NetSim Experiment Manual

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Contents
1. Introduction to NetSim ......................................................................... 6
2. Understand IP forwarding within a LAN and across a router ............... 11
3. Study the working of spanning tree algorithm by varying the priority
among the switches..................................................................................... 18
4. Understand the working of “Connection Establishment” in TCP using
NetSim......................................................................................................... 21
5. Study the throughputs of Slow start + Congestion avoidance (Old
Tahoe) and Fast Retransmit (Tahoe) Congestion Control Algorithms. .......... 25
6. Study how the Data Rate of a Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11b) network
varies as the distance between the Access Point and the wireless nodes is
varied .......................................................................................................... 35
7. Study the working and routing table formation of Interior routing
protocols, i.e. Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF) .................................................................................................. 40
8. Experiment on M/D/1 Queue: ............................................................ 49
9. Plot the characteristic curve throughput versus offered traffic for a
Slotted ALOHA system ................................................................................. 55
10. Understand the impact of bit error rate on packet error and investigate
the impact of error of a simple hub based CSMA / CD network.................... 60
11. To determine the optimum persistence of a p-persistent CSMA / CD
network for a heavily loaded bus capacity. .................................................. 65

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12. Analyze the performance of a MANET, (running CSMA/CA (802.11b) in
MAC) with increasing node density.............................................................. 69
13. Analyze the performance of a MANET, (running CSMA/CA (802.11b) in
MAC) with increasing node mobility ............................................................ 78
14. Study the working of BGP and formation of BGP Routing table........... 84
15. Study how call blocking probability varies as the load on a GSM
network is continuously increased............................................................... 90
16. Study how the number of channels increases and the Call blocking
probability decreases as the Voice activity factor of a CDMA network is
decreased .................................................................................................... 94
17. Study the SuperFrame Structure and analyze the effect of SuperFrame
order on throughput.................................................................................... 98
18. Analyze the scenario shown, where Node 1 transmits data to Node 2,
with no path loss and obtain the theoretical throughput based on IEEE
802.15.4 standard. Compare this with the simulation result...................... 103
19. To analyze how the operational behavior of Incumbent (Primary User)
affects the throughput of the CR CPE (Secondary User).............................. 109
20. To analyze how the allocation of frequency spectrum to the Incumbent
(Primary) and CR CPE (Secondary User) affect the throughput of the CR CPE
(Secondary User). ...................................................................................... 116
21. Study how the throughput of LTE network varies as the distance
between the ENB and UE (User Equipment) is increased............................ 122
22. Study how the throughput of LTE network varies as the Channel
bandwidth changes in the ENB (Evolved node B) ....................................... 128
23. Analysis of LTE Handover .................................................................. 134

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24. Introduction and working of internet of things (iot).......................... 139

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1.Introduction to NetSim
1.1 Introduction to network simulation through the NetSim
simulation package
1.1.1 Theory:
 What is NetSim?
NetSim is a network simulation tool that allows you to create network scenarios, model
traffic, and study performance metrics.
 What is a network?
A network is a set of hardware devices connected together, either physically or logically. This
allows them to exchange information.
A network is a system that provides its users with unique capabilities, above and beyond what
the individual machines and their software applications can provide.
 What is simulation?
A simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time.
Network simulation is a technique where a program models the behavior of a network either
by calculating the interaction between the different network entities (hosts/routers, data
links, packets, etc) using mathematical formulae, or actually capturing and playing back
observations from a production network. The behavior of the network and the various
applications and services it supports can then be observed in a test lab; various attributes of
the environment can also be modified in a controlled manner to assess how the network
would behave under different conditions.

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 What does NetSim provide?
Simulation: NetSim provides simulation of various protocols working in various networks as
follows: Internetworks, Legacy Networks, BGP Networks, Advanced Wireless
Networks, Cellular Networks, Wireless Sensor Networks, Personal Area Networks,
LTE/LTE-A Networks, Cognitive Radio Networks, and Internet of Things. Users can
open the experiments and save the experiments as desired. The different experiments can also
be analyzed using the analytics option in the simulation menu.
Programming: NetSim covers various programming exercises along with concepts,
algorithms, pseudo code and flowcharts. Users can also write their own source codes in
C/C++ and can link them to NetSim.
Some of the programming concepts are Address resolution protocol (ARP), Classless inter
domain routing (CIDR), Cryptography, Distance vector routing, shortest path, Subnetting etc.

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1.2 Design and configure a simple network model, collect
statistics and analyze network performance.
1.2.1 Theory:
 Network model: A Network model is a flexible way of representing devices and their
relationships. Networking devices like hubs, switches, routers, nodes, connecting wires
etc. are used to create a network model.
 Scenario: A Scenario is a narrative describing foreseeable interactions of types of input
data and its respective output data in the system.
 Network performance: To measure the performance of a network, performance metrics
constitutes of Network Statistics.
Click here to drop the application icon to generate traffic. Then
right click on application icon to edit properties
Click here
to Run
Simulation
Click here to
enable the
traces
Click and drop network devices and right
click to edit properties

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 What are network statistics?
Network statistics are network performance related metrics displayed after simulating a
network. The report at the end of the completion of a simulation experiment include
metrics like throughput, simulation time, frames generated, frames dropped, frames
errored, collision counts etc, and their respective values.
 What is Packet Animation?
When running simulation, options are available to play and record animations which
allow users to watch traffic flow through the network for in-depth visualization and
analysis.
 What is NetSim analytics used for?
It is used to compare and analyze various protocols scenarios under Internetworks,
Legacy Networks, BGP Networks, Advanced Wireless Networks – MANET and Wi-
Max, Cellular Networks, Wireless Sensor Networks, Zigbee Networks, Internet of
Things, LTE/LTE-A Networks and Cognitive Radio Networks. Parameters like
utilization, loss, queuing delay, transmission time etc of different sample experiments are
compared with help of graphs.
Click to view
other metrics
such as Link
Metrics or
Queue Metrics
Metrics
Click to view
Packet
Animation
Click to view the
simulated network

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Plot the chart
here
Click on
―Browse‖ to
select the
experiments
Click to
select the
metrics

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2.Understand IP forwarding within a LAN and
across a router
Note: NetSim Standard Version is required to run this experiment
2.1 Theory:
Nodes in network need MAC Addresses in addition to IP address for communicating with
other nodes. In this experiment we will see how IP-forwarding is done when a node wants to
send data within a subnet and also when the destination node is outside the subnet.
2.2 Procedure
Step 1:
Go to Simulation  New  Internetworks
Step 2:
Click & drop Wired Nodes, Switches and
Router onto the Simulation Environment as
shown and link them.

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Node properties: Disable TCP in all nodes in Transport layer as follows:
Step 3: Create the Sample as follows:
Sample 1:
To run the simulation, drop the Application icon and set the Source_Id and Destination_Id as
1 and 2 respectively. Click on the ibutton as shown in the below figure for more information
on the parameters
Enabling the packet trace:
 Click Packet Trace icon in the tool bar. This is used to log the packet details.
 Check ―All the Attributes” button for Common Attributes, TCP and WLAN.
 And Click on Ok button. Once the simulation is completed, the file gets stored in the
location specified.

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Step 4:
Simulation Time- 10 Seconds
Note: The Simulation Time can be selected only after doing the following two tasks,
 Set the properties of Nodes
 Then click on the Run Simulation icon:
After clicking on Run Simulation, edit IP and ARP Configuration tab by setting Static ARP
as Disable. If Static ARP is enabled then NetSim automatically creates the ARP table for
each node. To see the working of the ARP protocol users should disable Static ARP. When
disabled ARP request would be sent to the destination to find out the destinations MAC
Address
Click on OK button to simulate.
2.3 Output - I
Open Packet Trace for performing Packet Trace analysis
 PACKET TRACE Analysis

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2.4 Inference - I
Intra-LAN-IP-forwarding:
 ARP PROTOCOL- WORKING
A Brief Explanation:
NODE-1 broadcasts ARP_Request which is then broadcasted by SWITCH-4. NODE -2 sends
the ARP_Reply to NODE-1 via SWITCH-4. After this step, data is transmitted from NODE-
1 to NODE-2. Notice the DESTINATION_ID column for ARP_Request type packets.
Step 5: Follow all the steps till Step 2 and perform the following sample:
Sample 2:
To run the simulation, drop the Application icon and set the Source_Id and Destination_Id as
1 and 3 respectively.
Source Switch
ARP REQUEST
Destination
ARP Response
ARP REQUEST
ARP Response

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 Give a file name and check ―All the Attributes” button for Common Attributes, TCP and
WLAN.
 And Click on Ok button. Once the simulation is completed, the file gets stored in the
specified location.
Step 6:
Note: The Simulation Time can be selected only after doing the following two tasks,
 Then click on the Run Simulation icon:
After clicking on Run Simulation, edit IP and ARP Configuration tab by setting Static ARP
as Disable. Click on OK button to simulate.

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2.5 Output - II
 PACKET TRACE Analysis
Across-Router-IP-forwarding:
Data
Packet
ARP request for
Destination’s MAC
address
ARP
Response
Source
Default Gateway
ARP request for
Default Gateway’s
MAC address
ARP response for
Default Gateway’s
MAC address
Source
Default Gateway
Destination
STEP-1
STEP-2
Data Packet

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2.6 Inference -II
NODE-1 transmits ARP_Request which is further broadcasted by SWITCH-4. ROUTER-6
sends ARP_Reply to NODE-1 which goes through SWITCH-4. Then NODE-1 starts to send
data to NODE-3.
If the router has the address of NODE-3 in its routing table, ARP protocol ends here and data
transfer starts that is PACKET_ID 1 is being sent from NODE-1 to NODE-3. In other case,
Router sends ARP_Request to appropriate subnet and after getting the MAC ADDRESS of
the NODE-3, it forwards the packet which it has received from NODE-1.
When a node has to send data to a node with known IP address but unknown MAC address, it
sends an ARP request. If destination is in same subnet as the source (found through subnet
mask) then it sends the ARP (broadcast ARP message) request. Otherwise it forwards it to
default gateway. Former case happens in case of intra-LAN communication. The destination
node sends an ARP response which is then forwarded by the switch to the initial node. Then
data transmission starts.
In latter case, a totally different approach is followed. Source sends the ARP request to the
default gateway and gets back the MAC address of default gateway. (If it knows which router
to send then it sends ARP request to the corresponding router and not to Default gateway)
When source sends data to default gateway (a router in this case), the router broadcasts ARP
request for the destined IP address in the appropriate subnet. On getting the ARP response
from destination, router then sends the data packet to destination node.
PART 2: - Changing default Gateway
Do Sample 2 in PART 1 with the difference that in the properties of NODE-1, change the
default gateway to some other value, for ex. ―192.168.2.76‖ and click on Simulate button.
You will get error. Because NODE-1 will check the IP address of NODE-3 and then realize
that it isn’t in the same subnet. So it will forward it to default gateway. Since the default
gateway’s address doesn’t exist in the network, error occurs.

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3.Study the working of spanning tree algorithm
by varying the priority among the switches.
3.1 Theory:
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a link management protocol. Using the spanning
tree algorithm, STP provides path redundancy while preventing undesirable loops in
a network that are created by multiple active paths between stations. Loops occur when there
are alternate routes between hosts. To establish path redundancy, STP creates a tree that
spans all of the switches in an extended network, forcing redundant paths into a standby, or
blocked state. STP allows only one active path at a time between any two network devices
(this prevents the loops) but establishes the redundant links as a backup if the initial link
should fail. Without spanning tree in place, it is possible that both connections may be
simultaneously live, which could result in an endless loop of traffic on the LAN.
3.2 Procedure:
Please navigate through the below given path to,
Create Scenario: ―Simulation  New  Internetworks‖
Create the scenario as shown,
(Note: Minimum three switches are needed in the
simulation to study about spanning tree formation.)

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Sample Inputs:
Inputs for the Sample experiments are given below,
Sample 1:
Application properties:
Traffic Type Custom
Source_Id 4
Destination_Id 5
Packet Size Distribution Constant
Packet Size (bytes) 1460
Packet Inter Arrival Time Distribution Constant
Packet Inter Arrival
Time (µs)
20000
Wired Node D is sending data to Wired Node E. The node properties are default.
(Note: Wired Node F is not generating Traffic to any other Wired Nodes)
Switch Properties Switch A Switch B Switch C
Switch Priority 2 1 3
(Note: Switch Priority has to be changed for all the interfaces of Switch.)
Simulation Time - 10 Seconds
(Note: The Simulation Time can be selected only after doing the following two tasks,
 Set the properties of Nodes and Switches
 Then click on Run Simulation button).
Sample 2:
Set all properties as above and change properties of Switch as follows:
Switch Properties Switch A Switch B Switch C
Switch Priority 1 2 3
Simulation Time - 10 Seconds

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 Set the properties of Nodes and Switches
3.3 Output:
 To view the output, click the View
Spanning Tree Link available on the
Performance Metrics screen under
Resources.
Sample 1: Sample 2:
3.4 Inference:
In the Sample 1, Switch B was assigned least priority and was selected as a Root switch. The
Green line indicates the forward path and the Black line indicates the blocked path. The
frame from Wired Node D should take the path through the Switch B to reach the Wired
Node E.
In the Sample 2, Switch A was assigned least priority and selected as a Root switch. In this
case, the frame from Wired Node D can directly reach the destination Wired Node E.

