Fellow by the Chinese Academy of Science. He served as research professor (Group Leader and Independent Scientist), at Bharath University (BIHER), Research and Development, Chennai. His current research spans are focusing on e.g. Molecular Nanoscience and nanofabrication, functional materials, condensed matter physics (expt.), CNTs/graphene, liquid crystal, polymeric nanocomposite, switchable device, electron microscopy and spectroscopy, bioinspired materials, drug delivery, integration, switchable device modulation, stretchable electronics, supercapacitors, optoelectronics, green chemistry, and biosensor applications. He supervises a significant number of bachelor’s, master’s, PhD, and postdoctoral scholar’s theses, and his research has been published in several international top-tier journals from publishers e.g. Royal Chemical Society, Elsevier, Springer, IEEE, and InTech. He has edited 25 book chapters with significant publishers, contributed 10 review articles, and has edited several books for Elsevier, Apple Academic Press, and InTech. Dr. Pal is an expert group leader and the associate member of various scientific societies, organizations, and professional bodies. In his academic and professional research, he has received a number of significant xix
- 13. awards and prizes. He has been the chairperson of 30 national and international events, symposia, conferences, and workshops, and has contributed to 10 plenary, 28 keynote, and 30 invited lectures worldwide. Professor Fernando Gomes graduated in chemistry from the Federal University of Espı́rito Santo (1999), and received a Master in Engineering and Materials Science from the State University of the North Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro (2002), a PhD in Science and Technology of Polymers from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (2006), and a postdoctorate in the chemical engineering program at COPPE/UFRJ, Brazil. He is currently Associate Professor at the Macromolecules Institute at UFRJ, Collaborated Professor at the Civil Engineering Program at COPPE/UFRJ and Young Scientist in the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ-2015). He mainly works with polymeric nanocomposites obtained from renewable resources in three main lines: (I) in the field of environmental recovery, coordinating research projects focused on the use of renewable resources for the removal of oil in spills; (II) in the field of human health, coordinating projects that seek kinetic and spatial control of the drug release process; and (III) in the field of sensors, where he coordinates projects that seek to obtain plant fibers that conduct electricity for their use in sensors for intelligent devices. Supervisor of 103 undergraduate students; 28 M.Sc. students, 8 Ph.D. students and 5 Post Doc. Nowadays I am the supervisor of 4 undergraduate students; 2 M.Sc. students, 14 Ph.D. students and 2 Post Doc. Member of the editorial board of Current Applied Polymer Science (ISSN 2452-2716), Associate Editor of the MedCrave Online Journal (MOJ) Polymer Science (ISSN: 2574-9773), and Editor of the Academic Journal of Polymer Science. He also awarded Young Scientist of Rio de Janeiro State (FAPERJ 2011 and 2014), member of Post Graduate Program in Science and Technology of Polymers of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro since 2008. Editors’ biography xx
- 14. CHAPTER 1 Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors Tariq Mahbuba , Md Enamul Hoqueb a Department of Mechanical Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh b Department of Biomedical Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Dhaka, Bangladesh 1.1 Nanosensors Sensors are devices used to detect the presence of a specific substance or to measure a physical property such as temperature, mass, or electrical or optical characteristics and produce a signal for recording or further postprocessing. The history of sensors is a long one. The first thermostat came into existence in the 1880s, and the first infrared sensor was developed in 1940. Nanosensors are similar to macrolevel sensors but have at least one dimension in nanoscale and can be used to measure signals available at that scale. Nanotechnology, with its rapid developments in recent years, has shown great potential in almost all industries. Various electronics industries have fueled these developments to satisfy their need for miniaturization, and the nanosensor field has taken advantage of these advances for its own development. A large volume of research has been conducted over the last two decades in the area of nanomaterials for wider applications, including nanosensors [1–10]. Since nanosensors can deal with signals produced at the nanoscale, the sample quantities needed are quite small and detection is very rapid. All of these qualities have helped the applications of various types of nanosensors in different fields, especially in the medical and homeland security fields. Gaining a clearer understanding of the special properties offered at the nanoscale by nanomaterials, evolution of the various techniques for nanomaterial production, and exploitation of the special properties of nanomaterials have all advanced nanosensor development. Nanofabrication for Smart Nanosensor Applications. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820702-4.00001-5 # 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
- 15. 1.1.1 Types of nanosensors During the short history of nanosensors, this technology has experienced substantial developments. Since a variety of nanosensors are available today, classification can be somewhat difficult. However, nanosensors can be classified based on two general factors: (1) structure and (2) application. Based on structure, nanosensors can be further classified into two groups: Optical nanosensors: Optical nanosensors use the sensitivity of fluorescence for qualitative and quantitative measurement. Electrochemical nanosensors: This class of nanosensor mainly detects electronic or chemical properties of a respective substance and transduces a signal. Recently, major developments have taken place in this type of nanosensor technology. Based on application, nanosensors can be classified into chemical nanosensors, nanoscale electrometers, nanobiosensors, deployable sensors, and so on. 1.1.2 Applications of nanosensors Nanosensors are gradually assuming roles in almost every aspect of human life. A number of sensors can detect the presence of hazardous materials or microorganisms in food, water, and air. These sensors are saving lives in different corners of the world. In the medical field nanosensors are having a huge impact: for example, a variety of nanosensors are being used in cancer detection, DNA and protein detection, and targeted drug delivery. Deployable sensors have found applications in homeland security. Various chemical sensors are now added to unmanned aerial vehicles to detect the presence of poisonous gas on the battlefield, to save the lives of soldiers. Various tagging systems employ RFID chips, which are also an application of nanosensors. 1.2 Nanomaterials for nanosensors For centuries the beauty of the 400 CE Lycurgus Cup and the strength and beauty of a Damascus steel blade have amazed people, but it has been only decades since we discovered the secret behind these extraordinary ancient artifacts: nanomaterials [11,12]. Nanomaterials are defined as those nanoparticles (NPs) that have at least one dimension in nanometer scale and that exhibit some special property that is not available in the bulk form of the same material. Though unknowingly used in several ancient artifacts, the modern-day extensive research, informed fabrication, and utilization of nanomaterials began in 1857, when Michael Faraday reported the synthesis of so-called “activated gold,” which was a colloidal solution 2 Chapter 1
- 16. of Au NPs [13]. Since that time, the use of nanomaterials has slowly but surely spread, due to their extraordinary properties associated with their size. Nanomaterials show extraordinary properties different than their bulk size because of their nanoscale dimension. The surface-to-volume ratio of nanomaterials is very high, which results in variations in chemical, mechanical, optical, and magnetic nature [14]. To explore the properties and applications of nanomaterials properly, it is judicious to classify them. However, several factors can be considered in classifying nanomaterials, such as physical and chemical properties, manufacturing process, dimensionality, uniformity, composition, and so forth [15]. From the point of view of this chapter, we classify nanomaterials into four classes based on their chemical composition: (1) carbon-based, (2) organic-based, (3) inorganic-based, and (4) composite-based nanomaterials. In the following sections, we discuss different nanomaterials that fall within these four categories and their applications, especially as nanosensors. At this point, a brief introduction to nanosensors may be very helpful for those new to this field. A sensor is a device that detects and responds to any change in its environment. Daily life is full of sensors, such as light sensors, rain sensors, lane assist in automobiles, smoke and fire alarm sensors, electrical sensors, and so forth. Nanosensors perform the same function, but on a much smaller scale (1–100 nm), capable of sensing pathogens, viruses, molecules, or even a single chemical element. The main advantages of nanosensors are the minute sample quantities required, speed, portability, and low cost in mass production, among others. The history of nanosensors is only decades old. Since the beginning of the current century, the world has experienced a rapid escalation of production and use of nanosensors as a consequence of two factors. First, nanosensors, due to their excellent performance, have convinced the world that they can be successfully used in different applications varying from the food industry, fire and hazardous gas detection, to various critical fields like military and advanced medical applications. Secondly, there is a tremendous advancement of different manufacturing processes used for manufacturing nanosensors, increased availability, and development of new nanomaterials and more clear understanding of nanoscale phenomena [16]. 1.2.1 Properties of nanomaterials for nanosensors Nanomaterials, due to high surface-to-volume ratio and the manufacturing process, offer some extraordinary properties that can be explored to produce various applications in drug manufacturing, environmental sensing and protection, materials and manufacturing industries, electronics, energy harvesting, etc. A few properties that are relevant to nanosensors are briefly described in the following sections. Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 3
- 17. 1.2.1.1 Optical properties Nanomaterials offer some excellent optical properties, such as light absorption, color, light emission, and magnetooptical properties due to their sizes; these properties are quite different from their bulk properties and make nanomaterials a good choice for optical nanosensors. One of the first nanosensors devised to measure inhomogeneous pH distribution in three- dimensional resolution was fluorescein-based, using a polyacrylamide nanoparticle incorporated with pH-sensitive fluorescein-acrylamide [17]. Fluorescent nanosensors can respond to some specific stimuli provided by the surrounding environment and transduce a fluorescence signal to the detector to sense environmental changes. These nanosensors are used to make oxygen sensors [18] and temperature sensors. The localized surface plasmon (LSP) effect of the noble metal nanoparticle is a current active field of research for making nanosensors (Fig. 1.1). When a nanoparticle confines surface plasmon, due to its dimension, comparable to the wavelength of light, the free electron of the nanoparticle participates in the collective oscillation. This phenomenon is called localized surface plasmon (LSP) [19]. The LSP effect greatly enhances the electric field near the nanoparticle surface and at the plasmon resonant frequency the particle shows maximum optical extinction. A number of gas sensors [20,21] and pH sensors [22,23] are manufactured using LSP. 1.2.1.2 Electronic properties Nanomaterials can offer quite exceptional electronic properties that originate from the shape and structure of the nanomaterial. When talking about exceptional electronic properties, the name that comes to mind first is graphene. Graphene has a single-layer 2D honeycomb structure in which both surfaces are available for molecule absorption. The structure causes the electron seemly to be massless [24] and the electron moves at an average speed which is 300 times less than the speed of light at vacuum. This allows many relativistic events to be e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- Electron cloud Light wave Electric field e- Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of localized surface plasmon effect. 4 Chapter 1
- 18. observable without a particle accelerator [15]. The carbon nanotube (CNT) in which graphene acts as a building block also offers some excellent electronic properties. The sp2 hybridization of the carbon orbitals in the CNT leaves free electrons at the surface of the tubes, which yields these excellent properties. CNT can show metallic, semiconducting, or insulating behavior, which can be controlled by controlling the diameter, chirality of the CNT, and any functionalization or doping done on CNT [25]. Nanosensors using these properties detect using two methods: (a) current enhancement, and (b) current inhibition. Various electrochemical sensors have been developed for different purposes, such as detecting dopamine [26], histamine [27], bacteria [28], glucose [29], and so forth, using the electronic properties of nanomaterials. 1.2.1.3 Magnetic properties Due to the uneven arrangement and orientation of electrons in nanomaterials, and their size, nanomaterials exhibit excellent magnetic properties too. Magnetic properties of nanomaterials are becoming a center of interest in different branches of engineering, including but not limited to different types of catalysis, biomedicine for cancer treatment, magnetic fluids, nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMR), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and environmental remediation [30]. Magnetic nanosensors use different techniques to perform detection, like the effect magnetic particles exert on water proton relaxation rates, by determining the relaxation of the magnetic moment within the magnetic particle, by detecting the presence of a magnetic particle using magnetoresistivity, etc. Koh et al. explain different biosensors using the previously mentioned methods. The following figures show schematic representations of the three procedures [31]. Fig. 1.2A represents how magnetic nanoparticles dephase the protons of water for a better MRI scan. Magnetic particles generally stay dispersed in a liquid solvent. But when a target analyte (triangle in Fig. 1.2A) appears, the dispersed nanoparticles produce an aggregate around it and eventually this aggregate dephases the spins of water protons more efficiently than the dispersed state. This reduces the spin-spin relaxation time T2 to produce a better MRI image. Fig. 1.2B shows the application of magnetic moment relaxation within a magnetic nanoparticle for bacterial detection. The type of relaxation used here is Neel relaxation. In the upper figure A, a magnetic field is applied to the nanoparticles and they orient themselves along the applied field. Some of the nanoparticles are bonded with the target bacteria. Later, in figure B, the field is removed and many of the particles experience Brownian relaxation and randomly orient in a different direction. But the nanoparticles bonded to the bacteria cannot undergo Brownian relaxation and rather show Neel relaxation, which is comparatively slower and detectable. The superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs) detect the slower Neel relaxation and bacterial detection is performed. Fig. 1.2C shows the operation of a magnetoresistive sensor. The basic principle that a magnetoresistive sensor applies is that the magnetic particle bonds to the surface of the sensor and eventually alters its magnetic field. This causes a change in sensor current and the detection is performed. There are two mechanisms through which magnetic particles bind to the sensor surface: (i) direct labeling, and (ii) indirect labeling. In the case of direct labeling, magnetic nanoparticles directly Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 5
- 19. Sensor functionalization Linker incubation Capture antibody BSA Analyte Biotinylated antibody Magnetoresistive Sensor Streptavidin-coated magnetic nanotag Nanotag-based quantification Analyte incubation Capture antibody BSA Control Control Control Control Probe Target bacterium Magnetic particle A A C B D (A) (B) (C) B Antibody Probe Probe Probe Fig. 1.2 (A) Magnetic property of nanomaterials used for sensing applications [31]. (B) Magnetic property of nanomaterials used for sensing applications (working principle of SQUID) [31]. (C) Schematic diagram of giant magnetoresistive sensor application [31].
