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Special Interest Tourism

UNIT 1:
INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM

Chapter objectives
• Explore the overview of special interest tourism, and outline the tourist and tourism system
• Identify and discuss the factors which led to the development of special interest tourism:
the evolution of transport, development of winter sports, increase in paid holidays, long
haul travel, opening up of global destinations, and current development

Special interest tourism overview

Special interest tourism refers to tourists, usually in small group tours, who are traveling to learn
about and experience particular specific features related to an area. Special interest tourism can
focus on a wide range of features from cultural manifestations of dance, music, fine arts, handicraft,
architecture, and traditional ways of life, unusual economic activities, archaeology and history, as
well as aspects of nature to those related to the tourists’ professional interests.

Special interest tourism does not require large-scale or even greatly expensive development of
facilities and infrastructure. However, careful organization, knowledgeable guide services, some
integrated transportation facilities and services, and at least basic accommodation and catering
facilities are essential.

Definition

Also known as serious leisure ~ leisure where participants are able to find personal fulfillment,
enhance their identity and express themselves, as opposed to casual or un-serious leisure

“A form of tourism which involves consumers whose holiday choice is inspired by specific
motivations and whose level of satisfaction is determined by the experience they pursue”
(www.download-it.org/)

“Travel for people who are going somewhere because they have a particular interest that can be
pursued in a particular region or at a particular destination”
(S. E. Read, 1980)

Definition by World Tourism Organization (WTO), 1985

“Specialized tourism involving group or individual tours by people who wish to develop certain
interests and visits sites and places connected with a specific subject. Generally speaking, the
people concerned exercise the same profession or have a common hobby”.

The tourist and the tourism system

Definition of tourist ~ “temporary visitor staying at least 24 hours in the country visited and the
purpose of whose journey can be classified as: leisure, business, family, mission and meeting”.
While visitor is “any person visiting a country other than that in which he has his usual place of
residence, for any reason other following an occupation remunerated from within the country
visited”.

©2012 World-Point Academy of Tourism Sdn. Bhd. All Rights Reserved.


• International visitor – persons who travel for a period not exceeding 12 months to a country
other than the one in which they generally reside
• Internal visitor – persons who travel to a destination within their own country, that is outside
their usual environment, for a period not exceeding 12 months

Excursionists can be defined as temporary visitors staying at least 24 hours in the destination
visited and not making an overnight stay

Tourism classification

1. International tourism
• Inbound tourism – visits to a country by nonresidents
• Outbound tourism – visits by residents of a country to another country
2. Internal tourism
• Visits by residents of a country to their own country
3. Domestic tourism
• Internal tourism plus inbound tourism (the tourism market of accommodation facilities
and attractions within a country)
4. National tourism
• Internal tourism plus outbound tourism (the residents tourism markets for travel agents
and airlines)

Tourism system

Tourism system should be viewed as a single system comprised of interrelated parts. A system, it
can be defined, analyzed, planned and managed in an integrated manner.

Gunn further specifies the influencing factors on the functioning of the tourism as: natural
resources, cultural resources, entrepreneurship, finance, labor, competition, community,
government policies and organization/leadership.

Mill and Morrison identify the four (4) major parts of the tourism system as being:
 The market (tourists)
 Travel (transportation)
 Destination (attractions, facilities and services)
 Marketing (information and promotion)

Reasons for special interest tourism development



Evolution of transport

Transport is the most critical element in the promotion of the growth of domestic and international
tourism. At a simple level, transport links the tourist from the origin area with the destination area.
It enables the tourist (the holiday maker, business traveler and other categories of traveler) to
consume the products and experiences they have purchased, because it links the supply chain
together.