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4.Understand the working of “Connection
Establishment” in TCP using NetSim.
Note: NetSim Standard Version is required to run this Experiment.
4.1 Theory
When two processes wish to communicate, their TCP’s must first establish a connection i.e.
initialize the status information on each side. Since connections must be established between
unreliable hosts and over the unreliable internet communication system, a ―three-way
handshake‖ with clock based sequence numbers is the procedure used to establish a
Connection. This procedure normally is initiated by one TCP and responded by another TCP.
The procedure also works if two TCPs simultaneously initiate the procedure. When
simultaneous attempt occurs, each TCP receives a ―SYN‖ segment which carries no
acknowledgement after it has sent a ―SYN‖.
The simplest three-way handshake is shown in the following figure.
TCP A TCP B
1. CLOSED LISTEN
2. SYN-SENT  <A: SEQ=100><CTL=SYN> SYN-RECEIVED
3. ESTABLISHED ` <B: SEQ=300><ACK=101><CTL=SYN, ACK> SYN-RECEIVED
4. ESTABLISHED  <A: SEQ=101><ACK=301><CTL=ACK> ESTABLISHED
5. ESTABLISHED  <A: SEQ=101><ACK=301><CTL=ACK><DATA> ESTABLISHED
Fig: Basic 3-Way Handshake for Connection Synchronization
Explanation:
The above figure should be interpreted in the following way. Each line is numbered for
reference purposes. Right arrows () indicates the departure of a TCP Segment from TCP A
to TCP B, or arrival of a segment at B from A. Left arrows ( ) indicates the reverse. TCP
states represent the state AFTER the departure or arrival of the segment (whose contents are
shown in the center of each line).Segment contents are shown in abbreviated form, with
sequence number, control flags, and ACK field. In line2 of the above figure, TCP A begins

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by sending a SYN segment indicating that it will use sequence numbers starting with
sequence number 100. In line 3, TCP B sends a SYN and acknowledges the SYN it received
from TCP A. Note that the acknowledgment field indicates TCP B is now expecting to hear
sequence 101, acknowledging the SYN which occupied sequence 100. At line 4, TCP A
responds with an empty segment containing an ACK for TCP B's SYN; and in line 5, TCP A
sends some data.
4.2 Procedure
Step1:
Step2:
Click & drop Wired Nodes and Router onto the Simulation Environment and link them as
shown below.
Step3:
To run the simulation, drop the Application icon and change the Application_type to FTP.
The Source_Id is 1 and Destination_Id is 2.

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Router Properties: Accept default properties for Router.
 Select the required attributes and click OK. Once the simulation is completed, the file gets
stored in the location specified.
Note: Make sure that after enabling the packet trace you select the TCP option in the
Internetworks and then select the required attributes.
Simulation Time - 10 sec
After clicking on ―Run Simulation‖, edit IP and ARP Configuration tab by setting Static
ARP as Disable.
4.3 Output
The following results will be obtained:
Click on Open Packet Trace for performing
Packet Trace analysis

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Fig: 3-way Handshake using packet trace.
4.4 Inference
In MS Excel go to DATA and select FILTER option to view only the desired rows and
columns as shown in the figure
Line 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the above table are ARP related packets and not of interest to us in this
experiment.
In line 9 of the above figure we can see that NODE-1 is sending a control packet of type
TCP_SYN requesting the connection with the NODE-2, and this control packet is first sent to
the ROUTER-3 (receiver ID). In line 10, the ROUTER-3 is sending the TCP_SYN packet
that has been received from NODE-1 to the NODE-2. In line 11, NODE-2 is sending the
control packet of type TCP_SYN_ACK to NODE-1, and this control packet is first sent to the
ROUTER-3. This TCP_SYN_ACK is the ACK packet for the TCP_SYN packet. In line 12,
ROUTER-3 is sending the TCP_SYN_ACK, (received from NODE-2) to the NODE-1. In
line 13, NODE-1 is sending the TCP_ACK to NODE-2 via ROUTER-3 making the
CONNECTION_STATE as TCP_ESTABLISHED.
Once the connection is established, we see that a packet type of type ―FTP‖ is sent from the
NODE-1 to the NODE-2 in line 14.

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5.Study the throughputs of Slow start +
Congestion avoidance (Old Tahoe) and Fast
Retransmit (Tahoe) Congestion Control
Algorithms.
5.1 Theory:
One of the important functions of a TCP Protocol is congestion control in the network. Given
below is a description of how Old Tahoe and Tahoe variants (of TCP) control congestion.
Old Tahoe:
Congestion can occur when data arrives on a big pipe (i.e. a fast LAN) and gets sent out
through a smaller pipe (i.e. a slower WAN). Congestion can also occur when multiple input
streams arrive at a router whose output capacity is less than the sum of the inputs. Congestion
avoidance is a way to deal with lost packets.
The assumption of the algorithm is that the packet loss caused by damaged is very small
(much less than 1%), therefore the loss of a packet signals congestion somewhere in the
network between the source and destination. There are two indications of packets loss: a
timeout occurring and the receipt of duplicate ACKs
Congestion avoidance and slow start are independent algorithms with different objectives.
But when congestion occurs TCP must slow down its transmission rate and then invoke slow
start to get things going again. In practice they are implemented together.
Congestion avoidance and slow start requires two variables to be maintained for each
connection: a Congestion Window (i.e. cwnd) and a Slow Start Threshold Size (i.e. ssthresh).
Old Tahoe algorithm is the combination of slow start and congestion avoidance. The
combined algorithm operates as follows,
1. Initialization for a given connection sets cwnd to one segment and ssthresh to 65535
bytes.

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2. When congestion occurs (indicated by a timeout or the reception of duplicate ACKs),
one-half of the current window size (the minimum of cwnd and the receiver’s advertised
window, but at least two segments) is saved in ssthresh. Additionally, if the congestion is
indicated by a timeout, cwnd is set to one segment (i.e. slow start).
3. When new data is acknowledged by the other end, increase cwnd, but the way it increases
depends on whether TCP is performing slow start or congestion avoidance.
If cwnd is less than or equal to ssthresh, TCP is in slow start. Else TCP is performing
congestion avoidance. Slow start continues until TCP is halfway to where it was when
congestion occurred (since it recorded half of the window size that caused the problem in step
2). Then congestion avoidance takes over.
Slow start has cwnd begins at one segment and be incremented by one segment every time an
ACK is received. As mentioned earlier, this opens the window exponentially: send one
segment, then two, then four, and so on. Congestion avoidance dictates that cwnd be
incremented by 1/cwnd, compared to slow start’s exponential growth. The increase in cwnd
should be at most one segment in each round trip time (regardless of how many ACKs are
received in that RTT), whereas slow start increments cwnd by the number of ACKs received
in a round-trip time.
Tahoe (Fast Retransmit):
The Fast retransmit algorithms operating with Old Tahoe is known as the Tahoe variant.
TCP may generate an immediate acknowledgement (a duplicate ACK) when an out-of-order
segment is received out-of-order, and to tell it what sequence number is expected.
Since TCP does not know whether a duplicate ACK is caused by a lost segment or just a re-
ordering of segments, it waits for a small number of duplicate ACKs to be received. It is
assumed that if there is just a reordering of the segments, there will be only one or two
duplicate ACKs before the re-ordered segment is processed, which will then generate a new
ACK. If three or more duplicate ACKs are received in a row, it is a strong indication that a
segment has been lost. TCP then performs a retransmission of what appears to be the missing
segment, without waiting for a re-transmission timer to expire.

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5.2 Procedure:
Sample Inputs:
Follow the steps given in the different samples to arrive at the objective.
Sample 1.a: Old Tahoe (1 client and 1 server)
In this Sample,
 Total no of Node used: 2
 Total no of Routers used: 2
The devices are inter connected as given below,
 Wired Node C is connected with Router A by Link 1.
 Router A and Router B are connected by Link 2.
 Wired Node D is connected with Router B by Link 3.
Set the properties for each device by following the tables,
Application Properties
Application Type Custom
Source_Id 4(Wired Node D)
Destination_Id 3(Wired Node C)

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Packet Size
Distribution Constant
Value (bytes) 1460
Inter Arrival Time
Value (micro secs) 1300
Node Properties: In Transport Layer properties, set
TCP Properties
MSS(bytes) 1460
Congestion Control Algorithm Old Tahoe
Window size(MSS) 8
Link Properties Link 1 Link 2 Link 3
Max Uplink Speed (Mbps) 8 10 8
Max Downlink Speed(Mbps) 8 10 8
Uplink BER 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001
Downlink BER 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001
Simulation Time - 10 Sec
Upon completion of simulation, ―Save‖ the experiment.
 Set the properties of Node, Router& Link
Sample 1.b: Tahoe (1 client and 1 server)
Open sample 1.a, and change the TCP congestion control algorithm to Tahoe (in Node
Properties). Upon completion of simulation, ―Save‖ the experiment as sample 1.b.

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Sample 2.a: Old Tahoe (2 clients and 2 servers)
In this Sample,
 Total no of Wired Nodes used: 4
 Wired Node A and Wired Node B are connected with Router C by Link 1 and Link 2.
 Router C and Router D are connected by Link 3.
 Wired Node E and Wired Node F are connected with Router D by Link 4 and Link 5.
 Wired Node A and Wired Node B are not transmitting data in this sample.
Application Properties Application 1 Application 2
Source_Id 5 6
Destination_Id 1 2
Packet Size
Distribution Constant Constant
Value (bytes) 1460 1460
Inter Arrival Time
Value (micro secs) 1300 1300

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NOTE: The procedure to create multiple applications are as follows:
Step 1: Click on the ADD button present in the bottom left corner to add a new
application.
TCP Properties
MSS(bytes) 1460
Congestion Control Algorithm Old Tahoe
Window size(MSS) 8
Link Properties Link 1 Link 2 Link 3 Link 4 Link 5
Max Uplink Speed
(Mbps)
8 8 10 8 8
Max Downlink Speed
(Mbps)
8 8 10 8 8

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Uplink BER 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001
Downlink BER 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001
 Set the properties of Node , Router & Link
Sample 2.b: Tahoe (2 clients and 2 servers)
Do the experiment as sample 2.a, and change the congestion control algorithm to Tahoe.
Sample 3.a: Old Tahoe (3 clients and 3 servers)
In this Sample,
 Total no of Nodes used: 6

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 Wired Node A, Wired Node B & Wired Node C is connected with Router D by Link 1,
Link 2 & Link 3.
 Router D and Router E are connected by Link 4.
 Wired Node F, Wired Node G & Wired Node H is connected with Router E by Link 5,
Link 6 & Link 7.
 Wired Node A, Wired Node B and Wired Node C are not transmitting data in this sample.
Application
Properties
Application 1 Application 2 Application 3
Source_Id 6 7 8
Destination_Id 1 2 3
Packet Size
Distribution Constant Constant Constant
Value (bytes) 1460 1460 1460
Inter Arrival Time
Value (micro sec) 1300 1300 1300
TCP Properties
MSS(bytes) 1460 1460 1460
Congestion Control
Algorithm
Old Tahoe Old Tahoe Old Tahoe
Window size(MSS) 8 8 8

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Link
Properties
Link 1 Link 2 Link 3 Link 4 Link 5 Link 6 Link 7
Max Uplink
Speed
(Mbps)
8 8 8 10 8 8 8
Max
Downlink
Speed(Mbps)
8 8 8 10 8 8 8
Uplink BER 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001
Downlink
BER
0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001 0.000001
Simulation Time- 10 Sec
 Set the properties of Node, Router & Link
Sample 3.b: Tahoe (3 clients and 3 servers)
Do the experiment as sample 3.a, and change the TCP congestion algorithm to Tahoe. Upon
completion of simulation, ―Save‖ the experiment.
5.3 Output
Comparison Table:
TCP
Downloads
Metrics
Slow start +
Congestion avoidance
Fast
Retransmit
1 client and 1
server
Throughput(Mbps) 5.926432 6.120320
Segments Retransmitted +
Seg Fast Retransmitted
195 200
2 clients and 2
servers
343 378
3 clients and 3
servers
401 434

34
Note: To calculate the ―Throughput (Mbps)‖ for more than one application, add the
individual application throughput which is available in Application Metrics (or Metrics.txt) of
Performance Metrics screen. In the same way calculate the metrics for ―Segments
Retransmitted + Seg Fast Retransmitted‖ from TCP Metrics  Connection Metrics.
5.4 Inference:
User lever throughput: User lever throughput of Fast Retransmit is higher when compared
then the Old Tahoe (SS + CA). This is because, if a segment is lost due to error, Old Tahoe
waits until the RTO Timer expires to retransmit the lost segment, whereas Tahoe (FR)
retransmits the lost segment immediately after getting three continuous duplicate ACK’s.
This results in the increased segment transmissions, and therefore throughput is higher in the
case of Tahoe.