- 20. bindtothesurfacefunctionality,whileforindirectlabelingasandwichassayiscreated.Fig.1.2C schematically shows the detection of protein by creating a sandwich assay. Nanoparticles possess many more extraordinary properties including mechanical and thermal properties, but these properties are not very important to the current subject point of view. 1.2.2 Different nanomaterials for nanosensors To discuss and understand the use of nanomaterials in developing nanosensors, it is helpful to classify them into different groups. But classifying nanomaterials into different groups is a formidable job. Nanomaterials can be prepared using a number of bottom-up processes such as cutting, ball milling, extruding, chipping, pounding, and many more [32] and top-down approaches [33] resulting in different types of structures, with different surface coatings, which can cause the classification to be obscure. For that reason, here we do not put too much concentration on classifying nanomaterials, but rather we shed some light on some commonly used nanomaterials. A schematic representation of carbon-based nanomaterials is provided in Fig. 1.3 for a better understanding of the diverse nature of nanomaterials. Fig. 1.3 Different carbon-based nanomaterials [34]. Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 7
- 21. 1.2.2.1 Carbon nanotube First developed in 1991 by Iijima, the carbon nanotube (CNT) is by far the most-used carbon- based nanomaterial. It is a cylinder having diameters from fractions to tens of nanometers and a length up to several micrometers. There exist both single-walled (SWCNTs) and multiwalled (MWCNTs) nanotubes that are formed by single and multiple layers of graphene lamella, respectively, seamlessly rolled up [14]. The CNT is commonly produced by a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique or vaporization of graphite in a furnace in an inert (argon gas) atmosphere. The CNT possesses some excellent properties, such as high strength caused by its hexagonal structure, exceptional electronic properties caused by the free electron available after sp2 hybridization, and ease of functionalization with different organic molecules that provide a means to interact selectively with different analytes. This easy-to-functionalize property enables CNTs to be used as probe tips for a wide range of chemical and biological applications. The main application of the CNT as a sensor is in the field-effect transistor (FET). Though the CNT is robust and inert in nature, it is highly sensitive to chemical doping. A wide variety of FETs are manufactured by chemical doping of CNTs. Fig. 1.4 shows a schematic diagram of CNT-FET. CNT-FETs are used to detect different types of gases like CO2, NH3, O2 [35], NO2, N2 [36], and so forth. CNT-FETs are also used for detection in biological science. A variety of sensors have already been developed by researchers for detecting proteins [37], enzymes, and β-D glucose [38], among others. 1.2.2.2 Nanowires Nanowires are also commonly used in making nanosensors, just like CNTs. Nanowires are produced through a variety of processes such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD), laser ablation, alternating current electrodeposition, and thermal evaporation [25]. Nanowires can be made up of different materials but silicone nanowires have drawn recent interest. The electrical properties and sensitivity of silicon nanowires can be tuned properly and reproducibly by Si SiO2 Gate Drain Source CNT or net of CNTs Fig. 1.4 Schematic diagram of CNT-FET [25]. 8 Chapter 1
- 22. controlling the nanowire diameter and dopant concentration [39]. Hahm et al. produced a SiNW-based sensor to detect DNA and DNA mismatches [40] in which the silicon nanowire devices were modified with peptide nucleic acid receptors. The gold nanocluster catalyzed chemical vapor deposition technique was employed to prepare the nanowires used in this sensor. The nanowires were assembled on the sensor along with peptide nucleic acid. A schematic diagram of the device is given in Fig. 1.5 [40]. When a wild type or mutant DNA is introduced to the sensor via the microfluidic channel, peptide nucleic acid binds with the DNA and creates a tiny change of the conductance of the silicon nanowire. This change of conductance enables the sensor to differentiate between fully complementary or mismatched DNA. Nanowires are also used to make gas sensors that can qualitatively detect NH3. 1.2.2.3 Nanoparticles Nanoparticles are a commonly used nanomaterial not only in sensor manufacturing but also in many other engineering applications. Although the name suggests a nanoparticle is a single molecule, NPs are not just simply one molecule but rather a combination of three layers. These layers are (a) the surface layer, which can be used to functionalize the nanoparticle; (b) the shell layer; and (c) the core, which is essentially the central portion of the NP [41]. Nanoparticles are PNA (B) (C) (A) PNA-DNA Fig. 1.5 (A) Schematic of a sensor device consisting of a SiNW (yellow) and a microfluidic channel (green), where the arrows indicate the direction of sample flow. (B) The SiNW surface with PNA receptor. (C) PNA-DNA duplex formation [40]. Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 9
- 23. prepared using various approaches like bottom-up synthesis, including but not limited to chemical vapor deposition (CVD), spinning, plasma spraying synthesis, and laser pyrolysis, and top-down approaches, including but not limited to mechanical milling, sputtering, and laser ablation. Nanoparticles can be classified into various classes, for example (a) carbon-based nanoparticle, (b) metal nanoparticle, (c) ceramic nanoparticle, (d) semiconductor nanoparticle, and (e) polymer nanoparticle. Fig. 1.6 shows the SEM and TEM images of different nanoparticles (NPs). Nanoparticles offer exceptional electronic, optical, magnetic, mechanical, and thermal properties. Among these, the first three properties are exploited to produce many sensors. Metallic nanoparticles are used to enhance surface plasmon resonance sensitivity. The surface plasmon resonance technique is used in many optical sensors described in the previous section. Palladium nanoparticles deposited on etched porous silicon are used to detect hydrogen in the environment, while carbon electrodes with deposited gold nanoparticles are used to detect copper in water [16]. Fig. 1.6 SEM image of (A) nonporous MA-SiO2 NPs, (B) mesoporous MA-SiO2 NPs. TEM images of (C) nonporous MASiO2 NPs and (D) mesoporous MA-SiO2 NPs [18]. 10 Chapter 1
- 24. 1.2.2.4 Fullerenes Due to their unique properties, fullerenes are now receiving major attention from the scientific community. Fullerenes have a hexagonal ground state with sp2 hybridization and are highly symmetric with 120 symmetry operations. Fullerenes are very strong and bounce back to their initial shape after deformation [15]. Among other properties, fullerenes have high surface-to- volume ratio, high electron affinity, and a hydrophobic surface. A good number of sensors have been developed using fullerenes along with other nanomaterials to form nanocomposites. Brahman et al. developed a C60-MWCNT nanosensor for detecting pyruvic acid [42]. Another electrochemical sensor was developed by the same researcher that uses a fullerene, copper nanoparticle-fullerene, MWCNT composite to detect paracetamol [43]. Here they used a pretreated carbon paste electrode (CPE) on which fullerene-C60 and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were dropped to produce a modified CPE. Later copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) were deposited electrochemically on the modified CPE and a nanocomposite film of CuNPs/C60-MWCNTs/CPE was formed. This composite showed excellent performance in paracetamol recognition and determination. 1.3 Nanomanufacturing Nanomanufacturing is the process of manufacturing nanomaterials or various structures in nanoscale for different applications. This can be considered an updated version of micromanufacturing/microfabrication in which the dimension at which the manufacturing is done is several orders smaller. The term nanofabrication is sometimes used as analogous to nanomanufacturing,butsometimesnanofabricationrefersmore toa nanoscalefabricationprocess that is used in funded research work and nanomanufacturing is used to refer to manufacturing productsforrevenuegeneration[44].However,inthischapter,wearenotveryconcernedaboutthe lack of a specific definition for the term nanomanufacturing; rather, we provide a general idea of current prevailing nanomanufacturing processes for manufacturing nanosensors. A schematic diagram of an ultrasonic assisted nanomanufacturing process is shown in Fig. 1.7. In the figure, various possible types of vibration configurations are shown for the machining process. The research group reported that this method can be successfully applied to produce 3D nanoobjects of discrete height levels and also of continuously varying height [45]. 1.3.1 Nanomanufacturing processes The main drive behind the nanomanufacturing process is the ever-increasing hunger of the electronics industry to obtain smaller sizes. Currently, a microchip that we can hold on our fingertips can store gigabytes of data. To satiate this hunger, different types of nanomanufacturing processes have been developed that can be classified into three broad Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 11
- 25. approaches: (1) top-down approach, (2) bottom-up approach, and (3) molecular assembly. These three approaches are briefly described in the following sections. 1.3.1.1 Top-down approach David, the famous statue created by Michelangelo, is one of the most notable sculptures of all time. However, if someone asks how David or any other stone or wooden sculpture is made, the answer is simple: a large block of stone or wood is gradually trimmed to the final shape. This is a top-down approach. In nanomanufacturing, this approach is used when a large block of material is taken and, by machining, the material is removed little by little till the final shape is obtained. The top-down approach consists of two steps: (1) nanolithography and (2) transfer of pattern. In nanolithography, the desired pattern is created on a special type of sacrificial layer called a resist. There are a number of nanolithography techniques, such as photolithography, electron beam lithography, X-ray lithography, soft lithography, and so forth. The basic idea in every case is similar. First, a layer of resist is applied to the substrate. Then with the help of a pattern the photoresist is exposed to an energy source: for example, photolithography uses ultraviolet rays while electron beam lithography uses an electron beam and X-ray lithography uses an X-ray. Due to this patterned exposure, the resist undergoes a chemical process and the chemical and mechanical properties vary throughout the whole coating. Later, some part of the resist (exposed or unexposed part) is removed, depending on the positive or negative resist, and a pattern is created. Now the metal layer (SiO2 in Fig. 1.8) is ready for the etching process. After etching the pattern created by the resist is removed mechanically or chemically. The simplified process is graphically represented in Fig. 1.8. Circular vibration Feed (A) (B) (C) (D) Ultrasonic vibration f < fr f >> fr Fig. 1.7 (A) Ultrasonic assisted AFM-based nanomanufacturing process. (B) Low-frequency tip-sample interacting. (C) Ultrasonic tip-sample interaction while the tip is stationary. (D) SEM image of AFM tip [45]. 12 Chapter 1
- 26. Currently, the top-down approach prevails as the most popular and widely used approach in the nanomanufacturing industry. But the other two approaches are also beginning to have their own positions in nanomanufacturing. 1.3.1.2 Bottom-up approach The bottom-up approach is similar to building up a house brick by brick (Fig. 1.9). In this approach, the final structure is developed by assembling or joining small components, even molecules. Typically there are several bottom-up approaches, including physical or chemical vapor deposition, contact printing, imprinting, assembly and joining, and coating. The bottom- up approach has high potential in healthcare and medical applications. Carbon nanomaterials and carbon nanotubes can be used for a bottom-up approach and a device that can work on an individual cell can be nanofabricated using this approach (Fig. 1.9). 1.3.1.3 Molecular self-assembly Molecular self-assembly is the newest approach, in which the components, especially molecules, assemble themselves in the desired fashion to produce a nanoobject without the direction of an outside force. This process involves different properties such as shape, surface Substrate x-ray x-ray Photoresist Pattern/Mask Development before Etching Etching and stripping of photoresist Negative photoresist Positive photoresist SiO2 layer Substrate Fig. 1.8 Image of positive and negative resist in X-ray lithography. Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 13
- 27. properties, charge, polarizability, and magnetic dipole of the molecule to drive them to assemble together to form a particular structure. This is still a growing field and various developments are required before this approach is used in industry. Fig. 1.9 Bottom-up approach used in tissue engineering. (A) Complementary oligonucleotides were covalently coupled to the surfaces of different cells by click chemistry. (B–E) Two nonadherent cell types were mixed, and did not aggregate if their surfaces were modified with: (B) no oligonucleotides, (C) noncomplementary oligonulceotides. However, specific aggregation was observed if the cell surfaces were modified with complementary oligonucleotides (D, E). (F) Aggregation of DAPI stained cells (blue), with the central cell modified with fluorescein-conjugated oligonucleotides (green). (G) 3D reconstruction of an aggregate of Texas Red-labeled (red) and fluorescein-labeled cells (green) [46]. 14 Chapter 1
- 28. 1.4 Nanomanufacturing processes for nanosensors Nanomanufacturing can be defined as the ability to measure, predict, and manufacture on atomic and molecular scales and to exploit the unique properties shown by nanomaterials at that scale. Nanomanufacturing is a multidisciplinary field and researchers from various backgrounds are contributing to it. Fig. 1.10 shows graphically how researchers from different, but strongly related, research disciplines approach the science of the nanomanufacturing process. However, in this chapter we are only concerned with the nanomanufacturing processes used in manufacturing nanosensors. In the previous section, it was shown that there are two broad approaches, namely the bottom-up approach and the top-down approach. A detailed discussion of these two approaches is not necessary here, as they have already been described. In this current section, we will discuss several nanomanufacturing processes that are commonly used in nanosensor preparation. Physics Surface plasmon reasonance, Molecular electronics etc. Food industry Antibacterial nanoparticle, Nano food packaging material etc. Medicine Biocompatible Nanoparticle, Nanobots etc. for diagnosis Energy and power Polycrystalline for solar cell, Thermocell, etc. Optics and engineering Surface plasmon polaritons, Photodetectors, Optoelectronics Materials Nanotubes Nanocomposite, Nanoparticle in different application Fig. 1.10 Nanomanufacturing approached from different disciplines. Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 15
- 29. 1.4.1 Electron beam lithography Lithography is the technique of transferring patterns from one medium to another medium with the help of a material called resist. Previously, different particle beams were used in lithography, but with the application of the electron beam, nanometer-sized features have become possible. Due to its precious pattern-making capability, electron beam lithography (EBL) is frequently used in sensor manufacturing. Among various electron beam lithography technologies, here we will discuss direct writing EBL technology due to its simplicity and frequent use. In direct writing EBL, a finely focused Gaussian round beam is used that moves with the wafer and a single pixel of the wafer is exposed at a time (Tseng et al., 2003). The basic setup for direct writing EBL is shown in Fig. 1.11. The beam creates a desired pattern on the wafer and, supported with the etching and deposition process, a very complicated nanostructure can be produced. Though this technique is very cheap and popular, its main drawback is the large time requirement. However, researchers are trying to improve the technology to make this process more applicable. 1.4.2 Focused ion beam lithography Focused ion beam lithography is another nanomanufacturing technique similar to electron beam lithography, but here ions are used to perform the lithography instead of an electron beam (Fig. 1.12). Since the ions are much heavier than electrons, focused ion beam lithography can be more efficient than electron beam lithography. The focused ion beam lithography technique also has some different classifications, but direct writing is the simplest and cheapest one and hence that is the one discussed here. In this method, a resist is not used and by varying the distance of the wafer, the dose of ions can be controlled, resulting 1 2 3 6 5 (A) (B) NA + + - 4 Fig. 1.11 (A) Conceptual diagram of DiVa: 1. Planar cathode, 2. Shaping apparatus, 3. Shaping apparatus second set, 4. deflector, 5. Wafer, 6. Deflection plates; (B) Experimental DiVa apparatus at Stanford University [47]. 16 Chapter 1
- 30. in a trench of different depth on the wafer. Heavy-ion species such as Ga+ and Au+ can also be used in this lithography to produce a stronger effect. When a beam is passed over the wafer, a trench having inverse Gaussian shape is obtained. With increase in strength, the trench becomes more sharp, narrow, and V-shaped [48]. Multiple passes are also possible to create complicated shapes. 1.4.3 X-ray lithography X-ray lithography (XRL) is an advanced version of optical lithography in which shorter wavelengths are used. In this method, a special type of mask is used with different local X-ray absorption areas to define the pattern. This pattern is replicated on an X-ray sensitive material called a resist, which is previously deposited on a substrate (usually a silicon wafer). When the X-ray passing through the pattern falls on the resist, it may cause cross-linking (for negative resists) or bond breaking (for positive resists), depending on the chemical nature of the resist. After exposure, the whole thing is dipped in a specific solvent and, depending on its nature, either the exposed area resist will dissolve and create a pattern or vice versa. The other part of the resist will stay intact [49]. This is how X-ray lithography creates nanopatterns on the substrate. 1.5 Conclusions and future directions The beginnings of nanotechnology are popularly dated back to the famous lecture given by Nobel laureate Richard Feynman, “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom,” in 1959. But the application of this technology became evident at the beginning of 1980. Since then, nanotechnology has gained huge momentum and currently is being applied in various aspects of Fig. 1.12 Schematic diagram of focused ion beam lithography. Introduction to nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing for nanosensors 17
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- 34. CHAPTER 2 Features and complex model of gold nanoparticle fabrication for nanosensor applications Norma Alias, Hazidatul Akma Hamlan Center for Sustainable Nanomaterials, Ibnu Sina Institute for Scientific and Industrial Research, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Malaysia 2.1 Introduction In recent years, many researchers and engineers have been shifting the focus of their studies toward nanosensors because of their unique sensitivity and selectivity, which mostly originate from modifications and reactions that occur at nanoscales [1]. Due to their unique features, nanosensors are widely chosen for detecting chemical and physical properties in many fields such as environmental, biomedical, and food processing. Dahman [2] expressed that nanosensors have a plethora of environmental applications. The ability to detect chemical components of air and water strengthen the choice of nanosensors in the environmental field. Nanosensors are mainly used in water monitoring quality [3], monitoring plant signaling pathways [4], and detecting and determining quantities of acetamiprid (insecticide) in food and the environment [5] and agriculture [6]. Vikesland [3] stated that an abundance of existing nanosensors can be developed into consumer- and operator-friendly tools. The author emphasized that nanotechnology-enabled sensors or nanosensors can provide extensive and potentially low-cost monitoring of chemicals, microbes, and other analytes in drinking water. Meanwhile, Kwak et al. [4] discussed how nanosensors can act as monitoring tools to observe and monitor plant signaling pathways and metabolism. Verdian [5] highlighted a current major concern of food safety experts, which is pesticide residues. Despite the small amounts of toxicity from pesticide residues, insecticides that contain acetamiprid can represent a health risk to human beings who are exposed to polluted food and environments. Hence, nanosensors can be used in detecting and determining amounts of acetamiprid in food and the environment. Nanofabrication for Smart Nanosensor Applications. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820702-4.00002-7 # 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 21