The transport sector is entering into strategic alliances where different operators will seek to offer
seamless transport experience to travelers. All embracing role of transport to:
 Facilitate the tourist trip to the destination
 Enable tourist travel within the destination

Evolution of transport:



Evolution of transport Explanation
Stagecoach travel Coaches were invented in Hungary in the 15th
century and provided regular service there on
prescribed routes. By the 19th century, stagecoach
travel had become quite popular, especially in Great
Britain. The development of the famous English
tavern was brought by the need for overnight lodging
by stagecoach passengers.
Water travel Market boats picked up passengers as well as goods
on ship canals in England as early as 1772. by 1815,
steamboats were plying the Clyde, the Avon and the
Thames. By 1841, steamship excursions on the
Thames were well established.
Rail travel Railways were first built in England in 1825 and
carried passengers beginning in 1830. Because the
fares were much lower than stagecoach fares, rail
travel became widely accepted even for those with
low incomes. Between 1826 and 1840, the first
railroads were built in the United States.
Automobile/motorcoach travel Automobiles entered the travel scene in the United
State when Henry Ford introduced his famous Model
T in 1908. By 1920, a road network became
available, leading to the automobile’s current
dominance of the travel industry. Motorcoaches also
came into use soon after the popularization of the
automobile and remain a major mode of
transportation.
Air travel Nearly 16 years after the airplane’s first flight at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1903, regularly
scheduled air service began in Germany. Because of
its speed, comfort and safety, air travel is the leading
mode of public transportation today, as measured in
revenue passenger miles.

The role of transport in tourist travel:



Tourists leave
Transport link
home area
Airport shuttle/taxi/public
transport/private car
Departure
airport
Flight to destination
Destination
airport
Airport shuttle to a hotel

Hotel

Scenic train Local tours by
Car hire Local cruise Cycle hire
journey coach

Development of winter sport

Winter sport commonly played during winter. Main winter sports; ice hockey, figure skating,
sledding events (luge, skeleton and bobsleigh), skiing and snowboarding.

Example:
• Apline Winter Sport Resort
• Winter Olympic Games
• Alps Mountain, Swirtzerland

Traveling for winter sports is very common now and insurance has been created specifically for
coverage on incidence during the tourists’ trip fro winter sports like the Winter Sports Policy
provided by the AA Winter Sports Insurance. With this kind of accessibility and convenience,
people tend to be more prone into traveling just for winter sports because it is simplified by the
information technology at the same time. Online bookings can be made to book winter sports
equipment.

As for Winter Olympic Games, with young athletes attracted to new sports, the International
Olympic Committee, in trying to avoid an increasingly geriatric audience, has added sports that are
popular with today’s youth. This goes on to show how influential winter sports can be and with this
increase in popularity of winter sports, more tourists would travel for that purpose specifically.

Increase in paid holidays

The introduction of annual paid holiday is very largely of English origin and this has important
repercussions on development of mass tourism. The annual paid holiday was established during the
inter-War years for a considerable number of working population and led to greater mobility of the
population and broadened the horizon of millions of people.



Increase in paid holidays also can be associated with development of modern mass tourism. Paid
holidays are now established all over the world, and in most countries a minimum duration of one to
three weeks is specified by law or by collective agreements, between the employers and the workers
Today, the right to paid holidays has universal recognition.

Presently, the main potential for tourism market is made up of wage-earners and their families. The
concept of paid holidays, which originated with the advent of industrialization in the west, has
given modern tourism a tremendous boost.

Positive impact of increase in paid holidays:
 More leisure time
 Increased in wealth material
 Changes in mental attitudes towards pleasure travel
 Improvement in transportation system

Long-haul travel

Journeys typically made by wide-body aircraft that involve long distances, typically beyond six and
a half hours in length, and often are non-stop flights. On some long-haul flights, jet airliners refuel
in order to reach the destination.

OR
Self-challengers ~ have a drive to challenge themselves, passionate travelers and embrace the idea
of exploring and immersing themselves in the culture and lifestyle of the destination. They seek
destinations that are as different from the home as possible and they don’t mind roughing it a bit.
Example: outback Australia

The segment motivation reflects a personal drive to challenge them and the reward is intensely
personal experiences. When traveling abroad, this segment appreciates immersion in the local
culture, lifestyle and environment. They definitely perceives themselves as travelers, not tourists,
and are focused on experiencing destinations before they become part of a heavily commercialized
tourist trail.

Self-challengers are focused on self-discovery through challenging experiences and want to get
‘under the skin’ of a destination.

Opening up of global destinations

Backpackers are arguable in setting new travel trends, opening up new destinations and developing
new markets; for example in developing destinations. Today, there is greater understanding of the
needs of tourists and their expectations of tourist destination than in the early phase of development
of the tourism industry.