35
6.Study how the Data Rate of a Wireless LAN
(IEEE 802.11b) network varies as the distance
between the Access Point and the wireless
nodes is varied
6.1 Theory:
In most of the WLAN products on the market based on the IEEE 802.11b technology the
transmitter is designed as a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Phase Shift Keying (DSSS
PSK) modulator, which is capable of handling data rates of up to 11 Mbps. The system
implements various modulation modes for every transmission rate, which are Different
Binary Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) for 1 Mbps, Different Quaternary Phase Shift Keying
(DQPSK) for 2 Mbps and Complementary Code Keying (CCK) for 5.5 Mbps and 11 Mbps.
Large Scale Fading represents Receiver Signal Strength or path loss over a large area as a
function of distance. The statistics of large scale fading provides a way of computing
estimated signal power or path loss as a function of distance and modulation modes vary
depends on the Receiver Signal Strength.
6.2 Procedure:
Please navigate through the below given path to,
Sample Inputs:
In Sample 1,
 Total no of APs (Access Points) used: 1
 Total no of Wireless Nodes used: 1

36
 Total no of Switches used: 1
 Total no of Wired Nodes used: 1
The AP, Wireless Nodes, Router, Switch and Wired Nodes are interconnected as shown:
Also edit the following properties of Wireless Node E:
Wireless Node E Properties
X/Lat 355
Y/Lon 150
Interface_Wireless properties
RTS Threshold(bytes) 2347
Retry Limit(DataLink_Layer) 7
Rate _Adaptation GENERIC
Edit all link properties as shown:
Wireless Link Properties
Channel Characteristics Fading only
Path Loss Exponent 2.5
Fading Figure 1.0
Wired Link Properties
Uplink Speed (Mbps) 100
Downlink Speed (Mbps) 100
Uplink BER 0
Downlink BER 0

37
Also edit the following properties of Wired Node A:
Wired Node A Properties
TCP Disabled
Set the properties of Access Point as follows:
Access Point Properties
X/Lat 350
Y/Lon 150
Interface_Wireless properties
Buffer Size(MB) 5
RTS Threshold(bytes) 2347
Retry Limit 7
Click and drop the Application, set properties and run the simulation.
Source_Id 1
Destination_Id 5
Packet Size
Value (bytes) 1460
Packet Inter Arrival Time
Value (micro secs) 900

38
(Note: The Simulation Time can be selected only after the following two tasks,
 Set the properties for all the devices and links.
 Click on Run Simulation button.
Upon completion of the experiment, ―Save‖ the metrics result for comparison by using
Export to Excel . Save the excel file in any user defined location.
 Sample 2: Distance from Wireless Node E to Access Point is 10m.
 Sample 3: Distance from Wireless Node E to Access Point is 15m.
……. And so on till 55 meter distance.
6.3 Output:
Go to Application Metrics and obtain Throughput value for all the samples from the saved
Excel files and make a comparison chart as shown. Use Excel ―Insert Chart‖ option and
then select chart type as ―Line chart‖.
Comparison Chart:
Distance (m) Throughput (Mbps)
5 5.843504
10 5.837664
15 5.85752
20 5.85635
25 3.65467
30 1.67024
35 1.69907
40 1.69907
45 1.66556
50 1.66790
55 1.65972
60 1.66323

39
6.4 Inference
*** All the above plots highly depend upon the placement of nodes in the simulation
environment. So, note that even if the placement is slightly different, the same set of values
will not be got but one would notice a similar trend.
We notice that as the distance increases, the throughput decreases. This is because the
underlying data rate depends on the received power at the receiver. Received power is
directly proportional to (1 / distance).
In 802.11b, four data rates, 1 Mbps, 2 Mbps, 5.5 Mbps, and 11 Mbps, are supported. The rate
is decided based on the received power and the errors in the channel. Note a higher data rate
does not necessarily yield a higher throughput since packets may get errored. Only when the
channel conditions are good, does a higher data rate give a higher throughput. In a realistic
WLAN environment, the channel condition can vary due to pathloss, fading, and shadowing.
In NetSim to accommodate different channel conditions, rate adaptation is commonly
employed. The rate adaptation algorithms dynamically adjusts the modulation mode
and data rate to optimize performance when channel condition changes. So, when
NetSim detects that the number of errors in the channels are high, it automatically drops
down to a lower rate.
In addition, one must note that WLAN involves ACK packets after data transmission.. These
additional packet transmission lead to reduced Application throughput of 5.5 Mbps (at 1 – 20
mts range) even though the PHY layer data rate is 11 Mbps.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Throughput(Mbps)
Distance

40
7.Study the working and routing table formation
of Interior routing protocols, i.e. Routing
Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest
Path First (OSPF)
7.1 Theory:
RIP
RIP is intended to allow hosts and gateways to exchange information for computing routes
through an IP-based network. RIP is a distance vector protocol which is based on Bellman-
Ford algorithm. This algorithm has been used for routing computation in the network.
Distance vector algorithms are based on the exchange of only a small amount of information
using RIP messages.
Each entity (router or host) that participates in the routing protocol is assumed to keep
information about all of the destinations within the system. Generally, information about all
entities connected to one network is summarized by a single entry, which describes the route
to all destinations on that network. This summarization is possible because as far as IP is
concerned, routing within a network is invisible. Each entry in this routing database includes
the next router to which datagrams destined for the entity should be sent. In addition, it
includes a "metric" measuring the total distance to the entity.
Distance is a somewhat generalized concept, which may cover the time delay in getting
messages to the entity, the dollar cost of sending messages to it, etc. Distance vector
algorithms get their name from the fact that it is possible to compute optimal routes when the
only information exchanged is the list of these distances. Furthermore, information is only
exchanged among entities that are adjacent, that is, entities that share a common network.
OSPF
In OSPF, the Packets are transmitted through the shortest path between the source and
destination.

41
Shortest path:
OSPF allows administrator to assign a cost for passing through a link. The total cost of a
particular route is equal to the sum of the costs of all links that comprise the route. A router
chooses the route with the shortest (smallest) cost.
In OSPF, each router has a link state database which is tabular representation of the topology
of the network (including cost). Using dijkstra algorithm each router finds the shortest path
between source and destination.
Formation of OSPF Routing Table
1. OSPF-speaking routers send Hello packets out all OSPF-enabled interfaces. If two routers
sharing a common data link agree on certain parameters specified in their respective
Hello packets, they will become neighbors.
2. Adjacencies, which can be thought of as virtual point-to-point links, are formed between
some neighbors. OSPF defines several network types and several router types. The
establishment of an adjacency is determined by the types of routers exchanging Hellos
and the type of network over which the Hellos are exchanged.
3. Each router sends link-state advertisements (LSAs) over all adjacencies. The LSAs
describe all of the router's links, or interfaces, the router's neighbors, and the state of the
links. These links might be to stub networks (networks with no other router attached), to
other OSPF routers, or to external networks (networks learned from another routing
process). Because of the varying types of link-state information, OSPF defines multiple
LSA types.
4. Each router receiving an LSA from a neighbor records the LSA in its link-state
database and sends a copy of the LSA to all of its other neighbors.
5. By flooding LSAs throughout an area, all routers will build identical link-state databases.
6. When the databases are complete, each router uses the SPF algorithm to calculate a loop-
free graph describing the shortest (lowest cost) path to every known destination, with
itself as the root. This graph is the SPF tree.
7. Each router builds its route table from its SPF tree

42
7.2 Procedure
Sample 1:
Step 1:
Step 2:
Click & drop Routers, Switches and Nodes onto the Simulation Environment and link them
as shown:
Step 3:
These properties can be set only after devices are linked to each other as shown above.
Set the properties of the Router 1 as follows:

43
Node Properties: In Wired Node H, go to Transport Layer and set TCP as Disable
Switch Properties: Accept default properties for Switch.
Link Properties: Accept default properties for Link.
Application Properties: Click and drop the Application icon and set properties as follows:
After Simulation is performed, save the experiment.
 Set the properties of Node, Switch, Router& Application

44
Sample 2:
To model a scenario, follow the same steps as given in Sample1 and set the Router A
properties as given below:
Link Properties:
Link Properties Link 3 Link 4 Link 5 Link 6 Link 7
Uplink Speed 100 100 100 10 10
Downlink Speed 100 100 100 10 10
Node Properties: In Wired Node H, go to Transport Layer and set TCP as Disable
Switch Properties: Accept default properties for Switch.
Application Properties: Click and drop the Application icon and set properties as in Sample
1.
Simulation Time- 100 Sec
 Set the properties of Node, Switch, Router& Application

45
7.3 Output and Inference:
RIP
In Distance vector routing, each router periodically shares its knowledge about the entire
network with its neighbors. The three keys for understanding the algorithm,
1. Knowledge about the whole network
Router sends all of its collected knowledge about the network to its neighbors
2. Routing only to neighbors
Each router periodically sends its knowledge about the network only to those routers to which
it has direct links. It sends whatever knowledge it has about the whole network through all of
its ports. This information is received and kept by each neighboring router and used to update
that router’s own information about the network.
3. Information sharing at regular intervals
For example, every 30 seconds, each router sends its information about the whole network to
its neighbors. This sharing occurs whether or not the network has changed since the last time
information was exchanged
In NetSim the Routing table Formation has 3 stages
Initial Table: This table will show the direct connections made by each Router.
Intermediate Table: The Intermediate table will have the updates of the Network in every
30 seconds
Final Table: This table is formed when there is no update in the Network.
The data should be forwarded using Routing Table with the shortest distance

46
The RIP table in NetSim
 After running Sample1, click RIP table in Performance Metrics screen. Then click the
respective router to view the Routing table.
 We have shown the routing table for Router 1,
Shortest Path from Wired Node H to WiredNode I in RIP (Use Packet Animation to view) :
WiredNode HSwitch FRouter1Router4Router5Switch GWired Node I

47
OSPF
The main operation of the OSPF protocol occurs in the following consecutive stages and
leads to the convergence of the internetworks:
1. Compiling the LSDB.
2. Calculating the Shortest Path First (SPF) Tree.
3. Creating the routing table entries.
Compiling the LSDB
The LSDB is a database of all OSPF router LSAs. The LSDB is compiled by an ongoing
exchange of LSAs between neighboring routers so that each router is synchronized with its
neighbor. When the Network converged, all routers have the appropriate entries in their
LSDB.
Calculating the SPF Tree Using Dijkstra's Algorithm
Once the LSDB is compiled, each OSPF router performs a least cost path calculation called
the Dijkstra algorithm on the information in the LSDB and creates a tree of shortest paths to
each other router and network with themselves as the root. This tree is known as the SPF Tree
and contains a single, least cost path to each router and in the Network. The least cost path
calculation is performed by each router with itself as the root of the tree
Calculating the Routing Table Entries from the SPF Tree
The OSPF routing table entries are created from the SPF tree and a single entry for each
network in the AS is produced. The metric for the routing table entry is the OSPF-calculated
cost, not a hop count.
The OSPF table in NetSim
 After running Sample 2, click OSPF Metrics in Performance Metrics screen. Then click
the router to view the Routing table
 We have shown the routing table for Router 1:

48
Shortest Path from Wired Node H to WiredNode I in OSPF (Use Packet Animation to view):
WiredNode HSwitch FRouter1Router2Router3Router5Switch G
WiredNode I
Note: The Cost is calculated by using the following formula
Reference Bandwidth = 100 Mbps
For Example,
Let us take, Link Speed UP = 100 Mbps

49
8.Experiment on M/D/1 Queue:
-To create an M/D/1 queue: a source to generate packets,
a queue to act as the buffer and server, a sink to dispose
of serviced packets.
-To study how the queuing delay of such a system varies.
8.1 Theory:
In systems where the service time is a constant, the M/D/1, single-server queue model, can be
used. Following Kendall's notation, M/D/1 indicates a system where:
 Arrivals are a Poisson process with parameter λ
 Service time(s) is deterministic or constant
 There is one server
For an M/D/1 model, the total expected queuing time is
Where µ = Service Rate = 1/Service time and  is the utilization given as follows,
To model an M/D/1 system in NetSim, we use the following model
Traffic flow from Node 1 to Node 2 (Node 1: Source, Node 2: Sink)
Inter-arrival time: Exponential Distribution with mean 2000 µs
Packet size: Constant Distribution with mean of 1250 bytes

50
Note:
1. Exponentially distributed inter-arrivals times give us a Poisson arrival process.
Different mean values are chosen as explained in the section Sample Inputs.
(Dropping the devices in different order may change the result because the random
number generator will get initialized differently)
2. To get constant service times, we use constant distribution for packet sizes. Since, the
service (which in our case is link transmission) times are directly proportional to
packet size (greater the packet size, greater the time for transmission through a link), a
constant packet size leads to a constant service time.
Procedure:
Create Scenario: ―Simulation  New  Internetworks‖.
Nodes 1 and Node 2 are connected with Router 1 by Link 1 and Link 2 respectively. Set the
properties for each device as given below,
Sample 1:
Application Properties: Click and drop the Application icon and set following properties:
Source_Id 1
Destination_Id 2
Value (bytes) 1250
Inter Arrival Time Distribution Exponential
Time (µs)
2000

51
Disable TCP in the Transport Layer in Node Properties as follows:
Link Properties Link 1 Link 2
Uplink Speed (Mbps) 10 10
Downlink Speed (Mbps) 10 10
Uplink BER 0 0
Downlink BER 0 0
Uplink Propagation Delay (ms) 0 0
Downlink Propagation Delay
(ms)
0 0
Router Properties: Accept the default properties for Router.
Simulation Time: 100 Sec
Observation:
Even though the packet size at the application layer is 1250 bytes, as the packet moves down
the layers, some overhead is added which results in a greater packet size. This is the actual
payload that is transmitted by the physical layer. The overheads added in different layers are
shown in the table:
Layer Overhead
(Bytes)
Transport Layer 8
Network Layer 20

52
Therefore, the payload size = Packet Size + Overhead
= 1250 + 54
= 1304 bytes
Theoretical Calculation:
By formula,
µ = Service Rate, i.e., the time taken to service each packet
= Link capacity (bps) / (Payload Size (Bytes) * 8)
= (10×106
) / (1304*8)
= 958.59 packets / sec
λ = Arrival rate, i.e., the rate at which packets arrive (Packets per second)
Inter-arrival time = 2,000 micro sec
Arrival rate λ = 1/ Inter Arrival time
= 1/2000 micro sec
= 500 packets / sec
ρ = Utilization
= λ/µ
= 500/958.59
= 0.522
By formula, Queuing Time = = 569.61 micro sec
8.2 Output:
After running the simulation, check the “Delay” in the Application Metrics.
Delay = 2656.855 micro sec
MAC layer 26
Physical Layer 0
Total 54

53
This Delay (also known as Mean Delay) is the sum of Queuing Delay, Total Transmission
time and Routing Delay.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Total Transmission Time is the sum of transmission time through Link 1 and Link 2.
Transmission time through each link is the same and is given by:
Transmission time through each link =
=
= 1043.2 micro sec
Routing Delay is approximately 1 micro sec and can be found from the Event Trace. It is the
difference between ―Physical In‖ and ―Physical Out‖ time for the Router.
Therefore, for simulation
Queuing Delay = 2656.855– (2 × 1043.2) – 1 = 569.455 micro sec
Sample 2
Keeping all the other parameters same as in previous example, if Packet Inter Arrival Time is
taken as 1500 micro sec, then
λ = 666.67 packets per sec
Utilization ρ = λ/µ = 666.67/958.59 = 0.695
And Queuing Time T = 1188.56 micro sec
From NetSim,
Delay = 3279.297 micro sec
Therefore, Queuing Time = 3279.298 - (2×1043.2) – 1
= 1191.898 micro sec

54
Note: Obtained value is slightly higher than the theoretical value because of initial delays in
forming ARP table, Switch table and Routing table etc.
A Note on M/M/1 queuing in NetSim
M/M/1 queue can be generated similarly by setting the ―Packet Size Distribution‖ as
―Exponential‖ instead of ―Constant‖. However, the results obtained from simulation deviate
from the theoretical value because of the effect of packet fragmentation. Whenever a packet
with size greater than Transport Layer MSS and / or MAC Layer MTU (which is 1500 bytes
in NetSim) is generated, it gets fragmented in the application layer. Then the packet is sent as
multiple frames, and makes it impossible to calculate the exact queuing time.