- 35. Srivastava et al. [6] explained applications of nanosensors in agriculture in which wireless nanosensors are used to monitor the soil fertility, moisture level, insects, temperature, crop nutrient status, and diseases of crops. Using advances in nanotechnology, crop growth can be monitored by employing networks of wireless nanosensors across cultivated fields. The network can provide crucial data for agronomic intelligence processes such as optimal times for crop planting and harvesting. One of the most popular nanosensor technologies makes use of gold nanoparticles [7], whose flexible surface chemistry allows them to be coated with biological recognition molecules, polymers, and small molecules, hence broadening their range of applications. Gold nanoparticles as substrates can also be used as a nanosensor technology for the detection of pollutants and label-free detection of other molecules and proteins [8]. Based on the facts described, this chapter presents established mathematical modeling based on partial differential equations (PDEs) for nanoparticle materials fabrication, to control the process of gold nanoparticle manufacturing. The modeling is created to investigate the feature properties and boundaries in the development process. One-dimensional PDEs with respect to time and space are employed to visualize the growth of gold nanoparticles (AuNPS). An accurate and precise result can be achieved by governing complex mathematical modeling and obtaining a large sparse matrix of linear system equations (LSEs). Meanwhile, the parallelization of LSE is chosen in order to accelerate and speed up the simulation for a large sparse matrix. Therefore, the main focus of this chapter is the parallelization of a mathematical model of the fabrication of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles have played an important role in advanced catalysts, ceramics, and electronic devices as well as polymer composites and coatings for the last two decades [9]. Their physical and chemical properties are different from those of conventional materials. A nanoparticle can best be defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit with regard to its properties, and is classified according to its diameter. Schmid [10] defined nanoparticles as nanomaterials with an average diameter that is less than 100 nm. Nowadays, nanoparticle technology plays an important role in providing opportunities and possibilities for the development of a new generation of sensing tools. The targeted sensing of selective biomolecules using functionalized gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) has become a major research thrust in the last decade [11]. Researchers normally use gold nanoparticles due to their stability and unique optical, electronic, biolabeling, and molecular-recognition properties. In fabricating gold nanoparticles, several features need to be controlled – for example, size, shape, and structure. The parameters will be changed according to functionality. This is due to the strong correlation between the parameters and optical, electrical, and catalytic properties [12]. Nanoparticles with controlled size and shape are of great interest because of their morphology-dependent properties [10] and potential applications in a variety of fields. 22 Chapter 2
- 36. The application of gold growth is so significant that, in recent years, some researchers have been reporting mainly on the analysis of gold growth, especially chemical properties. However, only a few studies focus on mathematical modeling and simulation in visualizing the growth of gold nanoparticles [13]. Due to this situation, this research investigates the rate of growth for gold nanoparticles using a one-dimensional parabolic PDE approach. Since nanoparticle fabrication is being dealt with through nanoscale approaches, the focus of this chapter is on fine-grain parallelism involving a large-scale matrix from the mathematical model discretization. In solving the problem of a large-scale matrix, parallel computing systems with huge memory space are needed to produce a good result. Therefore, parallel computing systems are employed throughout this study. The parameter change from phase change simulation is the code from the Linux operating system using DPCS based on the approximation of numerical scheme and parallel algorithms, as well as their sequential flows. The PVM software integrated with the C language is used to support the message passing paradigm and simulation for the parallel algorithm program. 2.1.1 Applications of nanoparticles Nanotechnology deals with the particular technological goal of specifically manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale merchandise. Nowadays, this is also known as molecular nanotechnology [14]. In nanotechnology, sensitivity experiments are carried out for various physical processes, involving a large-scale structure of modeling and reformation of the nanoscale system, which appearance as nanoparticles [15]. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) display irreplaceable properties that make them a very attractive material for nanosensing applications, especially in the environmental field. Besides that, the “additional attractive feature of AuNPs is their interaction with thiols, providing effective and selective means of controlled intracellular release” [16]. Liu et al. [17], Park et al. [18], and Rejiya et al. [19] have investigated the application of gold particles as nanoparticles. Various sizes of gold nanoparticles and their morphologies have attracted considerable interest for researchers, especially in medical applications [20] and [21]. 2.1.2 Growth of gold nanoparticles As mentioned, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have attracted much attention among researchers, due to their unique properties and encouraging applications in areas of biotechnology, catalysis [22], and optoelectronics [23]. In preparing AuNPs, the homogeneous mixing of continuous flows of an aqueous tetrachloroauric acid solution and a sodium borohydride solution is applied using a microstructured static mixer [24]. Their studies have provided a profound understanding of gold nanoparticle growth and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), combined with X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES). In predicting the size, shape, and Designing aspects of gold nanoparticles complex model investigation 23
- 37. polydispersity of gold nanoparticles, one paper [25] stressed that it is necessary to interpret the underlying process using SAXS that offers integral information on the growth of nanoparticles. However, Polte et al. [26], despite their widespread use, in countless cases and applications, a deeper understanding and consideration of the underlying formation of the processes is missing. Due to this phenomenon, the size and shape control of gold nanoparticles often remained. Therefore, in this chapter, a great deal of attention has been focused on understanding the process of gold nanoparticle formation pertaining to its growth rate. In predicting and visualizing the growth of gold nanoparticles, mathematical modeling using one-dimensional parabolic PDEs as the integrated methodology is proposed instead of conducting experimental laboratory studies. The gold nanoparticle fabrication correlates with longer systemic circulation and a high-cost fabrication for small-scale limited process. Although the nanoparticles are small, mathematical modeling and large sparse simulation can be presented in the fabrication process. 2.2 Mathematical model of gold nanoparticle fabrication The focus of this chapter is on the application of one-dimensional parabolic equations from PDEs to governing mathematical modeling. The prediction and visualization of the growth rate of gold nanoparticles are obtained by employing one-dimensional parabolic PDEs with respect to time, space, and some independent and dependent variables. 2.2.1 Governing equation of gold nanoparticle fabrication This section deals with the mathematical modeling and simulation of one-dimensional parabolic PDEs as an integrated methodology for predicting and visualizing the growth of gold nanoparticles with respect to time and space. The modeling is formulated as a boundary value problem of PDEs. The PDE modeling with significant features and its parameter identification that influences on gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) of diameter Φ, ultraviolet radiation λ, and rate of gold growth U are investigated. The integrated methodology for predicting and visualizing the growth rate of gold nanoparticles for nanosensor applications with respect to time and space involves predicting and visualizing using one-dimensional parabolic PDEs. The governing equation of the mathematical model for this problem is: ∂U ∂t ¼ Φ ∂2 U ∂x2 þλ, 0 x 1, t 0: (2.1) Initial and boundary conditions are given by [27]. U x, 0 ð Þ ¼ sin πx ð Þ, 0 x 1, 24 Chapter 2
- 38. U 0, t ð Þ ¼ 0, 0 t 1, U 1, t ð Þ ¼ 0, 0 t 1: The exact solution is given by U x, t ð Þ ¼ eπt sin πx ð Þ, (2.2) where λ represents the incoherent ultraviolet radiation (nm), Φ is the diameter of gold growth, U is the rate of gold growth, t is time (duration taken for the growth rate), and x is the spatial coordinate of direction. 2.2.2 Nondimensionalized parameter for governing equations In mathematics, a transformation from dimensional to nondimensional variables is required so the relevant parameter identification and changes of the required parameters for mathematical modeling can be specified. However, for engineering applications, nondimensionalizing the governing equation is not necessary since real physical quantities are dealt with as the solution progresses. Since this study focuses on mathematical analysis, the nondimensional rule is needed because the nondimensionalized variables reduce the complexity of solving the governing equation. Therefore, Eqs. (2.1), (2.2) are nondimensionalized using the following dimensional scaling from Blest et al. [28]. The nondimensional scaling is denoted with a tilde: ~ Ti ¼ Ti Tini Tc Tini , ~ x ¼ x d , ~ y ¼ y d , ~ ui ¼ ui d , ~ vi ¼ vi d , ~ t ¼ Krt d2 , ~ L ¼ L d , ~ hk ¼ hk d , and ~ δk ¼ δk d , where i = r, f are the respective resin and saturated fiber layer. By applying these transformations and omitting tildes for clarity, Eqs. (2.1), (2.2) can be simplified as ∂Tf ∂t þPe uf ∂Tf ∂x þvf ∂Tf ∂y ¼ D ∂2 Tf ∂x2 þ ∂2 Tf ∂y2 þJ1 ∂α ∂t , (2.3) ∂Tr ∂t þPe ur ∂Tr ∂x þvr ∂Tr ∂y ¼ ∂2 Tr ∂x2 þ ∂2 Tr ∂y2 þJ2 ∂α ∂t , (2.4) and ∂α ∂t ¼ C1 þC2α ð Þ 1α ð Þ 0:47α ð Þ for α 0:3, (2.5) Designing aspects of gold nanoparticles complex model investigation 25
- 39. ∂α ∂t ¼ C3 1α ð Þ for α 0:3, (2.6) where D, J1 and J2 are dimensionless constants given by D ¼ Kf Kr , J1 ¼ øρrHR ρf cf Tc Tini ð Þ , J2 ¼ HR cr Tc Tini ð Þ Pe, which is the Peclet number, and the constant Ci are given by Pe ¼ Vd Kr Ci ¼ d2 ci Kr , i ¼ 1,2,3 2.2.3 Discretization using finite difference method for gold nanoparticle fabrication problem The specific parameter value of the finite difference method (FDM) is a numerical strategy for discretizing the parabolic equation. Approximate derivatives in Eq. (2.3) produce the approximation solution of the gold growth, which can be analyzed to be used in environmental analysis for nanosensors. The discretization of Eq. (2.3) is given by Ui, j + 1 Ui, j Δt ¼ Φ θ δ2 x Ui, j + 1 + 1θ ð Þ δ2 x Ui, j + λ, (2.7) where 0 θ 1 2 and 1 2 θ 1: Transferring the continuity equation of the PDE into the discrete solution by FDM with the forward difference formula for a first-order derivative and three points discretization for a second-order derivative, Eq. (2.7) is expanded as follows: rθUi1, j + 1 + 1 + 2rθ ð ÞUi, j + 1 rθUi + 1, j + 1 ¼ r 1θ ð ÞUi1, j + 12r 1θ ð Þ ð ÞUi, j + r 1θ ð ÞUi + 1, j + λΔt (2.8) with i ¼ 1, 2, …, m and j ¼ 1, 2, …, n. The step sizes of nanoscale gold nanoparticle growth during the photochemical reduction process can be considered as explicit, implicit, and Crank-Nicolson methods with respect to time and space variables. In equation, the convergent explicit methodology is able to express the growth dynamics of a particle at a new time step, depending on the few forms of points at the previous time. The explicit scheme of the FDM is uniquely designed in the closed domain and available to generate a large sparse fine domain for high resolution of the growth visualization. 26 Chapter 2
- 40. 2.2.4 Linear system equation formulation for gold nanoparticle fabrication The next steps of the numerical solution involve formulation of the linear system equation (LSE) for Eq. (2.8). In addition, three important solution tools for solving LSEs—Jacobi, Gauss-Seidel, and Alternating Group Explicit (AGE) by Evans and Sahimi [29], Abdurrahman et al. [30], Sahimi et al. [31], and Abu Mansor et al. [32]—are focused on in this chapter. The standard scheme for the three-point discretization of a one-dimensional parabolic PDE can be visualized in matrix form as AU ¼ F (2.9) where U and f are one-dimensional vectors defined as U ¼ U1, j + 1, U2, j + 1, U3, j + 1, …, Um, j + 1 T , F ¼ F1, F2, F3, …, Fm ð Þ: Eq. (2.7) can be written in matrix form as: a c 0 b a c b a ⋱ b ⋱ c ⋱ a c 0 b a 2 6 6 6 6 6 4 3 7 7 7 7 7 5 mm ð Þ U1 U2 U3 ⋮ Um1 Um 2 6 6 6 6 6 4 3 7 7 7 7 7 5 m1 ð Þ ¼ F1 F2 F3 ⋮ Fm1 Fm 2 6 6 6 6 6 4 3 7 7 7 7 7 5 m1 ð Þ (2.10) where a ¼ 1 + 2rθ, b ¼ c ¼ rθ and F1 ¼ r 1θ ð ÞUj 0 + 12r 1θ ð Þ ð ÞUj 1 + r 1θ ð ÞUj 2 + rθUj + 1 0 + λΔt Fi ¼ r 1θ ð ÞUj i1 + 12r 1θ ð Þ ð ÞUj i + r 1θ ð ÞUj i + 1 + λΔt, for i ¼ 2,3,…:m1 Fm ¼ r 1θ ð ÞUj m1 + 12r 1θ ð Þ ð ÞUj m + r 1θ ð ÞUj m + 1 + rθUj + 1 m + 1 + λΔt (2.11) 2.2.5 Visualization of the mathematical model for gold nanoparticle fabrication Visualization of the mathematical model of the one-dimensional problem of gold nanoparticles is acquired based on a simulation using Microsoft Visual Studio 2012 and the visualization graphs are plotted using Matlab R2013b and Comsol Multiphysics. The results obtained are validated using experimental data for the one-dimensional problem. Designing aspects of gold nanoparticles complex model investigation 27
- 41. In this section, the visualization of the growth of gold nanoparticles from the mathematical model simulation is compared with the experimental data. From the data obtained, the growth of the gold nanoparticles is described in Fig. 2.1, which shows the spectral absorption measured using photon correlation spectroscopy for Samples A and D. Samples A and D used different synthesis methods, such as UVA and UVC photo-initiation. In the experiment involving photochemical synthesis of AuNPs, tri-sodium citrate was added into a boiling gold chloride dilution and produced relatively monodisperse AuNPs with diameter between 10 and 20 nm. The changes in solution appearance during the experiment were carried out in order to indicate the presence of AuNP size for each sample used. Different diameters of AuNPs are used in order to visualize the rate of growth for gold nanoparticles. Hence, the computational molecule for AGE methodology at level p+1, as depicted in Fig. 2.5, an average particle size (diameter) from 5 nm to 100 nm, depending on ultraviolet wavelength, was used. In this study, six different sizes of AuNPs were measured: 5, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 nm. From Fig. 2.1, it can be concluded that the largest diameter Φ gives the highest rate of gold growth U(x,t). By focusing on the highest rate of gold growth, with a diameter of 100 nm, the mathematical model simulation of Eq. (2.1) is charged by a different amount of UV radiation, with wavelengths of 366 nm and 253.7 nm. The visualization graph from the simulation of the governing equation is described by Figs. 2.2 and 2.3. 2.3 Numerical implementation and parallelization for gold nanoparticle fabrication This section consists of the numerical implementation of the solution of the governing equation of the one-dimensional parabolic model for growth of gold nanoparticles, which will aid in promoting the usage of nanosensors in environmental analysis. The numerical implementations Fig. 2.1 Experimental data for particle size distribution (diameter) of gold nanoparticle growth using different samples. 28 Chapter 2
- 42. Fig. 2.2 Visualization of gold nanoparticle growth based on the mathematical model with different values of diameters. 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 Time (s) U(x,t), Growth rate of gold nanoparticle (%) UV radiation (2.573e-7) UV radiation (3.66e-7) Fig. 2.3 Visualization of gold nanoparticle growth with different UV light radiation wavelengths (366 and 253.7 nm) using AGE method. Designing aspects of gold nanoparticles complex model investigation 29
- 43. involved are alternating group explicit (AGE), red-black Gauss-Seidel (RBGS), and Jacobi (JB) methods. These are then applied using sequential and parallel algorithms that are computed using Parallel Virtual Machine (PVM) programming on a Linux platform by distributed parallel computing systems. Numerical analysis and parallel performance evaluation based on execution time, speed-up, efficiency, effectiveness, temporal performance, and granularity are discussed at the end of this chapter. 2.3.1 Numerical implementation This section is divided into three subsections: Section 2.3.1.1 discusses the alternating group explicit (AGE) method, followed by the red-black Gauss-Seidel (RBGS) and Jacobi (JB) methods for solving the LSE. In 1985, Evans introduced the AGE method for solving the parabolic PDE problem [33]. It has been shown that this method is extremely powerful and flexible, and provides users with many advantages. This so-called advanced iterative method employs a fractional splitting strategy, which is applied alternately at each half time step on tridiagonal systems of different schemes and which has proven to be stable. The Jacobi (JB) and red-black Gauss-Seidel schemes represent basic numerical schemes and are the benchmarks for simulating the AGE scheme. 2.3.1.1 Alternating group explicit (AGE) As mentioned earlier, this iterative scheme employs a fractional splitting strategy which is applied alternately at each half time step on tridiagonal systems of difference schemes. This method has already proven to be stable. The linear system equation for the AGE scheme is given by Au ¼ f, also illustrated. The AGE method for obtaining the growth rate of a gold nanoparticle uses the Douglas- Rachford (DR) variant instead of the Peaceman-Rachford (PR). This is so as to ensure its unconditional stability [34] with stationary case (r is constant) and p 0 are given by the following equations. The computational molecule for the AGE method in determining the value of U at level p + 1 2 is (Fig. 2.4): The molecule diagram of the AGE method for level p + 1 can be drawn as follows (Fig. 2.5): 2.3.1.2 Red-Black Gauss-Seidel method (RBGS) The second iterative scheme of basic numerical analysis used for solving the linear system is the Gauss-Seidel (GS) method. This method was modified and improved from the Jacobi method, so it is no more difficult to apply and it often requires fewer iterations to produce the same degree of accuracy. When the Jacobi scheme is applied, the value of xi that is obtained in the nth approximation remains unchanged until the entire (n + 1)th approximate has been calculated, while for the 30 Chapter 2
- 44. Fig. 2.4 Computational molecule for AGE method at level p + 1 2. Fig. 2.5 Computational molecule for AGE method at level p + 1.