By the 1980s, with increasing recognition of various forms of ‘special interest’ tourism and their
potential economic benefits, awareness of the deteriorating environmental quality and the
relationship between the tourists and residents in many destinations, attention began to focus on
these types of tourist, who might avoid the problems of mass tourism.

More destinations to explore; example:
• Bird watchers at Utah, Idaho and Nevada
• Ardent mountain climbers at Taman Negara Kinabalu, Sabah; Nepal and Pakistan



In the current development in the tourism industry, like mass tourism and the increase in packaged
holidays, special interest tourism is growing because tourists tend to seek something outside of the
ordinary to pursue their interest. For example, one of the most recent trends that can be seen in
Malaysia is the love for Korean series amongst the youngsters or young adult who can be contribute
to the increase in Malaysian traveling to Korea to visit the places in which those drama series has
been filmed in.

Current developments

There has been an upmarket trend in the tourism industry over the last few decades, especially in
Europe, where international travel for short breaks is common. The terms tourism and travel are
sometimes used interchangeably – in this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism, but
implies a more purposeful journey.

There is now a demand for a better quality product, which has resulted in a fragmenting of the mass
market for beach vacations; people want more specialized version, quieter resorts, family-oriented
holidays or niche market-targeted destinations hotels.

There have been a few setbacks in tourism:
• September 11 attacks and terrorist threats to tourist destinations
• Tsunami
• SARS outbreak
Contemporary special interest tourism trends:
• Tourists have a high level of disposable income, considerable leisure time, are well-educated
and have sophisticated tastes
• Development in technology and transport infrastructure
• Changes in lifestyle, such as retiree-age people who sustain year round tourism
• Some sites offer dynamic packaging, in which an inclusive price is quoted for a tailor-made
package requested by the customer impulse

Emergences of new type of tourism destinations:

Types Explanation
Sustainable tourism Envisage as leading to management of all resources in such a way that
economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining
cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity
and life support systems (WTO).
Implies meeting the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs (World
Commission on Environment and Development, 1987).
Ecotourism Also known as ecological tourism is responsible travel to fragile,
pristine and usually protected areas that strives to be low impact and
(often) small scale.
It helps educate the traveler; provides funds for conservation; directly
benefit the economic development and political empowerment of local
communities; and fosters respect for different cultures and for human
rights.



Pro-poor tourism The potential tourism has to help the very poorest in developing
countries has been receiving increasing attention by those involved in
development and the issue has been addressed either through small
scale projects in local communities or by Ministries of Tourism
attempting to attract huge numbers of tourists.
For tourism to successfully reach the poor efforts must be made for
tourists to use local currency, for locals to develop relevant skills and
to ensure that exclusive contracts do not dominate the sector.
Recession tourism Travel trend which evolved by way of the world economic crisis.
Defined by low-cost, high value experiences taking place of once-
popular generic retreats.
Various recession tourism hotspots have seen business boom during the
recession thanks to comparatively low-cost of living and a slow world
job market suggesting travelers are elongating trips where their money
travels further.
Medical tourism When there is a significant price difference between countries for a
given medical procedure, particularly in Southeast Asia, India, Eastern
Europe and where there are different regulatory regimes, in relation to
particular medical procedures (i.e. dentistry), traveling to take
advantage of the price or regulatory differences is often referred to as
‘medical tourism’.
Educational tourism Educational tourism developed, because of the growing popularity of
teaching and learning of knowledge and the enhancing of technical
competency outside of the classroom environment.
In educational tourism, the main focus of the tour or leisure activity
includes visiting another country to learn about the culture; or to work
and apply skills learned inside the classroom in a different
environment.
Creative tourism Creative tourism has existed as a form of cultural tourism, since the
early beginning of tourism itself.
‘Grand Tour’ – which saw the sons of the aristocratic families traveling
for the purpose of mostly interactive, educational experiences
Can also be defined as tourism related to active participation of
travelers in the culture of the host community, through interactive
workshops and informal learning experiences.
The concept of creative tourism has been picked up by high-profile
organizations such as UNESCO, who through the Creative Cities
Network, have endorsed creative tourism as an engaged, authentic
experience that promotes an active understanding of the specific
cultural features of a place.
Dark tourism Involves visits to ‘dark’ sites such as battlegrounds, scenes of horrific
crimes or acts of genocide.
A small niche market, driven by varied motivations, such as mourning,
remembrance, macabre curiosity or even entertainment.
Its early origin rooted in fairgrounds and medieval fairs.