55
9.Plot the characteristic curve throughput
versus offered traffic for a Slotted ALOHA
system
9.1 Theory:
ALOHA provides a wireless data network. It is a multiple access protocol (this protocol is for
allocating a multiple access channel). There are two main versions of ALOHA: pure and slot
ed. They differ with respect to whether or not time is divided up into discrete slots into which
all frames must fit.
Slotted ALOHA:
In slotted Aloha, time is divided up into discrete intervals, each interval corresponding to one
frame. In Slotted ALOHA, a computer is required to wait for the beginning of the next slot in
order to send the next packet. The probability of no other traffic being initiated during the
entire vulnerable period is given by which leads to where, S (frames per
frame time) is the mean of the Poisson distribution with which frames are being generated.
For reasonable throughput S should lie between 0 and 1.
G is the mean of the Poisson distribution followed by the transmission attempts per frame
time, old and new combined. Old frames mean those frames that have previously suffered
collisions.
It is easy to note that Slotted ALOHA peaks at G=1, with a throughput of or about
0.368. It means that if the system is operating at G=1, the probability of an empty slot is
0.368
Calculations used in NetSim to obtain the plot between S and G:
Using NetSim, the attempts per packet time (G) can be calculated as follows;
Where, G = Attempts per packet time
PT = Packet time (in seconds)

56
ST = Simulation time (in seconds)
The throughput (in Mbps) per packet time can be obtained as follows:
Where, S = Throughput per packet time
PT = Packet time (in milliseconds)
PS = Packet size (in bytes)
Calculations for the packet time:
In the following experiment, we have taken packet size=1472 (Data Size) + 28 (Overheads) =
1500 bytes
Bandwidth is 10 Mbps and hence, packet time comes as 1.2 milliseconds.
9.2 Procedure:
Step 1:
How to Create Scenario:
 Create Scenario: ―Simulation  New Legacy Networks  Slotted Aloha‖.
Click and drop two nodes as shown in the screen
shot.

57
Sample Inputs:
Input for Sample 1: Node 1 generates traffic. The properties of Node 1 which transmits data
to Node 2 are selected as follows:
Wireless Node Properties:
Right click on the Grid environment and select the channel characteristics as no path loss.
Application Properties: Click and drop the Application icon and set following properties as
shown in below figure:-
Source_Id 1
Destination_Id 2
Packet Size Distribution Exponential
Value (bytes) 1472
Time (µs)
20000
Wireless Node Properties
Transport Layer
TCP disable
Interface1_Wireless
Slot Length(mus) 1500
Data Rate(mbps) 10

58
 Obtain the values of Throughput and Total Number of Packets Transmitted from the
statistics of NetSim simulation for various numbers of traffic generators.
Input for Sample 2: Node 1 and Node 2 both generate traffic. Node 1 transmits data to Node
2 & Node 2 transmits data to Node 1.The properties of Node 1 and Node 2 are set as shown
in Sample 1.
Input for Sample 3: 3 Nodes are generating traffic. Node 1 transmits data to Node 2, Node 2
transmits data to Node 3 and Node 3 transmits data to Node 1.
And so on continue the experiment by increasing the number of nodes generating traffic as 4,
5, 7, 9, 10, 15, 20 22 and 24 nodes.
Comparison Table:
The values of Throughput and Total Number of Packets Transmitted obtained from the
network statistics after running NetSim simulation are as follows. Throughput per packet
time and Number of Packets Transmitted per packet time calculated from the above
mentioned formulae are tabulated as below:
Number of
nodes
generating
traffic
Throughput
(in Mbps)
Total
number of
Packets
Transmitted
Throughput
per packet
time
Number of
Packets
Transmitted
per packet
time
1 0.58 793
0.058 0.095
2 1.06 1602
0.106 0.192
3 1.47 2394
0.147 0.287
4 1.8 3164
0.18 0.379
5 2.01 3913
0.201 0.469

59
Thus the following characteristic plot for the Slotted ALOHA is obtained, which matches the
theoretical result.
Note: The optimum value is slightly less than the theoretical maximum of 0.368 because
NetSim’s simulation is per real-world and includes overheads, inter-frame gaps etc.
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.05 0.55 1.05 1.55 2.05
Throughputperpackettime
Number of packets transmitted per packet time
Slotted Aloha
7 2.43 5531
0.243 0.663
9 2.64 7101
0.264 0.852
10 2.74 7824
0.274 0.938
15 2.74 11695
0.274 1.403
20 2.43 15606
0.243 1.872
22 2.3 17288
0.23 2.074
24 2.14 18884
0.214 2.266

60
10. Understand the impact of bit error rate on
packet error and investigate the impact of
error of a simple hub based CSMA / CD
network
10.1 Theory:
Bit error rate (BER): The bit error rate or bit error ratio is the number of bit errors divided
by the total number of transferred bits during a studied time interval i.e.
For example, a transmission might have a BER of 10-5
, meaning that on average, 1 out of
every of 100,000 bits transmitted exhibits an error. The BER is an indication of how often a
packet or other data unit has to be retransmitted because of an error.
Unlike many other forms of assessment, bit error rate, BER assesses the full end to end
performance of a system including the transmitter, receiver and the medium between the two.
In this way, bit error rate, BER enables the actual performance of a system in operation to be
tested.
Bit error probability (pe): The bit error probability is the expectation value of the BER. The
BER can be considered as an approximate estimate of the bit error probability. This estimate
is accurate for a long time interval and a high number of bit errors.
Packet Error Rate (PER):
The PER is the number of incorrectly received data packets divided by the total number of
received packets. A packet is declared incorrect if at least one bit is erroneous.
The expectation of the PER is denoted as packet error probability pp, which for a data packet
length of N bits can be expressed as,
It is based on the assumption that the bit errors are independent of each other.

61
Derivation of the packet error probability:
Suppose packet size is N bits.
is the bit error probability then probability of no bit error=1-
As packet size is N bits and it is the assumption that the bit errors are independent. Hence,
Probability of a packet with no errors =
A packet is erroneous if at least there is one bit error, hence
Probability of packet error=1-
10.2 Procedure:
How to create a scenario and generate traffic:
 Create Scenario: ―Simulation  New Legacy Networks CSMA/CD‖.
Example 1:
Create samples by varying the bit error rate (10-6
, 10-7
, 10-8
, 10-9
, No error) and check
whether packet error output matches the PER formula.
Sample Inputs:
To perform this sample experiment, two nodes and one hub are considered.

62
 Click and drop Hub on the environment builder.
 Click and drop Node1.
 Click and drop Node2.
The properties of Node 1 and Hub are as follows: (Node 2 has default properties)
Link Properties Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
Data rate (Mbps) 10 10 10 10 10
Error Rate (BER) No Error 10-9
10-8
10-7
10-6
Wireless Node Properties: Disable TCP in transport layer
Application Properties: Click and drop the Application icon and set the following properties
 Set the properties for the Nodes& The Hub
 Click on the Simulate button).

63
Example 2:
Sample Inputs:
In this sample experiment, four nodes and one hub are considered.
 Click and drop Hub on the environment builder
 Click and drop Node1
Link Properties Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5
Data rate (Mbps) 10 10 10 10 10
Error Rate (BER) No Error 10-9
10-8
10-7
10-6
The properties of Node 1 are same as in Example 1 and Node 2 properties are shown below:
(Node 3 and Node 4 have default properties)
Application Properties: Click and drop the Application icon and set the properties as in
example 1.
 Set the properties for the Nodes& The Hub
 Click on the Simulate button).
NetSim simulation output:
Example 1: One node transmission
BER Packets
Errored
Packets
Generated
0
1E-09
1E-08
1E-07
1E-06
0
0
1
6
46
3999
3999
3999
3999
3999

64
Example 2: Two nodes transmission
Packet size for the calculation of the output table=1500 bytes or 12000 bits
Comparing Packets errored with Bit error rate:
10.3 Inference:
From the Graph, we see that as the error rate is increased the number of errored packets
increase. The increase is exponential since the error rate is increased in powers of 10.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
No Error 10^-9 10^-8 10^-7 10^-6
PacketsErrored
Bit Error Rate
One Node Transmission
Two Nodes Transmission
BER Packets
Errored
Packets
Generated
0
1E-09
1E-08
1E-07
1E-06
0
0
1
11
86
7998
7998
7998
7998
7998

65
11. To determine the optimum persistence of a
p-persistent CSMA / CD network for a heavily
loaded bus capacity.
11.1 Theory:
Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection (CSMA / CD)
This protocol includes the improvements for stations to abort their transmissions as soon as
they detect a collision. Quickly terminating damaged frames saves time and bandwidth. This
protocol is widely used on LANs in the MAC sub layer. If two or more stations decide to
transmit simultaneously, there will be a collision. Collisions can be detected by looking at the
power or pulse width of the received signal and comparing it to the transmitted signal. After a
station detects a collision, it aborts its transmission, waits a random period of time and then
tries again, assuming that no other station has started transmitting in the meantime.
There are mainly three theoretical versions of the CSMA /CD protocol:
1-persistent CSMA / CD: When a station has data to send, it first listens to the channel to
see if anyone else is transmitting at that moment. If the channel is busy, the station waits until
it becomes idle. When station detects an idle channel, it transmits a frame. If a collision
occurs, the station waits a random amount of time and starts all over again. The protocol is
called 1-persistent because the station transmits with a probability of 1 whenever it finds the
channel idle.
Ethernet, which is used in real-life, uses 1-persistence. A consequence of 1-persistence is
that, if more than one station is waiting for the channel to get idle, and when the channel gets
idle, a collision is certain. Ethernet then handles the resulting collision via the usual
exponential back off. If N stations are waiting to transmit, the time required for one station to
win the back off is linear in N.
Non-persistent CSMA /CD: In this protocol, before sending, a station senses the channel. If
no one else is sending, the station begins doing so itself. However, if the channel is already in
use, the channel does not continually sense it for the purpose of seizing it immediately upon
detecting the end of the previous transmission. Instead, it waits a random period of time and
then repeats the algorithm. Intuitively this algorithm should lead to better channel utilization
and longer delays than 1-persistent CSMA

66
p-persistent CSMA / CD: This protocol applies to slotted channels. When a station
becomes ready to send, it senses the channel. If it is idle, it transmits with a probability of p.
With a probability q=1-p it defers until the next slot. If that slot is also idle, it either transmits
or defers again, with probabilities p and q respectively. This process is repeated until either
the frame has been transmitted or another station has begun transmitting. In the latter case, it
acts as if there had been a collision (i.e., it waits a random time and starts again). If the station
initially senses the channel busy, it waits until the next slot and applies the above algorithm.
How does the performance of LAN (throughput) that uses CSMA/CD protocol gets
affected as the numbers of logged in user varies:
Performance studies indicate that CSMA/CD performs better at light network loads. With the
increase in the number of stations sending data, it is expected that heavier traffic have to be
carried on CSMA/CD LANs (IEEE 802.3). Different studies have shown that CSMA/CD
performance tends to degrade rapidly as the load exceeds about 40% of the bus capacity.
Above this load value, the number of packet collision raise rapidly due to the interaction
among repeated transmissions and new packet arrivals. Collided packets will back off based
on the truncated binary back off algorithm as defined in IEEE 802.3 standards. These
retransmitted packets also collide with the newly arriving packets.
11.2 Procedure:
How to create a scenario and generate traffic:
 Create Scenario: ―Simulation  New Legacy Networks  CSMA/CD‖.
Scenario:

67
Sample Input:
In this Sample experiment 12 Nodes and 1 Hubs need to be clicked and dropped onto the
Environment Builder.
Input for the Sample experiments (i.e. Totally 11 Samples) are given below,
Sample Input 1:
In the first sample for each Node the following properties have to be set,
Node Properties Values to be Selected
Persistence 1
Vary persistence from 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5… 1/10, 1/11 to generate other experiments.
Create broadcast application for all nodes and set the properties as follows:
Application Data Size (bytes) 1472
Mean Inter Arrival Time(µs) 1000
Wired Link Properties:
Link Properties Values to be
Selected
Uplink bit error rate 0
Downlink bit error rate 0
 Set the properties for the Nodes & The Hub
 Click on Run Simulation button).

68
11.3 Output:
After simulation of each experiment, click on the network statistics and note down the user
level throughput values. Open an excel sheet and plot a graph for these noted values against
their respective persistence values.
Comparison Chart:
11.4 Inference:
As the number of logged in users is quite large in this experiment, the performance of a p-
persistent CSMA/CD network with large p, is not optimal because of a large number of
collisions. Therefore, we have minimum throughput when the persistence was 1/2. But as
persistence is decreased (lower and lower probabilities), the likelihood of collisions reduce
and hence throughput starts to increase. However, beyond a certain limit, in this case 1/11 the
probability of transmitting packets becomes very low and hence there aren’t many
transmissions. Therefore, throughput starts to decline. In this experiment with 12 nodes
generating traffic, we notice that the maximum throughput is at a persistence value lying
between 1/9 and 1/12.
6.4
6.6
6.8
7
7.2
7.4
7.6
7.8
1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6 1/7 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/11 1/12
Throughput(Mbps)
Persistance
Performance Graph
Optimum

69
12. Analyze the performance of a MANET,
(running CSMA/CA (802.11b) in MAC) with
increasing node density
12.1 Theory:
Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) is a self-configuring network of mobile nodes connected
by wireless links to form an arbitrary topology without the use of existing infrastructure. The
nodes are free to move randomly. Thus the network's wireless topology may be unpredictable
and may change rapidly.
The node density also has an impact on the routing performance. With very sparsely
populated network the number of possible connection between any two nodes is very less and
hence the performance is poor. It is expected that if the node density is increased the
throughput of the network shall increase, but beyond a certain level if density is increased the
performance degrades.
12.2 Performance metrics:
The different parameters used to analyze the performance are explained as follows:
 Throughput: It is the rate of successfully transmitted data packets in unit time in the
network during the simulation.
 Average Delay: It is defined as the average time taken by the data packets to propagate
from source to destination across a MANET. This includes all possible delays caused by
routing discovery latency, queuing at the interface queue, and retransmission delays at the
MAC, propagation and transfer times.