- 45. Gauss-Seidel scheme, new values of each xiwill be used as soon as they are known. Once x1 is determined in the first equation, the value is then used in the second equation to obtain a new x2. Similarly, the new x1 and x2 are used in the third equation to obtain the new x3 and so forth. Tavakoli and Davami [35] considered a parallel Gauss-Seidel in solving a one-dimensional elliptic partial differential equation with a Dirichlet boundary condition. The solution to the linear system AU ¼ f can be obtained starting with U(0) and using the iteration scheme U k + 1 ð Þ ¼ MSUk + CS, (2.12) where MS and CS are defined as MS ¼ D + L ð Þ1 U andCS ¼ D + L ð Þ1 b: This method is described using the formulae U k + 1 ð Þ i ¼ 1 aii bi X ji aijU k ð Þ j X ji aijU k + 1 ð Þ j ! ,i ¼ 1,2,3,…,m (2.13) However, the GS scheme can only solve sequential algorithms of mathematical modeling, so this scheme has been enhanced to solve algorithms in parallel, called the Red-Black Gauss- Seidel (RBGS). The RBGS contains two subdomains ΩR and ΩM . The red point depends on the black point, and vice versa. The loop starts by computing the odd points, from the bottom left, and then going up to the next row and so on. As all of the odd points are finished, the computation of the black ones continues. The red-black grid is illustrated in Figs. 2.6–2.8. 2.3.1.3 Jacobi method (JB) The third numerical iterative method employed for solving LSEs is the Jacobi method (JB), which is an algorithm for determining the solutions of a diagonally dominant system of linear equations. Each diagonal element is solved and the approximate value is plugged in. The Red point Black point Fig. 2.6 The grid for red and black points. 32 Chapter 2
- 46. process is then iterated until it converges. The solution to the linear system Au ¼ b can be obtained by beginning with U(0) and using iteration with U k + 1 ð Þ ¼ MJuk + CJ (2.14) where vector MJ and CJ can be defined as MJ ¼ D1 L + U ð ÞandCJ ¼ D1 b If U(0) is carefully chosen, a sequence U(1) , U(2) , U(3) … is generated, which converges to the solution ^ U: A sufficient condition for the method to be applied is that A is a strictly diagonally dominant matrix. Before implementing the simulation of the numerical scheme, an algorithm must be constructed. The purpose of constructing this algorithm is to monitor our programming language. In this study, we develop sequential and parallel algorithms to assist in monitoring our programming. If constructed the programming having error, that can be solved by help of algorithms. 2.3.2 Parallelization of iterative methods for solving one-dimensional mathematical model A parallel algorithm is constructed based upon the combination of several sequential algorithms. However, this algorithm has two types of server, the “master” and “slave.” The “master” will control all the activities that are conducted by the “slave,” such as receiving and sending the data. The parallel algorithm is constructed based on a SIMD architecture. A SIMD processor has a single control unit reading instructions pointed to by a single program counter, parallel decoding and sending control signals to the processing elements (PEs). The principle of SIMD is illustrated in Fig. 2.9. The SIMD architecture based on distributed computing system is shown in Fig. 2.10. Fig. 2.7 Molecule diagram at ΩR . Fig. 2.8 Molecule diagram at ΩM . Designing aspects of gold nanoparticles complex model investigation 33
- 47. In this research, C is used as a language that is planted in PVM with the Linux Fedora 21 operating system. The program is linked with the PVM library using the #include pvm3. h command for starting the program. From Fig. 2.11, it is clearly seen that the “master” sends the data of the start, end, initial, and boundary conditions for all slaves. The computational task is run by the “slave” until the local stopping criteria ε is fulfilled by each slave. The results obtained by slaves are sent toward the master. The master will process and store the results. If the global stopping criterion that is declared in the master is satisfied, the computation task is then stopped. The computation will be running if the condition (global stopping criterion) is still not satisfied. The servers will perform the calculation until the condition declared by the master is reached. The file programs contain message passing in order to communicate the purpose between master and slave as the program is compiled in the host pool for each architecture. The resulting object files are located at a location accessible by machines in the host pool. The PVM header file should be included with every PVM program. This is due to the important information regarding the interface of PVM programming. The techniques for the one- dimensional algorithm were illustrated in Fig. 2.11A, while the communication between processors is shown in Fig. 2.11B. In this research, techniques of domain decomposition were employed due to the presence of independent domains in the problem proposed. The grid of domain decomposition for each Data items Instructions Fig. 2.9 Principle of SIMD processor. Fig. 2.10 The SIMD architecture based on distributed computer systems. 34 Chapter 2
- 48. one-dimensional parallel algorithm is shown in Tables 2.1A, 2.1B, and 2.1C, which are AGE, RBGS, and JB, respectively. Based on Table 2.1A, we can conclude that the grid of domain decomposition for one-dimensional parallel AGE and JB was similar since the domain is independent. This differs from one-dimensional parallel RBGS since the domain decomposition for those algorithms involves even and odd domain partitioning. This is to avoid the overlapping subdomain problem. The mapping subdomain processes for sending and receiving data from the one-dimensional parallel algorithm at each time level were summarized in Tables 2.1A–2.1C. Based on that illustrated in Tables 2.1A, 2.1B, and 2.1C, the grid point of ui required data from the x-direction, which is left and right, while the updating activities are needed for implementing the latest iteration of time level (k + 1). Thus, for this case, the algorithm for sending and receiving data from neighborhood processors ui1 is needed to make sure the program functions well. X Y T1 Start T1 Start T2 Start Tn End T1 End T2 End Tn T2 Tn (A) (B) Fig. 2.11 (A) Domain decomposition technique for one-dimensional. (B) Communication between slaves. Designing aspects of gold nanoparticles complex model investigation 35
- 49. Table 2.1A: Domain decomposition of one-dimensional molecule for parallel AGE algorithm. TASK 1 At time level At time level (k + 1): 1 2 + : k i– 1, j k i, j i +1, j i +1, j i, j i+1, j i +1, j i +2, j i–1, j i+1, j i +1, j i, j i +2, j i, j i +2, j i–1, j i, j i, j TASK 1 TASK 2 TASK 2 TASK 3 TASK 3 k + 1 2 k + 1 2 k k + 1 One-dimensional Parallel Alternating Group Explicit (1D-PAGE) Table 2.1B: Domain decomposition of one-dimensional molecule for parallel RBGS algorithm. i+1, j i+1, j i+1, j i–1, j i–1, j i, j i +1, j i+1, j i, j i, j i, j i, j i –1, j i–1, j i +1, j i, j i –1, j k k k + 1 k + 1 i –1, j TASK 1 TASK 1 TASK 2 TASK 2 TASK 3 TASK 3 One-dimensional Parallel Red-BlackGauss-Seidel (1D-PRBGS) Notes:
- 50. Other documents randomly have different content
- 51. Sep. 1857 to 26 Oct. 1859, 9 March 1860 to 15 Oct. 1863, 3 Feb. 1865 to 21 Jany. 1866 and 13 Jany. 1870 to 15 Dec. 1870; agent general for N.S.W. in London 6 Dec. 1870 to 31 May 1871; C.M.G. 23 June 1869, K.C.M.G. 23 Feb. 1872. d. Eldon road, Kensington, London 19 Oct. 1875. Heaton’s Australian dictionary of dates (1879) 44–7. COWPER, Ebenezer. Articled to Mr. Lloyd, engineer, Gravel lane, Southwark, London; partner with his brother Edward Cowper; spent his life in putting up printing presses in England, Scotland, Ireland and on the Continent on the Cowper- Applegath model; the first edition of the Waverley novels was printed at Edinburgh off a Cowper machine; erected 12 machines at Imprimerie Royale, Paris 1830; Cowper machines although superseded by the Walter press for printing newspapers are still used for printing books; erected the printing machinery in the Bank of England. d. Harbourne road, Edgbaston, Birmingham 14 Sep. 1880 aged 77. Engineering 24 Sep. 1880 p. 257; Iron 24 Sep. 1880 p. 244. COWPER, Edward (brother of the preceding). b. 1790; ironmonger at St. Mary, Newington Butts 1816; printer in Nelson sq. 1818; partner with his brother-in-law Augustus Applegath; they jointly invented the four-cylinder printing machine and erected it at the Times office 1827; partner with his brother Ebenezer as machine makers, their machines were widely used throughout Europe; invented an ink distributing machine; professor of manufacturing art and machinery at King’s college, London 1846 to death. d. 9 Kensington park road, London 17 Oct. 1852. Wyman’s Bibliography of printing (1880), 14, 146. COWPER, Henry Frederick (2 son of 6 Earl Cowper 1806–56). b. 18 April 1836; ed. at Harrow and Ch. Ch. Ox.; contested Tamworth, Oct. 1863 and Herts. March 1864; M.P. for Herts. 24 July 1865 to Nov. 1885. d. Panshanger, Hertford 10 Nov. 1887. I.L.N. liv, 213 (1869), portrait.
- 52. COWPER, John Curtis, stage name of John Curtis (son of David Curtis of Manchester, painter). b. Port st. Piccadilly, Manchester 7 June 1827; first appeared at T.R. Manchester as Romeo; played star engagements with G. V. Brooke; leading tragedian at T.R. Liverpool; first appeared in London at Adelphi theatre, 17 Dec. 1862 as Duke Aranza in The Honeymoon; played leading parts at Drury Lane, Princess’s, Holborn and other London theatres. d. Barnes, Surrey 30 Jany. 1885. bur. Brompton cemetery, London 4 Feb. COWPER, Ven. William. b. Whittington, Lancs. 28 Dec. 1780; C. of Rawdon near Leeds; senior assistant colonial chaplain 1 Jany. 1808; arrived in Sydney 18 Aug. 1809; Inc. of St. Philip’s ch. Sydney, Aug. 1809 to death, ch. was consecrated 25 Dec. 1810; organised the Benevolent 1818, Bible and Religious tract societies in N.S.W.; sec. of diocesan committees of the S.P.C.K. and S.P.G.; archdeacon of Cumberland and Camden 1848 to death; special commissary during Bishop Broughton’s absence in Europe 1852. d. Sydney 6 July 1858. COX, David (only son of Joseph Cox of Birmingham, whitesmith, who d. about 1830). b. Heath mill lane, Deritend, Birmingham 29 April 1783; scene painter at Birmingham theatre 1800–4; came to London 1804; member of Soc. of painters in water colours 1813; drawing master in schools at Hereford 1814–26; exhibited 136 pictures at Pall Mall gallery 1844–54; made his first sketching visit to Bettws-y-coed then nearly unknown 1844, painted sign of the Royal Oak Inn there 1847 which he re-touched and varnished 1849; the greatest English water colour painter except Turner, his picture ‘The Hayfield’ fetched £2950 at the Quilter sale, April 1875, a price unparalleled for any water-colour; the best collections of his works were exhibited in Liverpool, Nov. 1875 numbering 448 pictures insured for about £100,000, and at Manchester Exhibition 1887; illustrated various works; author of The young artist’s companion 1825; A treatise on landscape painting 1841. d. Greenfield house, Harborne near Birmingham 7 June 1859. A
- 53. biography of D. Cox by W. Hall (1881), portrait; Memoirs of D. Cox by N. N. Solly (1875); Sherer’s Gallery of British artists, i, 124–6; Redgrave’s Century of painters ii, 479–86 (1866); I.L.N. xxxv, 28, 42 (1859), portrait. COX, David (only child of the preceding). b. Dulwich Common, summer of 1809; pupil of his father; a water-colour painter; exhibited at the R.A. 1827; associate of Soc. of painters in water-colours 1849. d. Chester house, Mount Ephraim road, Streatham, Surrey 4 Dec. 1885. COX, Rev. Edward (son of Edward Cox, who d. 27 Dec. 1849 aged 73). b. about 1806; ed. at Old hall near Ware, Herts.; assistant priest at Chelsea; pres. of St. Edmund’s college at Old hall green, Aug. 1840 to Aug. 1851; missioner at Southampton, Aug. 1851 to death; a member of the Southwark chapter, vicar general; canon of Southwark; published The history of the church translated from the German of the Rev. J. J. von Döllinger 4 vols. 1840–2; A treatise on the church, translated from the German of the Rev. H. Klee 1847; The Our Father, or illustrations of the Lord’s prayer, from the German of J. E. Veith 1849. d. Southampton 9 Nov. 1856. COX, Edward Townsend (son of Rev. Thomas Cox, chaplain of St. John’s, Deritend, Birmingham). b. Deritend 1769; surgeon at Stratford-on-Avon, surgeon to the infirmary at Birmingham 40 years; took an active part in founding and conducting Royal school of medicine; a most successful accoucheur; disliked travelling so much that he had never seen the sea. d. 26 Nov. 1863. W. S. Cox’s Annals of Queen’s college, iv, 149–54 (1873). COX, Edward William (eld. son of Wm. Charles Cox of Taunton, manufacturer). b. Taunton 1809; barrister M.T. 5 May 1843; recorder of Helston and Falmouth, Feb. 1857 to June 1868; serjeant at law 29 May 1868; recorder of Portsmouth, June 1868; M. P. for Taunton 1868–1869 when unseated on petition; chairman of second court of Middlesex sessions, March 1870 to
- 54. death; founded 22 Feb. 1875 Psychological society of Great Britain, pres. to his death, society was dissolved 31 Dec. 1879; established Law Times 8 April 1843; County courts chronicle and gazette of bankruptcy 1846; Exchange and Mart; The country, a journal of rural pursuits 1873; purchased from Benjamin Webster The Field, a gentleman’s newspaper devoted to sport; proprietor of The Queen, a lady’s newspaper; wrote or edited 1829, A Poem 1829; Reports of cases in criminal law 13 vols. 1846–78; The magistrate 1848; The advocate 1852; The law and practice of joint-stock companies 1855, 7 ed. 1870; Reports of all the cases relating to the law of joint-stock companies 4 vols. 1867–71; What am I? 1873; The mechanism of man 1876; A monograph of sleep and dreams 1878. d. Moat mount, Mill Hill, Middlesex 24 Nov. 1879. S. C. Hall’s Retrospect of a long life ii, 121–6 (1883); Hatton’s Journalistic London (1882) 208–11; I.L.N. 6 Dec. 1879 pp. 529, 530, portrait. COX, Rev. Francis Augustus. b. Leighton Buzzard 7 March 1783; ed. at the Baptist college, Bristol and Univ. of Edin., M.A. 1802; ordained to ministry of Baptist congregation at Clipstone, Northamptonshire 4 April 1804; pastor of Baptist chapel, Hackney, London 3 Oct. 1811 to death; sec. to general body of dissenting ministers of the three denominations residing in and near London 3 years; a projector and founder of London University 1828, librarian short time; LLD. Glasgow 1824, D.D. Waterville, U.S. 1838; author of Female scripture biography 2 vols. 1817; History of the Baptist missionary society from 1792 to 1842, 2 vols. 1842, and many other works. d. King Edward’s road, South Hackney, London 5 Sep. 1853. COX, Rev. George Valentine (son of Charles Cox of St. Martin’s, Oxford). b. Oxford 1786; ed. at Magdalen college sch. and New coll. Ox., B.A. 1806, M.A. 1808; master of New college school 1806 to June 1857; Esquire Bedel in law in Univ. of Ox. March 1806, in medicine and arts 29 Jany. 1815 to 1866, University coroner 1808; chaplain of New coll. 1812–20; author