UNIT 2:
TYPES OF SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM
Chapter objectives
• Identify and discuss the different types of special interest tourism: outdoor pursuits,
adventure activities, cultural events, archeological tours, educational trips, sports
competition, spiritual interests, and etc.

Types of special interest tourism

The development of the special interest tourism which includes;
• Outdoor pursuits
• Adventure activities
• Cultural events
• Archaeological tours
• Educational trips
• Sports competition
• Spiritual interests

There is one unlisted type that increasingly becoming a form of tourism that is attracting interest
from academic researchers and the industry: the “dark tourism”

Dark tourism

Dark tourism also known as “black tourism” or “grief tourism” - Involving travel to sites associated
with death and suffering. This includes:



• Castles and battlefields
• Sites of disasters (natural or man-made)
• Prisons now open to the public
• Purpose built centers
• Sites of human atrocities and genocide

The dark tourism spectrums

 Dark Fun Factories: These are commercially oriented, entertainment centers offering
attractions and tours based on actual or fictional death and macabre incidents. Examples of
dark fun factories include such family-friendly tourist attractions as the London Dungeon,
Tower of London and Jack the Ripper tours.

 Dark Exhibitions: Tourism products that encourage educational reflection on death,
suffering or the macabre. They also tend still to have a commercial focus, but are more
aimed at commemorating the dark events on exhibition, than entertaining customers.
Examples include the Smithsonian Museum of American History exhibit 'September 11:
Bearing Witness to History', which contains very few artifacts (only 45 in total). The exhibit
doesn't even show images of the airliners approaching and crashing into the Twin Towers.
The museum prefers to use photographs of eyewitnesses to tell the story.

 Dark Dungeons: These are sites that mix entertainment with education ('edu-tainment') as
they reveal sites of crime and punishment systems from history. The Galleries of Justice in
Nottingham is an example of this type of tourism product, which has been promoted as 'the
only site where you could be arrested, sentenced and executed'. Here the emphasis is more
on entertainment, which contrasts with Robben Island, South Africa, where Nelson
Mandela, among many other freedom fighters criminalized by the 'apartheid' system, were
incarcerated.

 Dark Resting Places: Where a cemetery is seen as a potential tourism product. Tours,
special interest groups and the spread of the Internet have led to growth in interest in these
sites, where the living can feel literally 'close to the dead'. Seen as occupying the 'middle
ground' of dark tourism, cemeteries such as Père-Lachaise in Paris are used to commemorate
the (often very famous) dead, such as Jim Morrison and Isadora Duncan. Other cemeteries
also offer open space for recreational activities, exercise and relaxation. Dark resting places
can also become the subject of battles between land owners and local people over the right
to access the site, such as in the case of Arnos Vale in Bristol

 Dark Shrines: Based on the act of remembrance for the recently deceased. Dark shrines are
often located close to or at the scene of a death, and usually within a short period after the
incident which led to the death. Roadside tributes of flowers laid to commemorate death
through traffic accidents have become increasingly popular in this country. Media-reported
deaths of significance for people can also lead to similar informal tributes, as in the death of
Diana, Princess of Wales.

 Dark Conflict Sites: War and battlefields fit into this category and their use as tourism sites
have been known about for centuries. Tourists are recorded as having visited the scene of
the Battle of Waterloo even as it was being fought in 1815. The battlefields of the First
World War were also first visited soon after hostilities ended and are now well established
tourism venues, but their purpose is more about remembrance than celebration.



 Dark Camps of Genocide: Seen as occupying the darkest edges of the dark tourism
spectrum, death camps such as Auschwitz-Birkenau, Dachau and Buchenwald attract
thousands of visitors each year

Outdoor activities

Outdoor activities dedicated to the promotion of physical activities, wellness and a deeper meaning
and understanding of nature through experience-based outdoor, adventure and environmental
education. Generally non-mechanized, outdoor recreation activities done in areas remote from the
amenities of telephone, emergency help and urban comforts.