70
12.3 Procedure:
In NetSim, Select ―Simulation  New  Advanced Wireless Networks MANET‖.
Step 1: Create /Design the Network
Devices Required: 2 Wireless Nodes
Step 2: Configure the Network (Sample 1)
 Click & drop 2 Wireless Nodes onto the Simulation Environment.
 Arrange the positions of the nodes as per the following table:
Wireless Node X-Coordinate Y-Coordinate
1 50 100
2 100 150
NOTE: To edit the position, change the (x, y) co-ordinates in Global Properties as shown:
 Disable TCP in all Wireless Nodes.
Right Click on any Wireless Node Properties
To change
Co-ordinates,
click & edit

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Wireless Link Properties:
Right Click anywhere on the Grid EnvironmentProperties
Channel Characteristics Line of Sight
Path Loss Exponent (n) 2
Path loss is the reduction in the power density of radio wave as it travels. The loss is
proportional to (distance) to the power (n), where n is the path loss exponent. The general
value of n is from 2 to 5. As the value of n is increased there will be more reduction in power
and hence higher likelihood of error in the packet. In general, users would notice that as n
increases the error increases, the data rate decreases and the throughput decreases.
Step 3: Model Traffic in the Network (Sample 1)
Select the Application Button and click on the gap between the Grid Environment and the
ribbon. Now right click on Application and select Properties.

72
Application Properties:
Step 4: Simulate
After completion of the experiment, ―Save‖ the experiment for future analysis of results.
Steps to save an experiment:
Step 1: After simulation of the
network, on the top left corner
of Performance metrics screen,
click on the ―Save Network and
Metric as‖ button
Source ID 1 (Wireless Node A)
Destination ID 2 ( Wireless Node B)
Packet Size
Value(Bytes) 1460
Inter Arrival Time
Value(µs) 60000

73
Step 2: Specify the Experiment Name and Save Path and click on OK
 Click & drop 2 more Wireless Nodes onto the Simulation Environment.
1 50 100
2 100 150
3 75 75
4 125 125
Right Click on any Wireless Node Properties
The remaining properties are same as Sample 1.

74
application.
Step 7: Simulate
 Click & drop 2 more Wireless Nodes onto the Simulation Environment.
Application Type Custom Custom
Source ID 1 ( Wireless Node A) 3 ( Wireless Node C)
Destination ID 2 ( Wireless Node B) 4 ( Wireless Node D)
Packet Size
Value(Bytes) 1460 1460
Inter Arrival Time
Value(µs) 60000 60000

75
1 50 100
2 100 150
3 80 70
4 140 130
5 110 40
6 160 90
 Select the Application Button and click on the gap between the Grid Environment and
the ribbon. Now right click on Application and select Properties.
Step 10: Simulate
Application Type Custom Custom Custom
Source ID 1 ( Wireless Node A) 3 ( Wireless Node C) 5 ( Wireless Node E)
Destination ID 2 ( Wireless Node B) 4 ( Wireless Node D) 6 ( Wireless Node F)
Packet Size
Value(Bytes) 1460 1460 1460
Inter Arrival Time
Value(µs) 60000 60000 60000

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12.4 Output
Go to Simulation  Open  Metrics menu to open the results of saved experiments.
 Go to Application metrics and compute the sum of all column wise values of throughput.
Throughput = Sum of throughputs obtained from all Applications
 Go to Application metrics and compute the Average delay by taking average of all row
wise values of Delay.
Delay = Average delay obtained from all Applications
Plotting the Throughput obtained from the above 3 samples with respect to Number of Nodes
and the graph which is obtained, follows the pattern as below:
NOTE – To create Graph in Excel 2010, follow the steps
1. Copy the data in an Excel sheet.
2. Select the data. Go to Insert  Scatter (under Charts)  Scatter with Straight
lines and Markers.

77
Plot the Average Delay obtained from the above 3 samples with respect to Number of Nodes
and the graph obtained is similar to:
12.5 Inference
As the number of nodes increases (2  4  6) the throughput of the network increases
because the channel is able to handle additional network traffic. However, if the number of
nodes is increased further, the throughput may decreases as the network traffic is too high,
and this leads to collisions.
As the number of nodes increases, the delay also increases as it takes more time for a packet
to reach its destination.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 2 4 6 8
Throughput(Mbps)
No. of Nodes
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 2 4 6
AverageDelay(Seconds)
No. of Nodes

78
13. Analyze the performance of a MANET,
(running CSMA/CA (802.11b) in MAC) with
increasing node mobility
13.1 Theory:
Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) is a self-configuring network of mobile nodes connected
by wireless links to form an arbitrary topology without the use of existing infrastructure. The
nodes are free to move randomly. Thus the network's wireless topology may be unpredictable
and may change rapidly.
Mobility and node density are the two major factors which influences the performance of any
routing protocol of mobile ad hoc network. The mobility of the nodes affects the number of
connected paths, which in turn affect the performance of the routing algorithm.
13.3 Procedure:
In NetSim, Select ―Simulation  New  Advanced Wireless Networks MANET‖.
Step 1: Create /Design the Network
Devices Required: 6 Wireless Nodes
 Click & drop 6 Wireless Nodes onto the Simulation Environment.

79
1 100 50
2 100 150
3 200 150
4 200 50
5 100 100
6 200 100
 Change Mobility model to RANDOM_WALK and set velocity 10 m/s for all nodes.
Right Click anywhere on the Grid EnvironmentProperties
NOTE: To change Mobility Model, go to Global Properties Mobility Model

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Channel Characteristics Line of Sight
Path Loss Exponent (n) 2
Path loss is the reduction in the power density of radio wave as it travels. The loss is
proportional to (distance) to the power (n), where n is the path loss exponent. The general
value of n is from 2 to 5. As the value of n is increased there will be more reduction in power
and hence higher likelihood of error in the packet. In general, users would notice that as n
increases the error increases, the data rate decreases and the throughput decreases.
NetSim provides various propagation models such as fading only, fading and shadowing and
line of sight.
In Line of sight, sender and receiver have an unobstructed path between them. The reduction
in signal power is only due to the path loss explained above.
In fading only, signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to
reflection, scattering, diffraction and others.
In fading and shadowing, apart from fading then received signal is shadowed by obstructions
such as hills and buildings.
Source ID 1 (Wireless Node A) 2 ( Wireless Node B) 5 ( Wireless Node E)
Destination ID 4 ( Wireless Node D) 3 ( Wireless Node C) 6 ( Wireless Node F)
Packet Size
Value(Bytes) 1460 1460 1460
Inter Arrival Time
Value(µs) 20000 20000 20000

81
application.
Step 4: Simulate
Steps to save an experiment:
Step 1: After simulation of the
network, on the top left corner
of Performance metrics screen,
click on the ―Save Network and
Metric as‖ button
Step 2: Specify the Experiment Name and Save Path and click on OK

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Change Mobility model to RANDOM_WALK and set velocity 30 m/s for all nodes.
Step 6: Simulate
Change Mobility model to RANDOM_WALK and set velocity 50 m/s for all nodes.
13.4 Simulate
After completion of experiment, ―Save‖ the experiment, for future analysis of results. Users
can view the mobility of the nodes and flow of packets clearly using packet animation.
13.5 Analysis of Result
Go to Simulation  Open  Metrics menu to open the results of saved experiments.
 Go to Application metrics and compute the sum of all column wise values of throughput.
Throughput = Sum of throughputs obtained from all Applications
0
0.5
1
1.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Throughput(Mbps)
Mobility Velocity (m/sec)

83
13.6 Inference
As the mobility of nodes increases, the throughput decreases. This is because as the velocity
increases, more packets get lost in lieu of ad hoc movement of the nodes. The packet delivery
ratio decreases as the sum of total packets received decreases with increased mobility.
NOTE: The results are highly dependent on position/velocity/ traffic etc given the inherent
characteristics of MANET protocols. Any modifications with the above mentioned input
parameters will change the final output result.

84
14. Study the working of BGP and formation of
BGP Routing table
14.1 Theory:
In BGP, the Packets are transmitted between the Autonomous system using Path vector
Routing.
Path Vector Routing:
Path vector routing is used for inter-domain routing. It is similar to distance vector routing. In
path vector routing we assume that there is one Router (there can be many) in each
autonomous system which acts on behalf of the entire autonomous system. This Router is
called the Border Router. The Border Router in one Autonomous System creates a routing
table and advertises it to neighboring Border Router which belongs to neighboring
autonomous systems. The idea is same as distance vector routing except that only Border
Routers in each autonomous system can communicate with each other. The Border Routers
advertises the path, not the metric, in its autonomous system or other autonomous systems.
14.2 Procedure:
Step 1:
Go to Simulation  New  BGP Networks
Sample Inputs:
Follow the steps given in the different samples to arrive
at the objective.
 Total no of nodes used: 4
 Total number of Internal Routers used: 2
 Total number of Border Routers used: 2

85
The devices are interconnected as given below,
 Wired Node E and Wired Node F are connected by Link 1 and Link 2 to Router C.
 Internal Router C and Border Router A are connected by Link 3.
 Border Router A and Border Router B are connected by Link4.
 Border Router B and Router D are connected by Link 5.
 Router D is connected by Link 6 and Link 7to Wired Node G and Wired Node H
respectively.
Application Properties Application 1 Application 2
Application_Type CUSTOM CUSTOM
Source_Id 5 6
Destination_Id 7 8
Application Data size
Application Data size (bytes) 1472 1472
Inter Arrival Time
Mean Inter Arrival Time (µs) 20000 20000
Link Properties Link 1 Link 2 Link 3 Link 4 Link 5 Link 6 Link 7
Bit Error Rate
(BER)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Downlink Speed
(Mbps)
8.448 8.448 10 1000 10 8.448 8.448
Uplink Speed
(Mbps)
8.448 8.448 10 1000 10 8.448 8.448

86
Sample 1:
If selected internal gateway protocol is RIP then Router properties are as follows:
 Set the properties of Routers
After simulation save the experiment.
Sample 2:
If you want to select your internal gateway protocol as OSPF then here is the information you
need to fill in for Router properties:
Router Properties Border_ Router A Border_ Router B
Interior
Routing
table
Exterior
Routing
table
Interior
Routing
table
Exterior Routing
table
Protocol Type OSPF BGP OSPF BGP
LSRefreshTime 1800 - 1800 -
MaxAge 3600 - 3600 -
Router Properties Border_ Router A Border_ Router B
Interior
Routing
table
Exterior
Routing
table
Interior
Routing
table
Exterior Routing
table
Protocol Type RIP BGP RIP BGP
Update Timer 30 - 30 -
Timeout Timer 180 - 180 -
Garbage
Collection Timer
120 - 120 -
Router Properties Router C Router D
Routing Protocol RIP RIP
Update Timer 30 30
Timeout Timer 180 180
Garbage Collection Timer 120 120

87
 Set the properties of Routers
14.3 Output:
After running this scenario, in Performance Metrics screen, routing tables are obtained in
BGP table and RIP metrics.
If you click over the RIP metrics, you will get the RIP routing table for internal routers. If
you click over the BGP table, you will get the routing table for Border routers. We have
shown the routing tables for Border Router 1 and 2.
Router Properties Router C Router D
Routing Protocol OSPF OSPF
LSRefreshTime 1800 1800
MaxAge 3600 3600

88
The Border Routers stores the node’s remote address in its Routing Table as shown in the
above Tables under ―PeerRemoteAddr‖ column.
Output: (Sample 2)
After running this scenario, in Performance Metrics screen, routing tables are obtained in
BGP table and OSPF metrics.
If you click over the OSPF metrics, you will get the OSPF routing table for internal routers. If
you click over the BGP table, you will get the routing table for Border routers. We have
shown the routing tables for Border Router 1 and 2.

89
14.4 Inference:
First the internal Routing tables (RIP/OSPF table) are formed among all the Routers. The
Border Routers contains the network address of the next hop and the destination nodes as
represented in the routing table. Border Routers communicate with each other by passing
their Routing tables resulting in the formation of external Routing tables (BGP table). Then
actual packet transmission takes place from Source to Destination.

90
15. Study how call blocking probability varies as
the load on a GSM network is continuously
increased
15.1 Procedure:
In NetSim, Select ―Simulation  New  Cellular Networks  GSM‖
In this Experiment,
 One BTS (BTS A) and one MSC (MSC B) is used
 Total no of MS used: Vary from 4 to 20 in steps of 2.
 All the MS are placed in the range of BTS A
Set the properties by following the tables for each sample,
Inputs for Sample 1
Number of MS = 4

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Accept default properties for BTS.
Edit Uplink Bandwidth Min to 890 MHz and Uplink Bandwidth Max to 890.2 MHz in
MSC properties.
In the Sample 1, two Applications are run. After dropping Application on the Environment
menu, add application 2 from the left pane and change the following properties:
Application Properties Application 1 Application2
Application type Erlang_call Erlang_call
Source_Id 3 5
Destination_Id 4 6
Call
Duration_ Distribution Exponential Exponential
Duration(s) 60 60
Inter Arrival Time (sec) 10 10
IAT_ Distribution Exponential Exponential
Codec
Codec Custom Custom
Service Type CBR CBR
Packet Size 33 33
Inter Arrival Time (µs) 20000 20000
Simulation Time – 100 sec

92
Inputs for Sample 2
Number of MS = 6
Add one more Application and set the properties as above with Source_Id as 7 and
Destination_Id as 8.
Likewise, increase the number of MS by 2 upto 20 and set properties for different Samples by
adding an application every time and changing Source_Id and Destination_Id.
15.2 Output
To view the output, go to the Cellular Metrics.
In MS metrics, add the call blocked and call generated column. Call blocking probability is
calculated as ratio of Total call blocked to Total call generated.
Comparison Charts:
*** All the above plots highly depend upon the placement of Mobile station in the simulation
environment. So, note that even if the placement is slightly different the same set of values
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
CallBlockingProbability
Sample Number

93
15.3 Inference:
When the number of MS is increased from 4 to 20 the call blocking probability increases
from 0 to 0.94. As we increase the number of mobile stations more calls are generated. This
increases the traffic load on the system & more calls generated implies more channel requests
arrive at the base station but the number of channels is fixed. So when the base station does
not find any free channel the call is blocked.
An additional observation is that the call blocking is zero until 8 MS. This is because the
number of channels is sufficient to handle all call that 6 MS may generate. Only after this the
base station does not find free channels and blocks calls.