- 55. of Jeannette Isabelle 3 vols. 1837 a novel; The Prayer book epistles 1846; Recollections of Oxford 1868; translated from the German Dahlmann’s Life of Herodotus 1845, Neander’s Emperor Julian and his generation 1850, and Ullmann’s Gregory of Nazianzum 1851. d. Cowley lodge, Oxford 19 March 1875. COX, Harry, stage name of Oliver James Bussley. b. Bristol 1841; first appeared in London at Prince of Wales’s theatre 15 April 1865 as Alessio in H. J. Byron’s burlesque La Sonnambula; acted at Strand theatre, April 1872 to day before his death. d. 3 Burfield st. Hammersmith 10 Jany. 1882. Era 14 Jany. 1882 p. 5, col. 2; Entr’ Acte 21 Jany. 1882, portrait. COX, Henry Chambers Murray. Entered Bengal army 1805; colonel 58 Bengal N.I. 5 June 1853 to 1869; general 9 Dec. 1871. d. St. Ann’s, Burnham, Somerset 22 July 1876. COX, John. Second lieut. Rifle brigade 16 March 1808, major 19 Aug. 1828 to 17 Feb. 1837 when placed on h.p.; M.G. 18 Dec. 1855; colonel 88 foot 13 Oct. 1860 to death; K.H. 1832. d. Cheltenham 7 Feb. 1863. COX, John Hamilton (only son of Wm. Cox, K.H. who d. 13 Jany. 1857). b. 1817; ensign 75 foot 10 Oct. 1834, captain 23 March 1849 to 2 Dec. 1862 when placed on h.p.; brigade major to Highland brigade during Indian mutiny; C.B. 24 May 1873; M.G. retired on full pay 5 July 1873. d. 37 Sterndale road, West Kensington, London 10 March 1887. COX, John Lewis. Head of the firm of Cox and Sons (afterwards Cox and Wyman) printers to the H.E.I. Co. Great Queen st. London; master of Stationer’s Co. 1849–50. d. Ham Common near London 1 Feb. 1856 aged 79. COX, Robert (3 son of Robert Cox of Georgie Mills, co. Edinburgh, leather-dresser). b. Georgie 25 Feb. 1810; ed. at high sch. and Univ. Edin.; a writer to the signet 1832; sec. of a literary institution at Liverpool 1835–39; edited Phrenological
- 56. Journal, numbers xxxiv to l of the first series and 1841–47; compiled index to the 22 vols. of Encyclopædia Britannica, 7 ed. 1842; author of Sabbath laws and Sabbath duties 1853; The literature of the Sabbath question 2 vols. 1865; bequeathed his collection of books on the Sabbath question to Advocates’ library, Edin. d. Edinburgh 3 Feb. 1872. COX, Talbot Ashley. b. 9 July 1836; ensign 3 foot 29 July 1853, lieut. col. 12 July 1871 to death; C.B. 2 June 1877. d. Cawnpore 9 Dec. 1877. COX, William. Second lieut. 95 foot 6 June 1805; major 75 foot 20 June 1834 to 1 July 1843 when placed on h.p.; M.G. 20 June 1854; K.H. 1835. d. St. Leonard’s on Sea 13 Jany. 1857. COX, Sir William (3 son of John Cox of Coolcliffe, co. Wexford 1749–93). b. Coolcliffe 5 Dec. 1776; ensign 68 foot 1 Oct. 1794; commanded fortress of Almeida, April 1809 to 27 Aug. 1810 when its magazine having exploded he surrendered; lieut. col. Portugese army 16 Feb. 1809 to 25 Dec. 1816 when placed on h.p.; K.T.S. 28 Aug. 1815; knighted by Prince Regent at Carlton house 13 Aug. 1816; colonel in British army 12 Aug. 1819; sheriff of King’s County 1825. d. Longford place, Monkstown, co. Dublin 1 July 1864. COX, William James (2 son of Philip Cox 1779–1841, proprietor of the Royal tennis court, James st. Haymarket, London). b. 2 Feb. 1806; part proprietor of the Royal tennis court many years; champion of England at game of tennis. d. Brantford, Canada West 30 June 1864. J. Marshall’s Annals of tennis (1878) 100–106. COX, William Sands (eld. son of Edward Townsend Cox of Birmingham, surgeon 1769–1863). b. 38 Cannon st. Birmingham 1802; L.S.A. 1823; M.R.C.S. 1824, F.R.C.S. 1843; started a medical and surgical class-room at Temple row, Birmingham 1 Dec. 1825; removed to an old chapel in Paradise st. 1830 which he named the School of Medicine, it was
- 57. incorporated by royal charter as the Queen’s college 1843, principal of the college 1858–9; founded Queen’s hospital, Birmingham 1840–1; F.R.S. 5 May 1836; member of French Institute; hon. member of nearly every important surgical school in Europe; author of A synopsis of the bones, ligaments and muscles, bloodvessels and nerves of the human body 1831; Annals of Queen’s college 4 vols. 1873. d. Woodside, Kenilworth 23 Dec. 1875. Barker’s Photographs of eminent medical men i, 61–6 (1865), portrait, reprinted in Cox’s Annals iv, 155–60 (1873); E. Edwards’s Personal recollections of Birmingham (1877) 132–39. COXE, Rev. Henry Octavius (8 son of Rev. Richard Coxe, V. of Bucklebury, Berkshire). b. Bucklebury 20 Sep. 1811; ed. at Westminster and Worcester coll. Ox., B.A. 1833, M.A. 1836; entered manuscript department of British Museum, May 1833; C. of Culham 1839–48, of Tubney 1848–55 both near Oxford; sub-librarian of Bodleian library 16 Nov. 1838, librarian 6 Nov. 1860 to death, catalogue of 723 folio volumes was compiled 1859–80; select preacher to Univ. of Ox. 1842; Whitehall preacher 1868; chaplain of C.C. coll. Ox. 1847–74; lecturer at St. Martin’s, Carfax, Oxford 1852–59; C. of Wytham, Berks. 1861–68; R. of Wytham 1868 to death; presided at annual meeting of Library Association at Oxford 1 to 3 Oct. 1878, pres. of Association 25 Sep. 1879 to death; published Forms of bidding prayer 1840; Rogeri de Wendover Chronica 5 vols. (English Hist. Soc.) 1841–4; The Black Prince, an historical poem written in French by Chandos Herald (Roxburghe club) 1842; Report on the Greek manuscripts yet remaining in libraries of the Levant 1858. d. St. Giles’s road, Oxford 8 July 1881. bur. at Wytham 12 July. COXE, Sir James (4 son of Robert Coxe of Georgie, Midlothian). b. Georgie 1811; ed. at Gottingen, Heidelberg, Paris and Univ. of Edin., M.D. Edin. 1835; L.R.C.S. Edin. 1835; F.R.C.P. Edin. 1837; wrote Report on management of the insane in Scotland 1855; paid comr. in lunacy for Scotland 23 Sep. 1857 to death,
- 58. wrote first fifteen reports of the Commissioners; knighted by patent 10 Aug. 1863; F.R.S. Edin. d. Folkestone on returning from Paris 9 May 1878. Proc. of Royal Soc. of Edin. x, 15 (1880). COXE, Ven. Richard Charles (brother of Rev. Henry Octavius Coxe 1811–81). Ed. at Reading gr. sch.; matric. from Worcester coll. Ox. 29 Nov. 1817 aged 17, scholar 1818, B. A. 1821, M.A. 1824; fellow of his coll. 1823–26; Inc. of Abp. Tenison’s chapel, Regent St. London 1829–41; V. of Newcastle 1841–53; hon. canon of Durham 1843–58; archdeacon of Lindisfarne, March 1853 to death; V. of Eglingham, Northumberland, March 1853 to death; canon of Durham, Dec. 1857 to death; author of Lectures on the evidence from miracles 1832; The Mercy at Marsdon rocks 1844; Poems scriptural, classical and miscellaneous 1845; Leda Tanah the martyr’s child, Derwent Bank 1851. d. Eglingham vicarage 25 Aug. 1865. COXETER, Elizabeth. b. Witney, Oxon. 1 Feb. 1775. d. Newbury, Berkshire 27 Nov. 1876 nearly 102 years of age. Notes and Queries 5 S. iii, 144 (1875), vi, 460 (1876). COYNE, Frederick. Comic singer at principal music halls in London and the provinces 1867 to death; wrote the music to Tuner’s Oppertuner-ty, a song 1879. d. 8 Huntingdon st. Kingsland road, London 23 Feb. 1886 aged 39. bur. Abney park cemetery 27 Feb. Entr’acte 6 March 1886 p. 9, portrait. COYNE, Joseph Stirling (son of Denis Coyne, port surveyor of Waterford). b. Birr, King’s county 1803; his first farce called The Phrenologist was produced at T.R. Dublin, June 1835; came to London 1836 where his farce The queer subject was produced at Adelphi theatre, Nov. 1836; author of upwards of 55 dramas, burlesques and farces produced chiefly at Adelphi and Haymarket theatres; his drama called Everybody’s Friend was brought out at the Haymarket 2 April 1859 it was reproduced at St. James’s 16 Oct. 1867 as The Widow Hunt; contributed to the first number of Punch 17 July 1841;
- 59. secretary to Dramatic authors’ society 1856 to death; dramatic critic on Sunday Times newspaper; author of Scenery and antiquities of Ireland 2 vols. 1842; Pippins and pies, or sketches out of school 1855; Sam Spangle or the history of a harlequin 1866. d. 61 Talbot road, Westbourne park, London 18 July 1868. CRABB, George. b. Palgrave, Suffolk 8 Dec. 1778; classical master at Thorp-Arch school, Yorkshire; studied German at Bremen 1801–6; gentleman commoner at Magd. hall, Ox. 1814, B.A. 1821, M.A. 1822; barrister I.T. 3 July 1829; author of English synonyms explained, in alphabetical order 1816, 7 ed. 1844 after which the book was stereotyped; Universal technological dictionary 2 vols. 1823; Universal historical dictionary 2 vols. 1825; History of the English law 1829; Precedents in conveyancing 2 vols. 1835, 5 ed. 1859; Digest and index of all the statutes at large 4 vols. 1841–7; Law of real property 2 vols. 1846. d. Hammersmith 4 Dec. 1851. CRABB, Rev. James (3 son of James Crabb of Wilton, Wiltshire, cloth manufacturer). b. Wilton 13 April 1774; joined the Wesleyans, Feb. 1791; kept a school at Romsey, and at Spring hill, Southampton; minister of Zion chapel, Lansdowne hill, Southampton, opened 9 June 1824; founded infant day schools at Kingsland Place, Southampton, the earliest in England; was popularly known as the Gipsy’s friend and was the missionary referred to in Rev. Legh Richmond’s Dairyman’s Daughter as having first brought her to a sense of religion; author of The Gipsies Advocate 1831, 3 ed. 1832; An address to Irvingites in which their heresy, modes of worship, etc. are set forth 1836. d. Springhill house, Southampton 17 Sep. 1851. Memoir of Rev. James Crabb by John Rudall 1854, portrait; G.M. xxxvi, 659–60 (1851). CRABBE, Eyre John. Ensign 74 foot 11 June 1807, lieut.-col. 6 Nov. 1841 to 1 May 1846 when placed on retired full pay; col.
- 60. in the army 28 Nov. 1854; K.H. 1837. d. Highfield, Southampton 19 March 1859 aged 68. CRABBE, Rev. George (eld. son of George Crabbe the poet 1754– 1832). b. Stathern, Leics. 16 Nov. 1785; ed. at Ipswich gr. sch. and Trin. coll. Cam., B.A. 1807; C. of Pucklechurch, Gloucs. 1817–34; V. of Bredfield and Pettistree, Suffolk 1834 to death; author of Life of George Crabbe 1838; Outlines of a system of natural theology 1840. d. Bredfield vicarage 16 Sep. 1857. CRACE, Frederick (son of John Crace of London, architectural decorator 1754–1819). b. 3 June 1779; architectural decorator; employed on work at royal palaces, London, Brighton and Windsor; a comr. of Sewers; began to collect maps and views of London about 1818, his splendid collection was purchased by the British Museum from his son John Gregory Crace 1880, it consists of between five and six thousand prints and drawings arranged in a series of 57 portfolios, it is described in Catalogues of maps, plans and views of London collected and arranged by F. Crace edited by J. G. Crace 1878, a very large number of the illustrations in Thornbury and Walford’s Old and New London are derived from this collection. d. Vine cottage, Blyth lane, Hammersmith 18 Sep. 1859. The Little journal i, 136–42 (1884). CRACKANTHORPE, William (son of Christopher Cookson who assumed name of Crackanthorpe, and d. 1800). b. 25 Feb. 1790; ed. at St. John’s coll. Cam., B.A. 1811, M.A. 1816; had an interview with Napoleon at Elba 25 Feb. 1815 the day before he escaped to France; sheriff of Cumberland 1826; chairman of Westmoreland poor law board 40 years; rebuilt parish church of Newbiggin and the rectory house at his own expense. d. Newbiggin hall, Westmoreland 10 Jany. 1888. CRACKLOW, Henry. Ensign Bombay army 23 Dec. 1819; colonel 2 Bombay N.I. 1855–69; M.G. 22 Aug. 1855; general 28 March 1874; placed on retired list 1 Oct. 1877. d. Castle hill, Inverness 15 May 1886 in 83 year.
- 61. CRACROFT, Peter (2 son of Robert Cracroft of Hackthorne, Lincs. 1783–1862). b. 15 March 1816; entered navy 4 June 1830, lost the Reynard on the Pratas shoal, China 1846; captain 20 Nov. 1854; commodore in charge at Jamaica 31 March 1863 to death; C.B. 7 Oct. 1862. d. Admiralty house, Port Royal, Jamaica 2 Aug. 1865. Journal of Royal Geog. Soc. xxxvi, p. cxlviii, (1866).
- 62. CRADOCK, Rev. Edward Hartopp (3 son of Edward Grove of Shenstone park, Staffs.) b. 26 April 1810; ed. at Brasenose coll. Ox., B.A. 1831, M.A. 1834, B.D. and D.D. 1854; fellow of Brasenose to 1845, principal 27 Dec. 1853 to death; R. of Tedstone Delamere, Herefordshire 1845–54; canon of Worcester 31 Jany. 1848 to 1854; assumed name of Cradock by r.l. 22 May 1849. d. Oxford 27 Jany. 1886. CRAIG, James Thomson Gibson (2 son of Sir James Gibson Craig, 1 baronet 1765–1850). b. 12 March 1799; ed. at high school and univ. Edin.; a writer to the signet; an original member of the Bannatyne club 1823, for which he edited Papers relating to the marriage of King James Sixth 1828; issued in an edition of 25 copies a series of facsimiles of historic and artistic bookbindings in his collection 1882; issued in 1883 a facsimile reprint of the Shorte summe of the whole catechism 1583 by John Craig; a first part of his valuable library was sold in London, June 1887. d. Edinburgh 18 July 1886. CRAIG, Richard Davis (eld. son of Rev. Thomas Craig of Bocking, Essex), b. Bocking 2 Nov. 1810; studied at London Univ.; drew Boundary Act which became part of Reform act 1832; private sec. to E. J. Littleton chief sec. for Ireland 1833; barrister L.I. 18 Nov. 1834, bencher 3 Nov. 1851; one of the 2 revising barristers for London and Westminster 1835–40; Q.C. 11 July 1851; retired from practice 1867; published with J. W. Mylne Reports of cases in Chancery 1835–41, 5 vols. 1837–48; with T. J. Phillips Reports of cases in Chancery 1840–41, 1 vol. 1842; author of Legal and equitable rights and liabilities as to trees and woods 1866. d. Liss, Hampshire 8 May 1884. CRAIG, William. b. Dublin 1829; water-colour painter; exhibited at R.A. Dublin 1846; went to United States 1863; an original member of American Society of water-colour painters. Drowned in Lake George, New York 1875.
- 63. CRAIG, Sir William Gibson, 2 Baronet (brother of James Thomson Gibson Craig 1799–1886). b. 2 Aug. 1797; admitted advocate 1820; M.P. for co. Edinburgh 1837–41, for city of Edin. 1841– 52; a lord of the treasury 6 July 1846 to Feb. 1852; succeeded his father 6 March 1850; lord clerk register and keeper of signet of Scotland 3 July 1862 to death; P.C. 8 Dec. 1863. d. Riccarton near Edin. 12 March 1878. Proc. of Royal Soc. of Edin. x, 24 (1880). CRAIGIE, David. b. Leith near Edinburgh 6 June 1793; ed. at Univ. of Edin., M.D. 1816; F.R.C.P. Edin. 1832, pres. Dec. 1861; phys. to Edin. Royal infirmary 1833; editor of Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal 1820–32, sole proprietor and editor 1832–55; F.R.S. Edin. 1833; author of Elements of general and pathological anatomy 1828, 2 ed. 1848; Elements of anatomy, general, special and comparative 1838; Elements of the practice of physic 2 vols. 1840, and of 30 separate papers on medical subjects. d. 17 May 1866. Proc. of Royal Soc. of Edin. vi, 15–16 (1869). CRAIGIE, David. Navigating lieutenant R.N. 17 Aug. 1838; staff commander 11 June 1863; retired captain 20 Jany. 1864; C.B. 2 June 1869. d. London 8 April 1883. CRAIGIE, Sir Patrick Edmonstone (3 son of Laurence Craigie of Glasgow). b. 1794; ed. at Glasgow school and college; ensign 52 foot 3 June 1813; lieut. col. 55 foot 21 Nov. 1834 to 11 Aug. 1844 when placed on h.p.; aide de camp to the Queen 23 Dec. 1842 to 20 June 1854; commanded centre division of Madras army 7 Jany. 1855 to 23 April 1860; col. of 31 foot 20 Feb. 1859, of 55 foot 1 June 1862 to death; general 21 Jany. 1868; C.B. 24 Dec. 1842, K.C.B. 13 March 1867. d. Warrior terrace, St. Leonards 13 Dec. 1873. CRAIGIE, Robert. Entered navy 22 March 1811; captain 7 Nov. 1839; admiral on h.p. 1 April 1870. d. Dawlish 2 March 1873 in 73 year.
- 64. CRAIGIE, William. b. Belnaboth, Aberdeenshire 11 March 1799; studied for medical profession at Marischal college, Aberdeen and at Univs. of Edin. and Dublin; settled at Ancaster, Canada West 1834, removed to Hamilton 1845; held a high position as a scientific authority on meteorology, botany, horticulture and agriculture; a member of Board of arts and manufactures of Canada West. d. Hamilton, Aug. 1863. CRAIK, George Lillie (eld. son of Rev. Wm. Craik, assistant minister of parish of Kennoway, Fifeshire, who d. 1830). b. Kennoway 1798; ed. at St. Andrew’s Univ.; edited the Star local paper 1817; came to London 1826; professor of English literature and history at Queen’s college, Belfast 1849 to death; examiner for Indian civil service in London 1859 and 1862; author of The pursuit of knowledge under difficulties 2 vols. 1830–31; Sketches of the history of literature and learning in England 6 vols. 1844–45 expanded into A Compendious History of English literature and of the English language 2 vols. 1861; Spenser and his poetry 3 vols. 1845; Bacon, his writings and his philosophy 3 vols. 1846–7; Romance of the peerage 4 vols. 1848–50; author with C. Macfarlane of The pictorial history of England 4 vols. 1837–41. d. 2 Chlorine place, Belfast 25 June 1866. Certificates in favour of G. L. Craik for the office of one of the Latin masters in the new Edinburgh Academy. CRAIK, Henry (brother of the preceding). b. Prestonpans, East Lothian 8 Aug. 1805; ed. at Univ. of St. Andrews; tutor in family of Anthony Norris Groves of Exeter 1826, in family of John Synge of Buckridge house near Teignmouth 1828–31; pastor of Baptist chapel, Shaldon, Devon 1831–32; laboured in Bristol with George Muller (founder of the New orphan houses, Ashley Down) 1832 to death, founded with him a society at Bristol similar to the Plymouth Brethren 1832; author of The Hebrew language, its history and characteristics 1860; Principia Hebraica 1863. d. Hampton park, Redland near Bristol 22 Jany. 1866. W. E. Tayler’s Passages from the diary and letters of H. Craik 1866.
- 65. CRAMER, Johann Baptist (eld. son of Wilhelm Cramer of London, violinist 1745–99). b. Mannheim 24 Feb. 1771; taken to London 1774; made his first appearance as a pianist 1781; travelled abroad 1788–91, 1798 and 1816–18; a member of board of management of Royal Academy of Music 1822; founded firm of music publishers J. B. Cramer and Co. in Regent st. London 1828 from which he retired 1835; occupied the foremost rank of his day as a pianist; composed, adapted and arranged 250 pieces of music; his Eighty four Studies are still very popular. d. Kensington terrace, London 16 April 1858. The Harmonicon i, 179–81 (1823), portrait. CRAMP, Rev. John Mockett (son of Rev. Thomas Cramp, founder of Baptist church at St. Peter’s, Isle of Thanet, who d. 17 Nov. 1851 aged 82). b. St. Peter’s 25 July 1796; ed. at Stepney college, London; pastor of baptist chapel, Dean st. Southwark 1818; assistant pastor at St. Peter’s 1827–42; pastor of baptist chapel, Hastings 1842–44; pres. of baptist college, Montreal 1844–49; pres. of Acadia college, Nova Scotia 1851–69; edited The Register a Montreal weekly religious journal 1844–49; edited with Rev. W. Taylor The Colonial Protestant a monthly mag. 1848–49; general editor of The Pilot Montreal newspaper 1849–51; author of A text book of Popery 1831; Baptist history from the foundation of the Christian church to the eighteenth century 1868 and many other books. d. Wolfville, Nova Scotia 6 Dec. 1881. CRAMPTON, Sir John Fiennes Twisleton, 2 Baronet (elder son of the succeeding). b. Dawson st. Dublin 12 Aug. 1805; ed. at Eton and Trin. coll. Dublin; attached to mission at Turin 1826, to embassy at St. Petersburg 1828; paid attaché at Brussels 1834, at Vienna 1839; sec. of legation to Confederated states of Swiss Cantons 1844, in the United States 1845, chargé d’Affaires there 1847–49 and 1850–52; envoy extraord. and min. plenipo. to U.S. 19 Jany. 1852, the pres. of the U.S. discontinued official intercourse with him 28 May 1856 on account of his recruiting soldiers in the U.S. for the British
- 66. army, when he returned to England but he held the appointment to 20 Jany. 1857; K.C.B. 20 Sep. 1856; envoy extraord. and min. plenipo. to King of Hanover 2 March 1857, at St. Petersburg 31 March 1858, at Madrid 11 Dec. 1860 to 1 July 1869 when he retired on pension; succeeded his father 10 June 1858. d. Bushey park, Enniscorthy, co. Wicklow 5 Dec. 1886. CRAMPTON, Sir Philip, 1 Baronet (3 son of John Crampton of Merrion sq. Dublin 1732–92). b. Dublin 7 June 1777; assistant surgeon in army; surgeon to Meath hospital, Dublin 1798; M.D. Glasgow 1800; taught anatomy in private lectures and maintained a dissecting room behind his own house; surgeon general to the forces in Ireland to his death, the last who held that appointment; surgeon in ord. to the Queen for Ireland; a member of senate of the Queen’s Univ.; pres. of Royal college of surgeons, Dublin 3 times; F.R.S. 16 April 1812; created baronet 14 March 1839. d. Merrion sq. Dublin 10 June 1858. Dublin Univ. Mag. xv, 613 (1840), portrait; Proc. of Med. and Chir. Soc. iii, 52–53 (1861). CRAMPTON, Philip Cecil (4 son of Rev. Cecil Crampton 1733– 1819, R. of Headford, co. Galway). b. May 1782; ed. at Trin. coll. Dublin, scholar 1800, fellow 1807, B.A. 1802, M.A. 1807; LL.B. 1809, LLD. 1810; called to Irish bar 1810; professor of common and feudal law in Univ. of Dublin 1816–34; solicitor general for Ireland 23 Dec. 1830; bencher of King’s Inns, Dublin 1831; justice of Court of Queen’s Bench, Ireland 21 Oct. 1834 to Jany. 1859; M.P. for Milborne, Port, Somerset 15 July 1831 to 3 Dec. 1832; contested Univ. of Dublin, Dec. 1832 and Dungarvan, Feb. 1834; P.C. 1858. d. St. Valente, Bray, co. Wicklow 29 Dec. 1862. Address on Judge Crampton’s retirement with some of his charges to Juries 1859; O. J. Burke’s Anecdotes of Connaught circuit (1885) 299–302. CRAMPTON, Thomas. b. Sheerness 1817; organist at Staines 1840, afterwards at Brentford and Ealing; government lecturer
- 67. at Kneller Hall training college 1854; composed anthems, glees and instrumental music; purchaser of music to the British Museum 1875; published The church psalter 1854; The part singer 1868; Twenty-four school songs with lessons on musical notation 1873; Forty school songs 1882; Music for the New Code staff notation 1884; composed and printed upwards of 35 pieces of music; some of his duets and trios appeared under the nom de plume of J. Karl Bernhardt. d. 2 Devonshire gardens, Chiswick 13 April 1885. CRANE, Lucy (dau. of the succeeding.) b. Liverpool 22 Sep. 1842; ed. in London; wrote the original verses and rhymed versions of nursery legends for her brother Walter Crane’s Coloured Toybooks 1869–75; delivered lectures in London and the North on Art and the formation of taste; author of Household stories from the Brothers Grimm, translated 1882; Art and formation of taste, Six lectures 1882. d. Bolton-le- Moors 31 March 1882. CRANE, Thomas (son of Mr. Crane of Chester, bookseller). b. Chester 1808; artist at Chester 1825; associate of Liverpool Academy 1835, member 1838, treasurer 1841; lived at Torquay 1844–57; his principal works were portraits in oil, water-colour and crayon; exhibited 9 subject pictures at the R.A.; illustrated various books. d. Lambton terrace, Bayswater, London 15 July 1859. CRANWORTH, Robert Monsey Rolfe, 1 Baron (elder son of Rev. Edmund Rolfe, R. of Cockley Cley, Norfolk, who d. 24 July 1795). b. Cranworth, Norfolk 18 Dec. 1790; ed. at Bury school, Winchester and Trin. coll. Cam., 17 wrangler 1812, B.A. 1812, M.A. 1815; fellow of Downing coll. Cam.; barrister L.I. 21 May 1816, bencher 1832; recorder of Bury St. Edmunds about 1830; K.C. Aug. 1832; M.P. for Penryn 1832–39; solicitor general 6 Nov. to 20 Dec. 1834 and 30 April 1835 to 11 Nov. 1839; baron of Court of Exchequer 11 Nov. 1839 to 2 Nov. 1850; one of comrs. of the Great Seal 19 June to 15 July 1850;
- 68. vice chancellor 2 Nov. 1850; P.C. 13 Nov. 1850; created Baron Cranworth of Cranworth, co. Norfolk 20 Dec. 1850 being the first and only instance of a vice chancellor receiving dignity of a peer; one of the two lords justices of appeal in chancery 8 Oct. 1851; lord chancellor 28 Dec. 1852 to 26 Feb. 1858 and 7 July 1865 to 6 July 1867. d. 40 Upper Brook st. London 26 July 1868. bur. Keston churchyard. Men of the time British statesmen (1854) 251–58; Law mag. and law review xxvi, 278–84 (1869); The British cabinet in 1853 pp. 251–58; I.L.N. xvii, 357 (1850), portrait, xxx, 109 (1857), portrait, liii, 114, 153 (1868), portrait. CRAUFURD, Edward Henry John (eld. son of John Craufurd 1780– 1867, secretary to senate of Ionian islands). b. 9 Dec. 1816; ed. at Trin. coll. Cam., scholar 1840, B.A. 1841, M.A. 1844; barrister I.T. 21 Nov. 1845; admitted barrister M.T. 10 April 1854; edited The Legal Examiner 1852; M.P. for Ayr district 22 July 1852 to 26 Jany. 1874; author of Advocacy in county courts. d. Portencross, Ayrshire 29 Aug. 1887. CRAUFURD, James (eld. son of Archibald Clifford Blackwell Craufurd of Ardmillan, Ayrshire). b. Havant, Hants. 1805; ed. at Ayr academy and at Univs. of Glasgow and Edin.; admitted advocate 1829; sheriff of Perthshire 14 March 1849; solicitor general for Scotland 16 Nov. 1853; lord of session 10 Jany. 1855 to death with courtesy title of Lord Ardmillan; lord of justiciary 16 June 1855 to death. d. 18 Charlotte sq. Edinburgh 7 Sep. 1876. Journal of jurisprudence xx, 538–9 (1876); Graphic xiv, 308 (1876), portrait. CRAVEN, Louisa, Countess of (youngest dau. of John Brunton 1750–1832, manager of the Norwich theatre). b. Norwich 21 Jany. 1779; made her first appearance on the stage at Covent Garden 25 Oct. 1803 as Lady Townley in the Provoked Husband; made her last appearance at Covent Garden 21 Oct. 1807 as Clara Sedley in The Rage. (m. 12 Dec. 1807 Wm. Craven 1 Earl of Craven, he was b. 1 Sep. 1770 and d. 30 July
- 69. 1825). d. Hampstead Marshall, Newbury 27 Aug. 1860. Mrs. C. B. Wilson’s Our actresses i, 94–102 (1844), portrait; British Stage ii, 241 (1818), portrait; Theatrical Inquisitor xiii, 3 (1818), portrait; Bentley’s Miscellany xviii, 249–51 (1845). CRAVEN, William Craven, 2 Earl of. b. 18 July 1809; ed. at Eton and Ch. Ch. Ox.; succeeded 30 July 1825; knight of the griffin at the Eglinton tournament 28 to 31 Aug. 1839; lord lieut. of Warws. 29 March 1854 to 1856; devoted great attention to coursing and held spring and autumn meetings at Ashdown hills on his own property. d. Royal hotel, Scarborough 25 Aug. 1866. Baily’s Mag. viii, 327–9 (1864), portrait; Nixon and Richardson’s Eglinton tournament (1843), portrait. CRAVEN, George Grimston Craven, 3 Earl of. b. Charles st. Berkeley sq. London 16 March 1841; ed. at Harrow; succeeded 25 Aug. 1866; high steward of Newbury, Berkshire 14 Jany. 1869; lord lieut. of Berks. 11 Aug. 1881 to death; master of the old Berkshire hounds, a steeple chaser, continued the Ashdown coursing meeting. d. Ashdown park, Berks. 7 Dec. 1883. bur. Binley churchyard near Coventry 13 Dec. Baily’s Mag. xxii, 187 (1872), portrait. CRAVEN, Fulwar (elder son of Rev. John Craven of Chilton house, Wiltshire, who d. 19 June 1804). b. 25 June 1782; captain 1 dragoons 1803–1806; owner of race horses; won the Oaks with Deception 1839; one of the most notable and eccentric characters on the turf. d. Brockhampton park, Gloucs. 14 April 1860. H. Corbet’s Tales of sporting life (1864) 99–108; W. Day’s Reminiscences, 2 ed. (1886) 138–42. CRAVEN, Keppel Richard (youngest child of 6 Baron Craven 1737– 91). b. 1 June 1779; ed. at Harrow; resided with his mother at Naples 1805; chamberlain to Princess of Wales 1814–15; purchased a large convent in the mountains near Salerno, South Italy, and lived there 1834; author of A tour through the southern provinces of the kingdom of Naples 1821; Excursions in the Abruzzi and northern provinces of Naples 2 vols. 1838.