94
16. Study how the number of channels increases
and the Call blocking probability decreases as
the Voice activity factor of a CDMA network is
decreased
16.1 Procedure:
How to Create Scenario & Generate Traffic:
In NetSim, Select ―Simulation  New  Cellular Networks  CDMA‖
Please navigate through the below given path to understand,
Inputs
In all Samples,
 Total no of BTS used: 1
 Total no of MSC used: 1
 Total no of MS used: 60
The devices are interconnected as given below,
 All the MS are placed in the range of BTS A ( default 1 Km)
 BTS A is connected via Wired Link to MSC B
Sample 1: Drop 1 BTS, 1 MSC and 60 MS and interconnect them in no specific order.

95
Application
Properties
Application
1
Application
2
Application
3
Application
4
Application
5
Source_Id 3 5 7 9 11
Destination_Id 4 6 8 10 12
All other
Properties
Default Default Default Default Default
Likewise add 25 more applications (totaling 30) with above properties and Source_Id13 to
Destination_Id 14 for application 6… and Source_Id 61 to Destination_Id 62 for application
30.
We have considered MSC to be device ID 1, and BTS as device ID 2.
Set Packet Animation to Don’t play/record animation (Simulation will run fast) and click
OK. If record animation option is selected, the simulation may take a long time to complete.
Upon completion of the experiment ―Save‖ the experiment
Sample 2:
Keep all properties same as Sample 1 and in the BTS properties, change the voice activity
factor to 0.9 as shown:

96
Sample 3 and so on: Change the voice activity factor to 0.8 in sample 3, 0.7 in sample 4….
and to 0.1 in sample 10 in BTS properties.
16.2 Output
To view the output, go to the Cellular Metrics.
In Channel metrics, the channel count is mentioned.
For every sample plot the graph.
Comparison Charts and Inference:
When the system Voice activity factor decreases from 1.0 to 0.1, the number of channels
increases from 43 to 427.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
ChannelCount
Voice Activity Factor

97
In CDMA network, the number of channels is inversely proportional to the voice activity
factor.
Chart 1 is a mirrored form of graph. (This is because VAF is decreasing along +ve X)
In MS metrics, the call generated and call blocked is shown for each MS. Add all the calls
generated to obtain Total call generated, and add calls blocked for all MS Ids to obtain Total
call blocked.
Calculate call blocking probability as ratio of Total call blocked to Total call generated.
When voice activity factor is decreased the number of channels available increases. Thus the
system has more number of channels to handle the same number of calls (Note - Number of
MS is constant and their properties are same across all experiments. So, they generate
approximately same number of calls throughout). As the number of channels increases the
call blocking probability decreases.
x
y
1

0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
CallBlockingProbability
Voice Activity Factor

98
17. Study the SuperFrame Structure and analyze
the effect of SuperFrame order on throughput
17.1 Introduction:
Beacon frame is one of the management frames in IEEE 802.11 based WLANs and contains
all the information about the network.
A coordinator in a PAN can optionally bound its channel time using a SuperFrame structure
which is bound by beacon frames and can have an active portion and an inactive portion. The
coordinator enters a low-power (sleep) mode during the inactive portion.
The structure of this SuperFrame is described by the values of macBeaconOrder and
macSuperframeOrder. The MAC PIB attribute macBeaconOrder, describes the interval at
which the coordinator shall transmit its beacon frames. The value of macBeaconOrder, BO,
and the beacon interval, BI, are related as follows:
For 0 ≤ BO ≤ 14, BI = aBaseSuperframeDuration * 2BO
symbols.
If BO = 15, the coordinator shall not transmit beacon frames except when requested to do so,
such as on receipt of a beacon request command. The value of macSuperframeOrder, SO
shall be ignored if BO = 15.
An example of a SuperFrame structure is shown in following Figure.
Fig: An example of the Super Frame structure

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Theoretical Analysis:
From the above SuperFrame structure,
If SuperFrame Order (SO) is same as Beacon Order (BO) then there will be no inactive
period and the entire SuperFrame can be used for packet transmissions.
If BO=10, SO=9 half of the SuperFrame is inactive and so only half of SuperFrame duration
is available for packet transmission. If BO=10, SO=8 then (3/4)th of the SuperFrame is
inactive and so nodes have only (1/4)th
of the SuperFrame time for transmitting packets and
so we expect throughput to approximately drop by half of the throughput obtained when
SO=9.
Percentage of inactive and active periods in SuperFrame for different SuperFrame Orders is
given below:
Beacon
Order (BO)
SuperFrame
Order (SO)
Active part
ofSuperFrame(%
)
Inactive part of
SuperFrame (%)
Throughput
estimated (%)
10 10 100 0 > 200% of T
10 9 50 50 Say T = 20.18
(Got from simulation)
10 8 25 75 50 % T
10 7 12.5 87.5 25 % T
10 6 6.25 93.75 12.5 % of T
10 5 3.125 96.875 6.25 % of T
10 4 1.5625 98.4375 3.12% of T
10 3 0.78125 99.21875 1.56 % of T
We expect throughput to vary in the active part of the SuperFrame as sensors can transmit a
packet only in the active portion.

100
Simulation:
In NetSim, Go to ―Simulation  New  Wireless Sensor Networks‖
In grid settings, enter side length as 100 m and select sensor placement strategy as Via click
& drop
Click & drop one Sensor Node, Sink Node and Agent onto the Simulation Environment:
Sensor Properties: Change the following property for Sensor.
Sensor Properties Values
Velocity(m/s) 0
Interface1_Zigbee: Sensor
Sensor Interval (ms) 3
Sink Node Properties: Change the following properties for PAN Coordinator.
Sink Node Properties Values
Interface1_Zigbee: Data link Layer
Beacon Mode Enable
Beacon Order 10
Super frame Order 10
Simulation Time -30 Sec
 Set the properties of Node, PAN Coordinator & Environment.
 Click on Run Simulation and save the experiment)

101
Sample 2 and so on: Vary the Super Frame Order for every sample (SuperFrame order = 9
for sample 2, and…, 3 for sample 8).
The following are the throughputs obtained from simulation for different SuperFrame Orders.
SuperFrame
Order
Throughput
(Kbps)
10 39.6
9 21.03
8 10.08
7 5.04
6 2.50
5 1.24
4 0.60
3 0.28
Note: To obtain throughput from simulation, payload transmitted values will be obtained
from Network statistics and calculated using following formula:
Comparison Chart:
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
Throughput(kbps)
Superframe Order
Simulated
Theoritical

102
*** All the above plots highly depend upon the placement of Sensor in the simulation
environment. So, note that even if the placement is slightly different the same set of values
17.2 Inference:
From the comparison chart both the simulation and theoretical throughputs match except for
the case with no inactive period. A sensor will be idle if the last packet in its queue is
transmitted. If a packet is generated in inactive period then the packet has to wait in the queue
till the next SuperFrame so sensor has packets waiting in its queue and so it cannot be idle in
the next SuperFrame, but if there is no inactive period then there might be no packets waiting
in the queue and so sensor can be idle resulting in lesser throughput.

103
18. Analyze the scenario shown, where Node 1
transmits data to Node 2, with no path loss and
obtain the theoretical throughput based on
IEEE 802.15.4 standard. Compare this with the
simulation result.
18.1 Introduction:
IEEE Standard 802.15.4 defines the protocol and compatible interconnections for data
communication devices using low-data-rate, low-power, and low-complexity short-range
radio frequency (RF) transmissions in a wireless personal area network (WPAN). In Wireless
sensor network IEEE 802.15.4 standard is used in MAC and PHY layers.
IEEE 802.15.4 PHYs provide the capability to perform CCA in its CSMA-CA mechanism.
The PHYs require at least one of the following three CCA methods: Energy Detection over a
certain threshold, detection of a signal with IEEE 802.15.4 characteristics or a combination of
these methods.
18.2 Theory:
 A packet transmission begins with a random backoff (in number of slots, each slot of 20
duration) which is sampled uniformly from 0 to and followed by a
CCA.
 CCA failure starts a new backoff process with the backoff exponent raised by one, i.e., to
macminBE+1, provided it is lesser than the maximum backoff value given by
macmaxBE.
 Maximum number of successive CCA failures for the same packet is governed by
macMaxCSMABackoffs, exceeding which the packet is discarded at the MAC layer.
 A successful CCA is followed by the radio turnaround time and packet transmission.

104
 If the receiver successfully receives the packet i.e., without any collision or corruption
due to PHY layer noise, the receiver sends an ACK after the radio turnaround time.
 A failed packet reception causes no ACK generation.
 The transmitter infers that the packet has failed after waiting for macAckWaitDuration
and retransmits the packet for a maximum of aMaxFrameRetries times before discarding
it at the MAC layer.
Note: In NetSim the radio turnaround time after a CCA success is not considered.
18.3 Procedure
How to Create Scenario:
In NetSim, Select ―Simulation  New  Zigbee Networks‖
Create the scenario as shown:
Set the properties as shown below:
Node Properties:
Node Properties Zigbee Node B
Global Properties
X_Coordinate 15
Y_Coordinate 20
Interface1_Zigbee : Data Link Layer
AckRequest Enable
MaximumFrameRetries 7

105
Node Properties Zigbee Node C
Global Properties
X_Coordinate 25
Y_Coordinate 20
AckRequest Enable
MaximumFrameRetries 7
PAN Coordinator Properties:
Sink Node Properties Values
Global Properties
X_Coordinate 20
Y_Coordinate 20
Beacon Mode Disable
Environment Properties:
Environment Properties Values
Channel Characteristics No Path Loss
Click and drop Application and edit the following properties:
Source_Id 2 (Zigbee Node B)
Destination_Id 3 (Zigbee Node C)
Packet_Size
Value(Bytes) 70

106
Inter_Arrival_time
Value(micro sec) 4000
(Note: If the size of the packet size at the Physical layer is greater than 127 bytes, the packet
gets fragmented. Taking into account the various overheads added at different layers (which
are mentioned below), the packet size at the application layer should be less than 80 bytes.)
Simulation Time: 100 Sec
Throughput obtained from the simulation is 100.408kbps (0.100408 Mbps)
Note: This throughput is obtained when the nodes are placed at the closest possible distance
from the PAN coordinator. As the distance is increased, the throughput would reduce.
Theoretical Analysis:
We have set the Application layer payload as 70 bytes in the Node1 properties and when the
packet reaches the physical layer various other headers gets added like
App layer Payload 70 bytes
Transport Layer Header 8 bytes
Network Layer Header (IP + DSR) 28 bytes
MAC Header 5 bytes
PHY Header 6 bytes
Packet Size 117 bytes
In simulation, by default NetSim uses Unslotted CSMA/CA and so a packet transmission
happens after random backoff, CCA and turn-around-time and is followed by turn-around-
time and ACK packet and each of them occupies specific time set by the IEEE 802.15.4
standard as per the timing diagram shown below.

107
From IEEE standard, each slot has 20 Symbols in it and each symbol takes 16µs for
transmission:
Symbol Time 16 µs
Slot Time 20 * 0.32 ms
Random Backoff Average 3.5 * 1.12 ms
CCA 0.4 * 0.l28 ms
Turn-around-Time 0.6 * 0.192 ms
Packet Transmission Time 11.7 * 3.744 ms
Turn-around-Time 0.6 * 0.192 ms
ACK Packet Time 0.6 * 0.192 ms
Total Time 17.4 * 5.568ms
18.4 Inference:
Throughput from simulation 100.408 kbps
Throughput from analysis 100.574 kbps
3.5
Slots
0.6
Slots
0.6
Slots
0.6
Slots
0.4
Slots
CCA
Turn around
Time
Random
backoffAvg
[0, 7]
117 bytes
11.7 Slots
Packet Turn
around
Time
Ack
Source Node Destination
Node

108
Throughput from theoretical analysis matches the results of NetSim’s discrete event
simulation.
(Note: The slight difference in throughput is due to fact that the average of random numbers
generated for backoff need not be exactly 3.5 as the simulation is run for short time and also
in Network layer DSR protocol is running, so route setup process will take some time.)
As we go on increasing the simulation time, the throughput value obtained from simulation
approaches the theoretical value as can be seen from the table below:
Note: In NetSim Academic version to run the simulation with 200 sec simulation time we
can use CLI.
Simulation Time (sec) Throughput (kbps)
10 99.680
50 100.486
100 100.408
200 100.486

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19. To analyze how the operational behavior of
Incumbent (Primary User) affects the
throughput of the CR CPE (Secondary User)
19.1 Introduction:
An important component of the Cognitive Radio concept is the ability to measure, sense,
learn, and be aware of the parameters related to the radio channel characteristics, availability
of spectrum and power, radio’s operating environment, user requirements and applications,
available networks (infrastructures) and nodes, local policies and other operating restrictions.
A spectrum hole has been defined as ―a band of frequencies assigned to a primary
user, but at a particular time and specific geographic location, the band is not being utilized
by that user. Cognitive Radio was proposed as the means to promote the efficient use of
spectrum by exploiting the existence of spectrum holes.
In cognitive radio terminology, Primary Users (Incumbent) can be defined as the
users who have higher priority or legacy rights on the usage of a specific part of the spectrum.
On the other hand, Secondary Users (CR CPE), which have lower priority, exploit this
spectrum in such a way that they do not cause interference to primary users. Therefore,
secondary users need to have cognitive radio capabilities, such as sensing the spectrum
reliably to check whether it is being used by a primary user and to change the radio
parameters to exploit the unused part of the spectrum.
 Spectral Efficiency: It refers to the information rate that can be transmitted over a given
bandwidth in a specific communication system. It is a measure of how efficiently a
limited frequency spectrum is utilized by the physical layer protocol, and sometimes by
the media access control protocol.

110
19.3 Procedure:
Step 1: Go to Simulation  New  Cognitive Radio
Step 2: Click & drop 1 Base Station, 1 Incumbent and 2 CR CPE onto the Simulation
Environment. Connect the 2 CR-CPE and Incumbent with Base Station using Wireless Links.
To edit the position, change the (x, y) co-ordinates in Global Properties as shown:
Arrange the positions of the nodes as per the following table:
CR CPE X-Coordinate Y-Coordinate
2 100 120
3 120 100
Base Station X-Coordinate Y-Coordinate
1 100 100
Incumbent X-Coordinate Y-Coordinate
1 90 90
Note- Set Incumbent location by dropping at (90, 90) coordinates on grid environment.
To change
Co-ordinates,
click & edit

111
Step 3:
Base Station Properties: In Interface_CR properties, under the Incumbent1 section, Set
Operational_Frequency_Start (MHz) = 54
Operational_Frequency_End (MHz) = 60
Operational_Time(s) = 10
Operational_Interval(s) = 0
Keepout_Distance(m) = 100
Under the Physical Layer section, Set
Min_Frequency = 54
Max_Frequency = 60
Step 4:
To add application, drop the Application icon. Edit the Application properties as given in
table. All other properties are default.

112
Application Properties Application 1
Source ID 2
Destination ID 3
Note: Click on the Run Simulation icon and set simulation time only after doing the following
tasks:
 Set the properties of Nodes and
 Configure Applications.
Output:
 After running the simulation, Experiment can be saved by clicking on the Save icon.
 Open Export to MS Excel/.csv (.csv is comma separated value format, which is one of the
format used by MS Excel) by clicking as follows:
To Calculate Performance metrics from.csv:
 Go to Application metrics in metrics file (.csv) and check the value of throughput.
Throughput = Throughput of the application.
 Go to CR Channel metrics at the end in metrics file (.csv) and check the Spectral
Efficiency.
Click and
Export to .csv
(MS Excel)

113
Sample 2:
Perform the same steps as in Sample 1 with following changes:
Change 1: Base Station Properties: In Interface_CR properties, under the Incumbent1
section, Set
Min_Frequency = 54
Max_Frequency = 60
Sample 3:
Change 1: Base Station Properties: In Interface_CR properties, under the Incumbent1
section, set
Min_Frequency = 54
Max_Frequency = 60

114
Comparison Table:
Note: Open the saved experiments (Please Refer at the end of experiment) to obtain the
various Performance metrics and note the values obtained to compare as shown in table.
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Throughput(mbps) 0.000000 0.137769 0.231224
Spectral Efficiency-
Frequency(MHz) Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
Spectral efficiency 0.00001 0.12076 0.20124
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Throughput
Comparision of Throughput
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
SpectralEfficiency
Comparision of Spectral Efficiency

115
19.4 Inference:
In both the samples, the Secondary User (CR-CPE) lies within the operational region of
Primary User (Incumbent), hence the frequency spectrum used by operational Primary User
(Incumbent) cannot be used by Secondary User (CR-CPE) for transmitting data. Both the
Primary User (Incumbent) and the Secondary User(CR-CPE) has been allocated the same
channel (frequency band of 54 - 60 MHz). Hence whenever Incumbent will use the allocated
channel, there will be no Spectrum Hole, and so the secondary user will not be able to
transmit any data during that time.
In the first sample, Operational Interval under Incumbent is set to zero i.e. the Incumbent will
continuously use the channel allocated to it. Hence there is no spectrum hole and throughput
of the data transmitted by secondary user and the spectral is approximately equal to zero.
In the second sample, the Primary User (Incumbent) is utilizing the frequency band of 54 - 60
MHz for 10 seconds after an interval of every 5 seconds. So the Secondary User(CR-CPE)
uses this allocated the frequency band of 54 - 90 MHz in an opportunistic manner i.e. during
the interval of 5 seconds when Incumbent is not utilizing the channel, a spectrum hole is
created and the CR-CPE will utilize it to transmit data. Hence the Throughput and Spectral
Efficiency is better compared to Sample1.
In the third sample, Operational Interval of Incumbent is set to 10. Hence the Secondary User
(CR-CPE) gets a bigger spectrum hole and hence Throughput and Spectral Efficiency is
better compared to other samples.
NOTE: The results are highly dependent on position/velocity/ traffic etc. Any modifications
with the above mentioned input parameters will change the final output result.

116
20. To analyze how the allocation of frequency
spectrum to the Incumbent (Primary) and CR
CPE (Secondary User) affect the throughput of
the CR CPE (Secondary User).
20.1 Introduction:
An important component of the cognitive radio concept is the ability to measure, sense, learn,
and be aware of the parameters related to the radio channel characteristics, availability of
spectrum and power, radio’s operating environment, user requirements and applications,
available networks (infrastructures) and nodes, local policies and other operating restrictions.
A spectrum hole has been defined as ―a band of frequencies assigned to a primary
user, but at a particular time and specific geographic location, the band is not being utilized
by that user. Cognitive Radio was proposed as the means to promote the efficient use of
spectrum by exploiting the existence of spectrum holes.
In cognitive radio terminology, Primary Users (Incumbent) can be defined as the
users who have higher priority or legacy rights on the usage of a specific part of the spectrum.
On the other hand, Secondary Users (CR CPE), which have lower priority, exploit this
spectrum in such a way that they do not cause interference to primary users. Therefore,
secondary users need to have cognitive radio capabilities, such as sensing the spectrum
reliably to check whether it is being used by a primary user and to change the radio
parameters to exploit the unused part of the spectrum.
Performance metrics:
 Spectral Efficiency: It refers to the information rate that can be transmitted over a given
bandwidth in a specific communication system. It is a measure of how efficiently a
limited frequency spectrum is utilized by the physical layer protocol, and sometimes by
the media access control protocol.

117
20.2 Procedure:
Sample 1:
Step 1: Go to Simulation  New Cognitive Radio
Step 2: Click & drop 1 Base Station, 1 Incumbent and 2 CR CPE onto the Simulation
Environment. To edit the position, change the (x, y) co-ordinates in Global Properties as
shown:
Arrange the positions of the nodes as per the following table:
CR CPE X-Coordinate Y-Coordinate
2 100 120
3 120 100
BS X-Coordinate Y-Coordinate
1 100 100
Incumbent X-Coordinate Y-Coordinate
1 90 90
To change
Co-ordinates,
click & edit

118
Step 3:
Base Station Properties: In Interface_CR properties, under the Incumbent1 section, Set
Operational_Frequency_Start (Mhz) = 54
Operational_Frequency_End (Mhz) = 60
Min_Frequency = 54
Max_Frequency = 60
Step 4:

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Application Properties Application 1
Source ID 2
Destination ID 3
Note: Click on the Run Simulation icon and set simulation time only after doing the following
tasks:
 Set the properties of Nodes and
 Configure Applications.
Output:
 After running the simulation, Experiment can be saved by clicking on the Save icon.
 Open Export to MS Excel/.csv (.csv is comma separated value format, which is one of the
format used by MS Excel) by clicking as follows:
To Calculate Performance metrics from.csv:
 Go to Application metrics in metrics file (.csv) and check the value of throughput.
Throughput = Throughput of the application.
 Go to CR Channel metrics at the end in metrics file (.csv) and check the Spectral
Efficiency.
Click and
Export to .csv
(MS Excel)

120
Sample 2:
Change1: Base Station Properties: In the Physical Layer section, Set
Min_Frequency = 54
Max_Frequency = 90
Comparison Table:
Note: Open the saved experiments (Please Refer at the end of experiment) to obtain the
various Performance metrics and note the values obtained to compare as shown in table.
Sample 1 Sample 2
Spectral Efficiency-
Sample 1
Frequency(MHz) Spectral efficiency
54-60 0.00001
Sample 2
Frequency(MHz) Spectral efficiency
54-60 0.00001
60-66 0.00000
66-72 0.00000
72-78 0.22668
78-84 0.00643
84-90 0.19400

121
20.3 Inference:
In both the samples, the Secondary User (CR-CPE) lies within the operational region of
Primary User (Incumbent), hence the frequency spectrum used by operational Primary User
(Incumbent) will not be used by Secondary User (CR-CPE).Also the Operational Interval
under Incumbent is set to zero ,i.e., the Incumbent will continuously use the channel allocated
to it.
In the first sample, both the Primary User (Incumbent) and the Secondary User (CR-CPE) has
been allocated the same channel (frequency band of 54 - 60 MHz). As Incumbent will
continuously use the channel allocated to it, so there will be no Spectrum Hole, hence the
secondary user will not be able to transmit any data in an opportunistic manner. Therefore the
throughput of the application in the CR-CPE and the spectral efficiency is almost equal to
zero.
In the second sample, the Primary User (Incumbent) has been allocated frequency band of 54
- 60 MHz and the Secondary User (CR-CPE) has been allocated the frequency band of 54 -
90 MHz. Incumbent will continuously use the channel allocated to it, but the rest channels
will remain free i.e. there will be Spectrum Hole, which the CR-CPE will utilize to transmit
data.
NOTE: The results are highly dependent on position/velocity/ traffic etc. Any modifications
with the above mentioned input parameters will change the final output result.

122
21. Study how the throughput of LTE network
varies as the distance between the ENB and UE
(User Equipment) is increased
21.1 Theory:
LTE or Long Term Evolution, commonly known as 4G LTE, is a standard for wireless
communication of high-speed data for mobile phones and data terminals. It is based on the
GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA network technologies, increasing the capacity and speed
using a different radio interface.
The path loss in LTE is the decay of the signal power dissipated due to radiation on the
wireless channels. Path loss may be due to many effects, such as free space loss, refraction,
diffraction, reflection, aperture-medium coupling loss, and absorption.
Received power (Pr) can be calculated as:
Case 1: When no path loss Received power is same as Transmitted power, i.e., Pr = Pt
Case 2: When Line of Sight is there, Received power Pr is
Pr = Pt + Gt + Gr + +
Where Gt and Gr are gains of transmitting and receiving antenna respectively. Here d is the
distance between transmitter and receiver, λ is the wavelength of the transmitted signal and
is reference distance at which channel gain becomes 1. n is path loss exponent and Pt is
transmitted power.
21.2 Procedure:
To create a LTE Scenario, go to ―Simulation 
New  LTE Networks‖.

123
Sample Inputs:
In this experiment, 1 Wired Node, 1 Router, 1 MME , 1 ENB and 1 UE is clicked and
dropped onto the Simulation environment from tool bar as shown below.
Sample 1:
These properties can be set only after devices are linked to each other as shown above.
Wired Node Properties:
Node Properties Wired Node A
Transport Layer Properties
TCP Disable
Router Properties: Default properties.
MME Properties: Default properties.
ENB Properties:
ENB Properties ENB 4
Global Properties
X_Coordinate 0
Y_Coordinate 0

124
UE Properties:
To run the simulation, drop the Application icon and change the following properties:
Source ID 1 (Wired Node A)
Destination ID 5 (UE D)
Packet Size
Value(Bytes) 1460
Inter Arrival Time
Value(µs) 165
Link Properties Wired Link 2 Wired Link 3 Wired Link 4
Uplink Speed (Mbps) 100 100 100
Downlink Speed (Mbps) 100 100 100
Uplink BER 0 0 0
Downlink BER 0 0 0
UE Properties UE D
Global Properties
X_Coordinate 50
Y_Coordinate 50
Velocity(m/s) 0

125
Link Properties Wireless Link 1
Channel characteristics Line of Sight
Path loss Exponent(n) 4
Simulation Time – 10 Sec
 Set the properties for the Wired Node, Router, MME, UE, Wired, Wireless Links and
Application.
 Click on Run Simulation).
Set Packet Animation to Don’t play/record animation (Simulation will run fast) and click
OK. If record animation option is selected, the simulation may take a long time to complete.
Upon completion of the experiment ―Save‖ the experiment and note down the Application
throughput which is available in Application metrics for each sample case.
Sample 2:
Change the following properties in UE and run the simulation for 10 seconds as above. All
other properties are default.

126
UE Properties:
UE Properties UE D
Global Properties
X_Coordinate 100
Y_Coordinate 100
Velocity(m/s) 0
From Sample 3 to Sample 9:
Change the UE property every time (for all samples) by varying the (x, y) coordinates values
as follows:
Change in UE Properties: (x, y)
Sample 3 (150,150)
Sample 4 (200,200)
Sample 5 (250,250)
Sample 6 (300,300)
Sample 7 (350,350)
Sample 8 (400,400)
Sample 9 (450,450)
And note down the throughput values from the Application metrics in each sample case.
21.3 Output:
Step 1: Distance calculation:
Calculate the Distance between ENB (x1, y1) and UE(x2, y2) as follows: √(x2-x1)2
+ (y2-y1)2
For example for Sample 1:
ENB (x1, y1) = (0, 0); UE(x2, y2) = (50, 50);
Distance = √ (50-0)2
+ (50-0)2
= √2 × 50 = 50√2 meters.
Step 2: Open the Excel file and note down the distance between UE and ENB and throughput
values as shown in below table.