- 70. d. Naples 24 June 1851. Memoirs of the Margravine of Anspach (1826), i, 72, 85, 364, ii, 74, 84, 95, 173, portrait; Madden’s Literary life of Countess of Blessington, ii, 124–39 (1855). CRAWFORD and BALCARRES, James Lindsay, Earl of. b. Balcarres, Fifeshire 24 April 1783; succeeded as 7 Earl of Balcarres 27 March 1825; created Baron Wigan in peerage of United Kingdom 5 July 1826; had Earldom of Crawford (dormant since 1808) confirmed to him by House of Lords 1848 and thus became 24 Earl of Crawford and premier Earl on union roll of Scotland; claimed Dukedom of Montrose 1855. d. Dunecht house, Aberdeen 15 Dec. 1869. CRAWFORD and BALCARRES, Alexander William Crawford Lindsay, Earl of (eld. child of the preceding). b. Muncaster Castle 16 Oct. 1812; ed. at Eton and Trin. coll. Cam., M.A. 1833; succeeded 15 Dec. 1869; collected from all parts of the world the famous Crawford library consisting of more than 50,000 books and MSS., the first portion of which was sold for £19,000 in 1887, one book the Mazarin Bible fetched £2650; author of Letters on Egypt, Edom and the Holy Land 2 vols. 1838; Lives of the Lindsays 3 vols. 1840, 3 ed. 1858; Ballads, songs and poems translated from the German 1841; Progression by antagonism, a theory 1846; Sketches of the history of Christian art 3 vols. 1847, new ed. 2 vols. 1885; Scepticism, a retrogressive movement in theology 1861; Etruscan inscriptions analysed 1872; The Earldom of Mar in sunshine and in shade during five hundred years 2 vols. 1882. d. Villa Eualenina, Florence 13 Dec. 1880. bur. at Dunecht house, April 1881, personalty sworn under £300,000 April 1881. Athenæum 25 Dec. 1880 p. 865; I.L.N. lxxxi, 124 (1882). Note.—His body was stolen April 1881 by Charles Soutar a ratcatcher, but the theft was not discovered until Dec. 1881, the body was found on the farm of Dumbreck near Dunecht house 18 July 1882 and buried in family vault under Wigan parish church 26 July 1882. C. Soutar was sentenced to 5 years penal servitude 24 Oct. 1882.
- 71. CRAWFORD, Abraham (youngest son of Rev. Thomas Crawford, V. of Lismore, co. Waterford). b. Lismore, Oct. 1788; entered navy 19 May 1800; captain 5 Jany. 1829; retired captain 5 Jany. 1849; retired admiral 12 Sep. 1865. d. Teignmouth, Devon 17 Jany. 1869. Reminiscences of a naval officer by Capt. A. Crawford, R.N. 2 vols. 1851. CRAWFORD, Edmund Thornton (son of Mr. Crawford of Cowden near Dalkeith, land surveyor). b. Cowden 1806; landscape and marine painter; A.R.S.A. 1839, R.S.A. 1848; one of the greatest landscape painters in Scotland; contributed many pictures to Royal Scottish Academy 1831–77; lived at Lasswade near Edinburgh 1858 to death. d. Lasswade 27 Sep. 1885. bur. in new cemetery at Dalkeith. CRAWFORD, George Morland. b. Chelsfield court lodge, Kent 1816; barrister I.T. 5 May 1837; Paris correspondent of Daily News 1850 to death; a severe censurer of the Imperial government; very intimate with Thiers, Gambetta and Floquet; stung by a wasp in the carotid artery, Oct. 1885. d. from blood poisoning in Paris 23 Nov. 1885. Daily News 26 Nov. 1885 p. 3, 28 Nov. p. 3; Pall Mall Gazette 26 Nov. 1885 p. 11, 27 Nov. p. 3, portrait 9 Dec. p. 5. CRAWFORD, John. b. Greenock 31 Aug. 1816; a house painter at Alloa 1834 to death; author of Doric lays, being snatches of song and ballad 2 vols. 1850–60; committed suicide at Alloa 13 Dec. 1873. Memorials of the town and parish of Alloa, by the late John Crawford with memoir of the author by Rev. Charles Rogers 1874. CRAWFORD, Joseph Tucker. Consul general in Island of Cuba, April 1842 to death; C.B. 6 Dec. 1859. d. Havannah 21 July 1864. CRAWFORD, Rev. Thomas Jackson (son of Wm. Crawford, professor of moral philosophy in United college, St. Andrews). b. St. Andrews; ed. at Univ. of St. Andrews, B.D. 1831, D.D.
- 72. 1844; minister of parish of Cults 1834, of parish of Glamis 1838, of St. Andrews parish Edin. 1844; professor of theology in Univ. of Edin. 1859 to death, being the last person appointed by the town to any chair in the Univ.; chaplain in ord. to the Queen 1861; a dean of the chapel royal; moderator of general assembly 1867; author of Reasons of adherence to the Church of Scotland 1843; Presbyterianism defended against the exclusive claims of prelacy as urged by the Romanists and Tractarians 1853, 2 ed. 1867; The Fatherhood of God 1866, 3 ed. 1870; The mysteries of Christianity 1874. d. Genoa 11 Oct. 1875. Scott’s Fasti iii, pt. 2, p. 772; Proc. of Royal Soc. of Edin. ix, 17 (1878). CRAWFORD, William (2 son of Archibald Crawford of Ayr, poet 1779–1843). b. Ayr 1825; teacher of drawing at Royal Institution, Edinburgh; exhibited pictures at Royal Scottish Academy, many of which were bought by Royal Assoc. for Promotion of fine arts in Scotland; his portraits in crayons of children and ladies were much sought after; A.R.S.A. 1860. d. Lynedoch place, Edinburgh 1 Aug. 1869. Reg. and mag. of biog. ii, 146 (1869). CRAWFORD, William Thomas. Second lieut. R.A. 21 June 1833, lieut. col. 1 April 1855 to death; C.B. 24 March 1858. d. Rome 6 March 1862. CRAWFURD, Andrew. b. St. John’s hill, Lochwinnoch, Renfrewshire; ed. at Univ. of Glasgow, M.D. 1813; surgeon at Rothesay, Isle of Bute; professor of natural philosophy in the Dollar Institution a short time; author of a voluminous Eik or Supplement to John Jamieson’s Etymological dictionary of the Scottish language 2 vols. 1840, and of a supplement of 80 pages dated 1853 to The Laird of Logan 1841; collected 44 quarto manuscript volumes relating to Renfrewshire. d. St. John’s hill, Lochwinnoch 27 Dec. 1854 aged 67. CRAWFURD, John (son of Mr. Crawfurd of Islay, Hebrides islands, surgeon). b. Islay 13 Aug. 1783; assistant surgeon H.E.I. Co.
- 73. 1803; filled some of chief civil and political posts in Java 1811– 17; envoy to courts of Siam and Cochin China 1821–23; governor of Singapore 1823–26; comr. to Pegu 1826; made a collection of fossil mastodon and other animals which were described by Buckland and Clift; sent on a mission to court of Ava 1827; F.R.S. 7 May 1818; contested Glasgow, Dec. 1832, Paisley, March 1834 and Sterling, Jany. 1835; pres. of Ethnological Soc. 1861, contributed 38 papers to the Journal 1861–68; author of History of the Indian Archipelago 3 vols. 1820; Journal of an embassy to Ava 1828; A grammar and dictionary of the Malay language 2 vols. 1852; A descriptive dictionary of the Indian islands and adjacent countries 1856. d. Elvaston place, South Kensington, London 11 May 1868. Journal of Royal Geographical Soc. xxxviii, pp. cxlviii-clii, (1868). CRAWLEY, George Baden (2 son of George Abraham Crawley of London, solicitor 1795–1862). b. 4 Sep. 1833; ed. at Harrow, was in cricket eleven; one of the best tennis players; a railway contractor; planned and carried out two railways in Belgium, two railways in Spain, a railway from Vera Cruz to Mexico and a railway of nearly 300 miles from Tiflis to Poti; his last work was a railway from Ploesti in Roumania to Cronstadt in Hungary but this was interrupted by the war 1878; accidentally killed on board a steamer off Progreso coast of Mexico 23 Nov. 1879. bur. Highgate cemetery, London 1 Jany. 1880. CRAWLEY, Peter. b. Newington Green 5 Dec. 1799; fought Richard Acton for £50 at Blindlow heath 6 May 1823 when Crawley won after 13 rounds; fought James Ward for £200 at Royston heath 2 Jany. 1827 when Crawley won in 26 minutes; landlord of Queen’s head and French horn, Duke st. West Smithfield, London 1827 to death. d. at his house 12 March 1865. Miles’s Pugilistica ii, 233–47 (1880), portrait; Illust. sporting news iii, 37 (1864), portrait.
- 74. CRAWLEY, Thomas Robert. b. 30 April 1818; ensign 45 foot 19 Dec. 1834; lieut. col. 15 dragoons 23 Sep. 1859 to 18 Sep. 1860; lieut. col. 6 dragoons 18 Sep. 1860 to 2 Dec. 1868 when placed on h.p.; M.G. 6 Feb. 1870; tried by a court martial at Aldershot 17 Nov. to 23 Dec. 1863 for falsely arresting Sergeant Lilley at Mhow in Hindustan, who died from effects of treatment he suffered after a month’s close confinement, honourably acquitted 23 Dec. 1863, the trial formed subject of several inquiries in House of Commons 1864 it cost the country £18,378 17s. 6d. d. 9 York terrace, Regent’s park, London 2 July 1880. British quarterly Review xxxix, 389–408 (1864); Annual Register (1863) 312–28; Illust. Times 28 Nov. 1863 p. 345, portrait. CRAWSHAY, Robert Thompson (youngest son of the succeeding). b. Cyfarthfa ironworks near Merthyr Tydvil 8 March 1817; manager of the ironworks; head of the business 1867; known as the ‘iron king of Wales.’ d. Queen’s hotel, Cheltenham 10 May 1879, personalty sworn under £1,200,000, 21 June. Practical Mag. (1873) 81–4, portrait; Journal of iron and steel instit. (1879) 328–30. CRAWSHAY, William (eld. son of Wm. Crawshay of Stoke Newington, Middlesex). b. 1788; sole proprietor of Cyfarthfa ironworks; had 10 mines in active work turning out iron ore, 9 shafts and collieries, a domain with a railway 6 miles long and large estates in Berks and Gloucestershire; sheriff of Glamorganshire 1822. d. Caversham park, Reading 4 Aug. 1867, personalty sworn under £2,000,000, 7 Sep. Red Dragon v, 289–92 (1884), portrait; G.M. Sep. 1867 pp. 393–95. CREAGH, James. Ensign 86 foot 1 Jany. 1810, lieut. col. 30 April 1852 to 24 Jany. 1860; L.G. 26 Jany. 1874; colonel 34 foot 7 Oct. 1874 to death. d. 16 St. Stephen’s road, Westbourne park, London 1 Aug. 1875. CREAGH, Jasper Byng. Ensign 81 foot 9 April 1825, captain 5 Oct. 1832 to 5 Sep. 1834; captain 54 foot 20 Sep. 1839 to 12 Dec.
- 75. 1843 when placed on h.p.; served with British auxiliary legion in north of Spain 1836–37; L.G. 1 Oct. 1877. d. Richmond road, Bayswater, London 9 March 1881 in 68 year. CREAGH, Sir Michael (5 son of John Creagh of Limerick). b. 1788; ensign 86 foot 9 May 1802, major 24 Oct. 1821 to 31 Dec. 1830 when placed on h.p.; lieut. col. 86 foot 24 Feb. 1832 to 7 Jany. 1842; lieut. col. 11 foot 7 Jany. 1842 to 27 June 1845; M.G. 20 June 1854; col. 73 foot 11 Jany. 1860 to death; knighted at St. James’s palace 1 Aug. 1832; K.H. 1832. d. Boulogne 14 Sep. 1860. CREASY, Sir Edward Shepherd (son of Edward Hill Creasy of Bexley, Kent, land agent). b. Bexley 1812; ed. at Eton, Newcastle scholar 1831; scholar of King’s coll. Cam. 1832, fellow 1834, B.A. 1835, M.A. 1838; barrister L.I. 26 Jany. 1837; professor of ancient and modern history in Univ. coll. London 1840–60; chief justice of Ceylon 19 March 1860 to 1875 when he retired on pension of £1600; knighted at St. James’s palace 28 March 1860; professor of jurisprudence to the four Inns of Court, London; author of Memoirs of eminent Etonians 1850, 2 ed. 1876; The fifteen decisive battles of the world from Marathon to Waterloo 2 vols. 1851, 28 ed. 1877; The history of the rise and progress of the English constitution 1853, 14 ed. 1888; History of the Ottoman Turks 2 vols. 1854, new ed. 1877; History of England 2 vols. 1869–70; The old love and the new 3 vols. 1870. d. 15 Cecil st. Strand, London 27 Jany. 1878. I.L.N. lxxii, 133 (1878), portrait. CRESSWELL, Addison John Baker (son of Francis Easterby of Blackheath, Kent who assumed name of Cresswell and d. 1820). b. 1 Oct. 1788; ed. at C.C. coll. Ox., M.A. 1810; sheriff of Northumberland 1821; M.P. for North Northumberland 12 July 1841 to 23 July 1847. d. Cresswell near Morpeth 5 May 1879. CRESSWELL, Sir Cresswell (brother of the preceding). b. Biggmarket, Newcastle 1794; ed. at Charterhouse and Em.
- 76. coll. Cam., B.A. 1814, M.A. 1818; admitted at M.T. 1810, at I.T. 1815, barrister I.T. 25 June 1819, bencher 1834; went Northern circuit of which he became joint leader with Robert Alexander; recorder of Hull 1830; K.C. 1834; M.P. for Liverpool 26 July 1837 to Jany. 1842; justice of Court of Common Pleas 22 Jany. 1842 to 11 Jany. 1858; serjeant-at-law 27 Jany. 1842; knighted at St. James’s Palace 4 May 1842; judge of Court of Probate and Divorce (established by 20 21 Vict. c. 77) 11 Jany. 1858 to death; adjudicated upon 1000 cases in only one of which was his judgment reversed; P.C. 3 Feb. 1858; published with R. V. Barnewall Reports of cases in the Court of King’s Bench 1822–1830, 10 vols. 1823–32; thrown from his horse on Constitution hill and his kneepan fractured 17 July 1863. d. from heart disease at 21 Prince’s gate, Hyde park, London 29 July 1863. Law Mag. and law review xx, 179–88 (1866); Law Times xxxviii, 535–7 (1863). CRESSWELL, Samuel Gurney (3 son of Francis Cresswell of Lynn, Norfolk). Entered navy 1842; lieut. of the Investigator 17 Dec. 1849, searched for Sir John Franklin in the Polar sea 1850–53; explored 170 miles of Banks island in sledges 18 April to 20 May 1851, arrived in London 7 Oct 1853 being the first person who actually effected the North-west passage; presented with an address in the guildhall, Lynn 26 Oct. 1853; captain 17 Sep. 1858; received Baltic and Arctic medals and a portion of the £10,000 awarded to officers and crew of the Investigator for discovery of N.W. passage; published Eight sketches in colours of voyage of Investigator 1854; illustrated R. J. le M. M’Clure’s Discovery of north west passage 1856. d. Bank house, King’s Lynn 14 Aug. 1867 aged 39. I.L.N. xxiii, 389 (1853). CRESTADORO, Andrea. b. Genoa 1808; ed. at Univ. of Turin, Ph. Doc., professor of natural philosophy; came to England 1849; patented certain improvements in impulsoria 1852; a model of his metallic balloon was shown at Crystal Palace, June 1868; compiled catalogues for Sampson Low and Co. 1859–61; chief librarian of Manchester free libraries, Dec. 1862 to death;
- 77. originated index catalogues, generally adopted as models by English municipal libraries; naturalised in England 16 April 1866; received order of Crown of Italy 1878; author of The art of making catalogues or a method to obtain a most perfect printed catalogue of the British Museum library, by A Reader therein 1856; Du pouvoir temporel et de la souveraineté Pontificale, Paris 1861; Catalogue of books in the Manchester free library, Reference department 1864; Taxation reform, or the best way of raising the revenue 1878. d. 155 Upper Brook st. Manchester 7 April 1879. Momus 20 March 1879, portrait. CRESWICK, Thomas. b. Sheffield 5 Feb. 1811; landscape painter in London 1828; exhibited 139 pictures at R.A., 80 at B.I. and 46 at Suffolk st. gallery 1828–70; A.R.A. 1842, R.A. 11 Feb. 1851; largely employed as a designer of book illustrations; 109 of his paintings were collected together at London International Exhibition 1873; many of his pictures were in Manchester Exhibition 1887. d. The Limes, Linden grove, Bayswater, London 28 Dec. 1869. I.L.N. xviii, 219 (1851), portrait, lvi, 53 (1870), portrait; A catalogue of the works of T. Creswick by T. O. Barlow 1873. CRESY, Edward. b. Dartford, Kent 7 May 1792; walked through England to study, measure and draw the cathedrals and most interesting buildings 1816; walked through France, Switzerland, Italy and Greece 1817–20; architect and civil engineer in London 1820 to death; superintending inspector under general board of health; author of A practical treatise on bridge building 1839; Illustrations of Stone church, Kent 1840; An encyclopædia of civil engineering 1847, 2 ed. 1856; author with George Ledwell Taylor of The architectural antiquities of Rome 2 vols. folio 1821–2, new ed. 1874; Architecture of the middle ages in Italy 1829. d. South Darenth, Kent 12 Nov. 1858. G. L. Taylor’s Autobiography of an octogenarian architect 2 vols. 1870–72.
- 78. CREWDSON, Jane (2 dau. of George Fox of Perran-arworthal, Cornwall). b. Perran-arworthal 22 Oct. 1808; author of Aunt Jane’s Verses for children 1851, 3 ed. 1871; Lays of the Reformation and other lyrics 1860; A little while and other poems 1864, 3 ed. 1872. (m. Oct. 1836 Thomas Dillworth Crewdson of Manchester, manufacturer). d. Summerlands, Whalley Range, Manchester 14 Sep. 1863. CREWE, Rev. Henry Robert (2 son of Sir Henry Harpur, 7 baronet 1763–1818 who assumed name of Crewe 1808). b. Stourfield house 4 Sep. 1801; ed. at Trin. coll. Cam., B.A. 1825, M.A. 1830; R. of Breadsall, Derbyshire 1830 to death; author of The Church of England, Pro. and Con. 1843; Repeal of the corn laws by One who fears God and regards man 1846; The war of Satan and the battle of God, remarks on Turkey and the East 1854; The war of prophecy 1854. d. Breadsall rectory 29 Sep. 1865. CREYKE, Ven. Stephen (youngest son of Richard Creyke 1746– 1826, commissioner of the Victualling office). b. 24 Sep. 1796; ed. at C.C. coll. Ox., B.A. 1816, M.A. 1820, fellow of his college 1821–23; R. of Wigginton near York 1834–44; V. of Sutton-on- the-Forest near York 1837–44; preb. of York 28 Sep. 1841 to death; R. of Beeford, Yorkshire 1844–65; archdeacon of York 16 Oct. 1845 to 1867; canon res. of York 1857–73; R. of Bolton-Percy, Yorkshire 1865 to death. d. Bolton-Percy 11 Dec. 1883. CRICHTON, Sir Alexander (2 son of Alexander Crichton of Woodhouselee and Newington, Midlothian). b. Edinburgh 2 Dec. 1763; came to London 1784; M.D. Leyden 29 July 1785; studied at Paris, Stuttgart, Vienna and Halle; member of Corporation of surgeons, May 1789, got himself disfranchised 1 May 1791; L.R.C.P. 25 June 1791; physician to Westminster hosp. 1794; phys. in ord. to Alexander I Emperor of Russia 1804; head of Russian civil medical department; F.R.S. 8 May 1800; F.G.S. 1819; received grand cross of the Red Eagle 27
- 79. Dec. 1820, grand cross of St. Anne, Aug. 1830; knighted at the Pavilion, Brighton 1 March 1821; author of Inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement 2 vols. 1798; A synoptical table of diseases designed for the use of students 1805; Account of experiments with vapour of tar in cure of pulmonary consumption 1817; On the treatment and cure of pulmonary consumption 1823. d. The Grove near Sevenoaks, Kent 4 June 1856. bur. Norwood cemetery. Proc. of Royal Soc. viii, 269–72 (1856); Quarterly Journal of Geog. Soc. xiii, pp. lxiv-lxvi (1857). CRICHTON, Rev. Andrew. b. parish of Kirkmahoe, Dumfriesshire Dec. 1790; engaged in teaching at Edinburgh and North Berwick; edited North Briton 1830–32, Edinburgh Advertiser 1832 to June 1851; member of presbytery of Edin.; elder for burgh of Cullen in general assembly of Church of Scotland 1852 to death; LLD. St. Andrew’s 1837; author of Converts from infidelity 2 vols. 1827; History of Arabia 2 vols. 1833; with H. Wheaton of Scandinavia ancient and modern 2 vols. 1838. d. 33 St. Bernard’s crescent, Edinburgh 9 Jany. 1855. CRICHTON, Rev. Andrew (son of Rev. David Crichton, English master at Madras college, St. Andrews). b. St. Andrews 22 May 1837; bursar at Univ. of Edin. 1852, B.A. 1857; licensed as a preacher by free presbytery of Arbroath June 1860; co-pastor of New North free church, Edinburgh Dec. 1860 to March 1866; pastor of free church, Chapelshade, Dundee 30 March 1866 to death; most popular preacher in Dundee; contributed many articles to Family Treasury, London Review and Sunday Mag.; author of The confessions of a wandering soul. d. Liberton, Edinburgh 13 July 1867. bur. in Grange cemetery, Edin. where is monument. Memorials of the late Rev. A. Crichton, edited by W. G. Blaikie (1868). CRICHTON, Sir Archibald William (eld. son of Patrick Crichton, captain 47 foot). b. 1791; ed. at Univ. of Edin.; physician to Emperor of Russia and his family; member of Russian medical
- 80. council; councillor of state in Russia; received star of legion of honour 1814; D.C.L. Ox. 11 Jany. 1817; knighted by Prince Regent at Carlton house 13 March 1817; received grand cross of Red Eagle of Prussia 1829, of St. Stanislaus 1832, of St. Anne 1834 and of St. Vladimir 1836. d. St. Petersburg 27 Feb. 1865. CRICHTON, John (7 child of Thomas Crichton of Dundee, merchant who was b. in Queen Anne’s reign). b. Dundee 22 Feb. 1772; ed. at Univs. of St. Andrew’s and Edin.; M.R.C.S. Edin. 1790; surgeon at Dundee 1791; became an eminent lithotomist; performed operation of lithotomy 200 times, being unsuccessful in 14 cases only; surgeon to Royal Infirmary, Dundee 1836, his full-length portrait by John Gibson was placed in the Infirmary 14 June 1841; a reader in the Glasite church, Dundee 60 years; never went out of Scotland. d. Tay st. Dundee 3 July 1860. W. Norrie’s Dundee Celebrities (1873) 182–4. CRICHTON, William Hindley. Entered Madras army 19 Aug. 1839, lieut. col. Madras staff corps 19 Aug. 1865 to 22 July 1871; hon. M.G. 17 Feb. 1872; C.B. 18 May 1860. d. Beaconside, North Devon 7 Dec. 1885 aged 66. CRINNON, Right Rev. Peter Francis. b. Cullen, co. Louth 1817 or 1818; went to Canada 1850; studied at St. Sulpice coll. Montreal; ordained in Toronto 1854; priest successively at London, St. Mary’s, Biddulph, and Kintora; priest at Stratford 1858 where he built St. Mary’s church; vicar general of London; R.C. bishop of Hamilton, Canada 1874 to death, during his administration of the diocese the number of Roman Catholics was doubled. d. Jacksonville, Florida 25 Nov. 1882. Dominion Annual Register 1883 p. 337. CRIPPS, John Marten (son of John Cripps). b. 1780; Fellow commoner at Jesus coll. Cam. 27 April 1798, M.A. 1803; travelled in the East with Edward Daniel Clarke 3 years; introduced from Russia the Khol-rabi for the use of dairy
- 81. farms; F.L.S. 1803, F.S.A. 1805; presented part of his large collection of statues, antiques and oriental flora to Univ. of Cam. and other public institutions. d. Novington near Lewes 3 Jany. 1853. Proc. of Linnæan Soc. ii, 231–2 (1855); M. A. Lower’s Worthies of Sussex (1865) 271–73. CRITCHETT, George. b. Highgate 25 March 1817; ed. at London hospital; M.R.C.S. 1839, F.R.C.S. 1844, member of council 1870; demonstrator of anatomy at London hospital, assistant surgeon 1846, surgeon Aug. 1861 to 1863; one of the best operators on the eye; pres. of Hunterian Soc. 2 years; pres. of International congress of Ophthalmology held in London 1872; ophthalmic surgeon and lecturer at Middlesex hospital 1876; author of Lectures on ulcers of the lower extremities 1849. d. 21 Harley st. London 1 Nov. 1882. I.L.N. lxxxi, 497 (1882), portrait. CRIVELLI, Domenico Francesco Maria (son of Gaetano Crivelli 1774–1836 tenor singer at King’s theatre, London). b. Brescia 1794; came to England with his father 1817; taught singing in London 1817 to death; principal professor of singing at Royal Academy of Music 1823 to death; taught many of the best English singers. d. 71 Upper Norton st. Fitzroy sq. London 31 Dec. 1856. CROCKER, Charles. b. Chichester 22 June 1797; shoemaker at Chichester 1809–39; employed by W. H. Mason the publisher 1839–45; sexton of Chichester cathedral 1845 to death; author of The vale of obscurity, the Lavant and other poems 1830, 3 ed. 1841; A visit to Chichester cathedral 1848; Poetical works of C. Crocker 1860. d. South st. Chichester 6 Oct. 1861. M. A. Lower’s Worthies of Sussex (1865) 87–8; Lives of illustrious shoemakers by W. E. Winks (1883) 321; Sketches of obscure poets (1833) 102–112. CROCKETT, James (son of Mr. Crockett, a showman by Miss Cross of Nottingham who was 6 feet 8 inches in height). b. Prestyn, Radnorshire 9 May 1835; cornet player in circus of Messrs.
- 82. Sanger, lion tamer with them 1857; performed in chief capitals of Europe; returned to England 1863; went to United States 1864; travelled in western states with Howes and Cushing’s European circus at a salary of £20 a week; fell down dead in the circus at Cincinnati 6 July 1865. Illust. Sporting news ii, 377, 437 (1864), portrait; Era 30 July 1865 p. 10, col. 1, 6 Aug. p. 11, col. 4; I.L.N. xxxviii, 90 (1861). CROFT, Sir Archer Denman, 8 Baronet (2 son of Sir Richard Croft, 6 baronet 1762–1818). b. Old Burlington st. London 7 Dec. 1801; ed. at Westminster; succeeded his brother 29 Oct. 1835; barrister L.I. 30 April 1839; a master of Court of Queen’s Bench 1838 to death. d. 1 Sussex place, Hyde park, London 10 Jany. 1865. CROFT, Ven. James (eld. son of Rev. Robert Nicholas Croft 1754– 1831, canon res. of York cath.) b. 2 July 1784; ed. at Eton and Peterhouse Cam.; B.A. 1807, M.A. 1812; R. of Saltwood near Hythe 1812 to death; preb. of Ely 3 Nov. 1815; R. of Cliffe-at- Hoo, Kent 1818 to death; canon of Canterbury 26 April 1822; archdeacon of Canterbury 18 June 1825 to death. d. Saltwood rectory 9 May 1869. CROFT, Sir John, 1 Baronet (eld. son of John Croft of Oporto, merchant, who d. 11 Feb. 1805). b. 21 March 1778; comr. to distribute parliamentary grant of £100,000 to the Portugese sufferers by Marshal Massena’s invasion 1811–12; chargé d’affaires at Lisbon 1815; F.R.S. 5 March 1818; created baronet 17 Dec. 1818 for services during Peninsular war; K.T.S. 10 Dec. 1821; D.C.L. Ox. 1822. d. 53 Queen Anne st. London 5 Feb. 1862. CROFT, William (2 son of Stephen Croft of Stillington hall, Yorkshire 1744–1813). b. 2 April 1782; entered navy 1 Sep. 1795; captain 13 Oct. 1807; admiral on half pay 28 Nov. 1857. d. Stillington 6 May 1872.
- 83. CROFTON, Edward Crofton, 2 Baron. b. Clarges st. London 1 Aug. 1806; succeeded his father as 4 baronet 8 Jany. 1816, and his grandmother as 2 baron 12 Aug. 1817; a representative peer of Ireland 20 Jany. 1840 to death; a lord in waiting to the Queen, Feb. to Dec. 1852, Feb. 1858 to June 1859 and July 1866 to Dec. 1868. d. Mote park, Roscommon 27 Dec. 1869. CROFTON, Edward Walter. 2 lieut. R.A. 26 July 1831, col. 30 May 1862 to death; C.B. 1 March 1861. d. Malta 26 June 1863. CROFTON, George Alfred. b. 1785; entered navy March 1798; captain 1 Feb. 1812; V.A. on h.p. 9 July 1855. d. Clifton 23 Feb. 1858. CROFTON, John Ffolliott. b. 9 Oct. 1802; ensign 6 foot 18 Dec. 1824, lieut. col. 7 Aug. 1846 to 21 July 1848; col. of 95 foot 25 Aug. 1868, of 6 foot 5 Sep. 1869 to death; general 23 Aug. 1877. d. 29 Sussex gardens, Hyde park, London 17 July 1885. CROGGAN, John William. 2 lieut. Madras artillery 18 Dec. 1823, col. commandant 14 Dec. 1868 to death; L.G. 10 April 1876; author of Miscellaneous exercises on artillery 1856; A treatise on Mortar practice, velocity, time of flight and range 1865. d. 35 Tregunter road, London 2 May 1877. CROKAT, William. b. near Edinburgh 1788; ensign 20 foot 9 April 1807, captain 31 March 1814 to 7 Nov. 1826 when placed on h.p.; witnessed the death of Napoleon at St. Helena 5 May 1821, being the original of the “Officer on guard” in Steuben’s well known engraving; general 25 Oct. 1871. d. 52 Inverkeith’s row, Edinburgh 6 Nov. 1879 in 92 year. CROKER, John Wilson (son of John Croker, surveyor general of customs and excise in Ireland). b. Galway 20 Dec. 1780; ed. at Portarlington and Trin. coll. Dublin, B.A. 1800, LL.B. and LLD. 1809; student at L.I. 1800; called to Irish bar 1802; M.P. for Downpatrick 1807–12, for Athlone 1812–18, for Yarmouth, Isle of Wight 1819–20, for Bodmin 1820–26, for Aldeburgh, Suffolk 1826–27 and 1830–32, for Univ. of Dublin 1827–30; one of
- 84. chief opponents of the Reform bill; sec. of the Admiralty 9 Oct. 1809 to Nov. 1830 when he retired on a pension of £1500; P.C. 16 June 1828; one of founders of Quarterly Review 1809 in which he wrote about 260 articles 1809–64; F.R.S. 5 July 1810; friend and factotum of 3 Marquis of Hertford (the Marquis of Steyne of Vanity Fair) who left him £21,000 and his cellar of wine 1842; author of Familiar epistles to F. J[one]s, Esq. on the present state of the Irish stage 1804 anon. 5 ed. 1804; Talavera 1809; Essays on the early period of the French revolution 1857 and other books; edited The new Whig guide 1819; Boswell’s Life of Dr. Johnson 4 vols. 1831 and other books. d. at house of Sir Wm. Wightman, St. Alban’s Bank, Hampton, Middlesex 10 Aug. 1857. bur. at West Moulsey. Memoirs, diaries and correspondence of J. W. Croker edited by L. J. Jennings, 2 ed. 3 vols. 1885, portrait; Quarterly Review cxlii, 83–126 (1876); D. O. Madden’s Chiefs of parties ii, 81– 112 (1859); J. Grant’s Memoir of Sir G. Sinclair (1870) 213–28; Mrs. Houston’s A woman’s memories i, 1–18 (1883); H. Martineau’s Biographical Sketches, 4 ed. (1876) 376–85; Maclise Portrait gallery (1883) 72–4, portrait. Note.—D’Israeli ridiculed him very successfully in Coningsby under name of Rigby, also in Vivian Grey under name of Vivida Vis; Lady Morgan depicted him in her novel Florence Macarthy as Councillor Crawley, and Lord Brougham in his novel Albert Lunel us La Croasse. CROKER, Marianne (dau. of Francis Nicholson of Whitby, Yorkshire, artist 1753–1844). b. Whitby; produced her first drawing upon stone 1816; wrote The adventures of Barney Mahoney 1832, and My village versus our village 1832, both of which have the name of Thomas Crofton Croker on their title pages; (m. 1830 T. C. Croker 1798–1854). d. 3 Gloucester road, Old Brompton, London 6 Oct. 1854. CROKER, Thomas Crofton (only son of Thomas Croker, major in the army who d. 22 March 1818). b. Buckingham sq. Cork 15 Jany. 1798; clerk in the Admiralty, London 1818 to Feb. 1850 when he retired as senior clerk of the first class on a pension
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