127
Sample nos.
Sample Number
Distance between UE and
ENB (meters)
Throughput (Mbps)
1 50√2 = 70.71 70.786
2 100√2 = 140.42 63.07
3 150√2 = 212.13 56.7
4 200√2 = 282.84 50.448
5 250√2 = 353.55 30.223
6 300√2 = 424.26 19.603
7 350√2 = 494.97 15.645
8 400√2 = 565.68 12.065
Comparison Chart:
To draw these graphs by using Excel ―Insert Chart‖ option and then select chart type as
―Line chart‖.
21.4 Inference
As the distance increases between ENB and UE, throughput value is getting decreased. The
reason is if distance increases between the devices, the received signal power will decrease
due to high path loss.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
70.71 140.42 212.13 282.84 353.55 424.26 494.97 565.68
Throughput(mbps)
Distance between UE and ENB(m)

128
22. Study how the throughput of LTE network
varies as the Channel bandwidth changes in
the ENB (Evolved node B)
22.1 Theory:
LTE or Long Term Evolution, commonly known as 4G LTE, is a standard for wireless
communication of high-speed data for mobile phones and data terminals. It is based on the
GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA network technologies, increasing the capacity and speed
using a different radio interface.
LTE supports flexible carrier bandwidths, from 1.4 MHz up to 20 MHz as well as both FDD
and TDD. LTE designed with a scalable carrier bandwidth from 1.4 MHz up to 20 MHz
which bandwidth is used depends on the frequency band and the amount of spectrum
available with a network operator.
22.2 Procedure:
o Create Scenario: Go to Simulation  New  LTE/LTE-A networks.
Sample Inputs:
In this experiment, 1 Wired Node ,1 Router, 1 MME , 1 ENB and 3 UE are clicked and
dropped onto the Simulation environment from tool bar as shown.
Sample 1:
Note: These properties can be set only after devices are linked to each other as shown above.

129
Wired Node Properties:
Node Properties Wired Node A
Transport Layer Properties
TCP Disable
Router Properties: Default properties.
MME Properties: Default properties.
ENB Properties:
ENB Properties ENB D
Interface_LTE (Physical Layer)
Carrier aggregation Inter_Band_Noncontingious_CA
1st
CA
Channel Bandwidth (MHz) 10
2nd CA
To run the simulation, drop the Application icon and change the following properties:
Application
Properties
Application
1
Application
2
Application
3
Source ID
1 (Wired
Node A)
1 (Wired
Node A)
1 (Wired
Node A)
Destination ID 5(UE E) 6(UE F) 7(UE G)
Packet Size
Value(Bytes) 1460 1460 1460

130
Inter Arrival Time
Value(µs) 146 146 146
UE Properties:
UE Properties UE E UE F UE G
Global Properties
Velocity(m/s) 0 0 0
Link Properties Wired Link 2 Wired Link 3 Wired Link 4
Uplink Speed (Mbps) 1000 1000 1000
Downlink Speed (Mbps) 1000 1000 1000
Uplink BER 0 0 0
Downlink BER 0 0 0
Link Properties Wireless Link 1
Channel characteristics No Path Loss
Simulation Time – 10 Sec
 Set the properties for the Wired Node, Router, MME, UE, Wired, Wireless Links and
Application.
 Click on Run Simulation).

131
Upon completion of the experiment ―Save‖ the experiment and note down the Application
throughputs of all applications which is available in Application metrics for each sample
case.
Sample 2:
Change the following properties in ENB and run the simulation for 10 seconds as above. All
other properties are default.
1st
CA
2nd CA
From Sample 3:
Change the ENB property, Channel Bandwidth to 10, 5, 3, 1.4 MHz (Refer below table)
1st
CA
2nd CA
And note down the throughput values from the Application metrics in each sample case.

132
22.3 Output
Step 1: Add the sum of all throughput values in each sample case:
Example:
Sample 1: Application ID Throughput (mbps)
1 23.177
2 23.177
3 23.177
Sum = 69.531 mbps
Same procedure for all other sample cases also.
Step 2: Open the Excel file and note down the sum of applications throughput values as
shown in below table.
Sample nos.
Sample Number
Channel
Bandwidth(MHz)
Throughput (Mbps)
1 20 69.533
2 15 52.117
3 10 34.703
Comparison Chart:
To draw these graphs by using Excel ―Insert Chart‖ option and then select chart type as
―Line chart‖.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
20 15 10
Throughput(mbps)
Channel Bandwidth(MHz)

133
22.4 Inference
The LTE solution provides spectrum flexibility with scalable transmission bandwidth
between 1.4 MHz and 20 MHz depending on the available spectrum for flexible radio
planning. The 20 MHz bandwidth can provide up to 150 Mbps downlink user data rate and
75 Mbps uplink peak data rate with 2×2 MIMO, and 300 Mbps with 4×4 MIMO.
As the channel bandwidth decreases the number of resource blocks also decreases. If more
resource blocks are available then more number of packets can be transmitted.

134
23. Analysis of LTE Handover
23.1 Introduction
Handover is an important function that maintains seamless connectivity when transitioning
from one base station to another.
23.2 LTE Handover Call Flow Description
1. A data call is established between the UE, S-eNB (Source-eNB) and the network
elements. Data packets are transferred to/from the UE to/from the network in both
directions (Downlink as well as Uplink)
2. The network sends the MEASUREMENT CONTROL REQ message to the UE to set
the parameters to measure and set thresholds for those parameters. Its purpose is to
instruct the UE to send a measurement report to the network as soon as it detects the
thresholds.
3. The UE sends the MEASUREMENT REPORT to the S-eNB after it meets the
measurement report criteria communicated previously. The S-eNB makes the decision
to hand off the UE to a T-eNB (Target-eNB) using the handover algorithm; each
network operator could have its own handover algorithm.
4. The S-eNB issues the RESOURCE STATUS REQUEST message to determine the
load on T-eNB (this is optional). Based on the received RESOURCE STATUS
RESPONSE, the S-eNB can make the decision to proceed further in continuing the
handover procedure using the X2 interface.
5. The S-eNB issues a HANDOVER REQUEST message to the T-eNB passing
necessary information to prepare the handover at the target side
6. The T-eNB checks for resource availability and, if available, reserves the resources
and sends back the HANDOVER REQUEST ACKNOWLEDGE message including a
transparent container to be sent to the UE as an RRC message to perform the
handover.
7. The S-eNB generates the RRC (Radio resource control->used for signalling transfer)
message to perform the handover, i.e., RRC CONNECTION RECONFIGURATION
message including the mobility Control Information. The S-eNB performs the
necessary integrity protection and ciphering of the message and sends it to the UE.

135
8. The S-eNB starts forwarding the downlink data packets to the T-eNB for all the data
bearers (which are being established in the T-eNB during the HANDOVER REQ
message processing).
9. In the meantime, the UE tries to access the T-eNB cell using the non-contention-based
Random Access Procedure. If it succeeds in accessing the target cell, it sends the RRC
CONNECTION RECONFIGURATION COMPLETE to the T-eNB.
10. The T-eNB now requests the S-eNB to release the resources. With this, the handover
procedure is complete.
 Due to mobility UEs can move from one place to another
 As shown in the above image, User Equipment is moving from Source-eNB to the
Target-eNB
 Then UE sends the MEASUREMENT REPORT to the S-eNB
 The S-eNB issues a HANDOVER REQUEST message to the T-eNB
 The T-eNB checks for resource availability and, if available, reserves the resources
and sends back the HANDOVER REQUEST ACKNOWLEDGE message
23.3 Procedure
How to Create Scenario & Generate Traffic in NetSim:
Step 1: Go to Simulation -> New -> LTE/LTE-A

136
Step 2: Click & drop 2 eNB’s, 1 MME and 4 UE’s onto the Simulation Environment.
Connect the 2 eNB’s with MME using Wired Link.
Right click on UE and select Properties. Change the Velocity to 100m/s in Global Properties
for all UE’s
Accept default properties for eNB and MME
Step 3:

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Application Type CBR
Source ID 5
Destination ID 6
Step 4:
Click on Run Simulation icon and set simulation time = 100s.
23.4 Output
Open Packet Animation:
Due to Mobility UEs can move from one cell to another. In the below figure, users can see
the handover packet flow in packet animation table.
 Users can see the Handover messages in red box present in the above image
 As shown in the above packet animation table, UE E, UE D connected to eNB A and
UE F, UE G connected to eNB B
 UE F is moving from eNB B to eNB A due to mobility

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 Then UEs send the LTE_Measurement_Report to eNB A, eNB B
 The eNB B sends a LTE_Handover_Request message to the eNB A
 The eNB A checks for resource availability and sends a
LTE_Handover_Request_Ack message to the eNB B
23.5 Inference
Firstly UE F is communicating with eNB B. Due to mobility UE F moves from one cell to
another. So Handover occurs. Now UE F starts communicating with eNB A.

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24. Introduction and working of internet of
things (iot)
24.1 Introduction
Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physical devices, vehicles, buildings and other
items—embedded with electronics, software, sensors, actuators, and network
connectivity that enable these objects to collect and exchange data. An IoT network allows
objects to be sensed and/or controlled remotely across existing network infrastructure,
creating opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based
systems, and resulting in improved efficiency, accuracy and economic benefit.
24.1.1 Simple IOT scenario
24.1.2 Components
1. Sensors
Sensors are used to detect physical phenomena such as light, heat, pressure, temperature,
humidity etc. Sensors are regarded as a revolutionary information gathering method to build
the information and communication system which will greatly improve the reliability and
efficiency of infrastructure systems. It follows IPv6 addressing system. IP addresses are

140
the backbone to the entire IoT ecosystem. IPv6’s huge increase in address space is an
important factor in the development of the Internet of Things.
2. LowPAN Gateway
These are the Gateways to Internet for all the things/devices that we want to interact with.
Gateway help to bridge the internal network of sensor nodes with the external Internet i.e., it
will collect the data from sensors and transmitting it to the internet infrastructure.
A 6LowPAN Gateway will have 2 interfaces, one is Zigbee interface connected to sensors
(follows 802.15.4 MAC and PHY) and the other is WAN interface connected to ROUTER.
Wired I/F TCP/IP stack Wireless I/F (Zigbee) Stack
6LowPAN Gateway Stack at wired and wireless Interfaces
6LoWPAN is an acronym of IPv6 over Low Power Wireless Personal Area Network. The
6LoWPAN concept originated from the idea that "the Internet Protocol should be applied
even to the smallest devices, and that low-power devices with limited processing capabilities
should be able to participate in the Internet of Things.
24.2 PART A: To Model and Simulate an IOT Network
Scenario in NetSim
Step 1: Go to Simulation -> New -> IOT

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Step 2: Click and drop 4 sensors, 1 LowPAN Gateway, 1 router and 1 wired node. Connect
Router, LowPAN Gateway and wired node using wired links
Step 3:
Application Type Sensor_App
Source ID 2
Destination ID 7
Packet

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Step 4:
Click on Run Simulation icon and set simulation time = 100s
24.3 Output
At the end of simulation, NetSim provides various performance metrics such as Network
Metrics, Link Metrics, Application Metrics, and Protocol Metrics etc.
In Packet Animation Table, users can see the packet flow.
24.4 PART B: To print IP addresses of Source, Destination,
Transmitter and Receiver devices and understand the
flow from IPv6 to IPv4 network (NetSim standard version
is required for this section)
1. Go to NetSim installed directory. The NetSim install directory would look something
like < C:Program Files (x86)NetSim Standardbin>
2. Open the simulation folder

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3. Open the NetSim.sln file inside the Simulation folder, it displays a message ―One or
more projects in the solution were not loaded completely‖
4. Click on OK and when this opens in MS Visual Studio 2010, it would look like
5. Open IP project
Code Modifications to print ip addresses:
6. Add the following lines of code in NETWORK_OUT_EVENT and
NETWORK_IN_EVENT events in fn_NetSim_IP_Run() function present in IP.c file
if(packet->nPacketType != PacketType_Control)
{
IP_TO_STR(packet->pstruNetworkData->szSourceIP,s_ip);
IP_TO_STR(packet->pstruNetworkData->szDestIP,d_ip);
IP_TO_STR(packet->pstruNetworkData->szGatewayIP,t_ip);
IP_TO_STR(packet->pstruNetworkData->szNextHopIp,r_ip);
if(!fp_ip)
{
fp_ip=fopen("ip.csv", "w");

144
fprintf(fp_ip,
"Packet_Id,Device_Id,Interface_id,Source_IP,Destination_IP,Transmit
ter_IP,Receiver_IPn");
}
fprintf(fp_ip,"%lld,%d,%d,%s,%s,%s,%sn",packet-
>nPacketId,
pstruEventDetails->nDeviceId,pstruEventDetails-
>nInterfaceId, s_ip, d_ip, t_ip, r_ip);
fflush(fp_ip);
}
In NETWORK_OUT_EVENT

145
In NETWORK_IN_EVENT
7. Add the following code in IP.c file
FILE *fp_ip=NULL;
8. Add the following code in fn_NetSim_IP_Run() function present in IP.c file
char s_ip[_NETSIM_IP_LEN],
d_ip[_NETSIM_IP_LEN],t_ip[_NETSIM_IP_LEN],r_ip[_NETSIM_IP_LEN];

146
9. Right click on IP in Solution Explorer and select rebuild.
10. Upon rebuilding, libIP.dll will get created in the path...simulationDLL
11. Now copy the libIP.dll from this DLL folder and paste it in NetSim bin folder present
in the NetSim installed directory. The NetSim install directory would look something
like < C:Program Files (x86)NetSim Standardbin>
12. Note that there exists a libIP.dll in this bin folder. This is the default file being
shipped with NetSim. The user is replacing this file with the newly built file.
13. Therefore, take care to rename the original libIP.dll file, so that it isn’t lost. For
example, you may rename it as libIP_default.dll
14. Open NetSim and create a Network Scenario in NetSim IOT Network with 1 sensor, 1
LoWPAN Gateway, 1 Router and 1 Wired Node. Create 1 Sensor application from
Sensor D to Wired Node C.

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15. Run the simulation.
16. Now you can see ip.csv file in the bin folder of NetSim installed directory. It looks
like
17. Users can understand how the IP addresses are changing from IPv6 to IPv4 and vice
versa with the help of ip.csv file.
18. Sensor and LoWPAN gateways 1st
interface follows IPv6 addressing.
19. LoWPAN gateways 2nd interface, Router, Wired Node follows IPv4 addressing.
20. As shown in the above image, users can identify the changing of IP addresses from
source to destination.

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