There are also often means activities done in nature away from civilization such as hiking, hunting,
backpacking and canoeing. Outdoor activities, as well as meant for a broader group activities such
as water sports and snow sports

This mission fostered through:
• Environmental awareness and minimum impact travel
• Service learning and conservation efforts
• Skill development and personal challenge
• Positive group dynamic
• Having a great time

Outdoor pursuit requires people to:
• Learn through experience
• Gaining direct awareness of their limitations in various areas of activities
• Seeking to overcome them in the context of group interaction

Types of Outdoor Activities

Mountain Forest Beach & sea Fresh Aero
Desert Family Cultural
activities activities activities water activities
activities activities &
activities historical
activities
Trekking Wildlife Snorkeling Angling Gliding Camel Theme Museum
safari safari park
Rock climbing Camping Scuba diving Canoeing Ballooning Desert
jeep safari
Mountain Bird Parasailing White Sand
cycling watching water surfing
rafting
Motorbike Elephant Deep sea
expedition safari fishing
Skiing Tree Windsurfing
climbing
Snowboarding Water sports
Ice climbing
Canyoning

Adventure tourism



Definition:

“Any adventure trip close to nature that is undertaken by someone who depart from known
surroundings to encounter unfamiliar places and people, with the purpose of exploration, study,
business, communication, recreation, sport or sightseeing and tourism”
(Addison, 1999)

Generally an outdoor activity of sport, which involves elements of daring and risks. Physical fitness
is generally a pre-condition to participate in adventure sport activities. The core characteristics of
adventure tourism are:
• Uncertain outcomes
• Danger and risks
• Challenge
• Absorption and focus
• Contrasting emotion
• Escapism and separation
• Exploration and discovery

Can be divided into three (3) sub-categories

Aerial Adventure

Example:
• Parachuting
• Skydiving
• Hand-gliding
• Parasailing
• Bungee jumping

Water Adventure Sport



Almost all is white water oriented. White water ~ a fast flowing water which due to some
obstructions in its path is turbulent at those places which give it a white water appearances due to
surf produced.
• White water rafting
• White water kayaking
Flat water is mainly sea based or a very large lake:
• Water skiing
• Wind surfing
• Surfing

Land-based Sports

Most of the popular land-based sports are mountain oriented. Example:
• Trekking
• Skiing
• Mountaineering
• Rock climbing

Cultural tourism

Definition:

“The practice of travelling to experience historic and cultural attractions to learn about a
community’s heritage in an enjoyable and educational way”
(Heritage Tourism Program)
“The movement of persons to cultural attractions away from their normal place of residence, with
the intention to gather new information and experiences to satisfy needs”

“The subset of tourism concerned with a country or region's culture, specifically the lifestyle of the
people in those geographical areas, the history of those peoples, their art, architecture, religion(s),
and other elements that helped shape their way of life”

Cultural tourism includes tourism in urban areas, particularly historic or large cities and their
cultural facilities such as museums and theatres. Can also include tourism in rural areas showcasing
the traditions of indigenous cultural communities (i.e. festivals, rituals), and their values and
lifestyle.

Indigenous communities can be defined as ethnic groups that are defined as indigenous according to
one of the various definitions of the term, there is no universally accepted definition but most of
which carry connotations of being the "original inhabitants" of a territory. Other cultural tourism
appeals are:
• Music and dance
• Foods and drinks
• Government
• Fine arts
• Architectural etc.

Trends in influencing the market place for cultural tourism:
• Rising education level
• Aging population



• Increasing economic role of women
• Emerging trends to maximize the power of cultural tourism
• Dramatic increase in short, get-away trips where by people are trying to pack more activities
into more frequent trips of shorter duration
• People are searching for meaning where by many will find it in nature, heritage and culture
• The success of theme parks has created high expectations for cultural tourism
• Sustainability of communities and the natural environment
• The increasing impact of Internet (*virtual tourism)

Virtual tourism – “a process of online browse and provision of travel information”. As a means to
give tourists access to remote, inaccessible, fragile or closed cultural and natural heritage sites.
Virtual reality – improve the presentation and interpretation of cultural sites and to extend the
carrying capacity of heavily visited sites. Virtual reality technology could be used to give virtual
access to endangered heritage sites and regulate visitation to an acceptable level, and still satisfy
tourists and tourism needs.

Five (5) distinct types of cultural tourism by McKercher and Du Cros (2002):
• The purposeful cultural tourists (high centrality/deep experience)
• The sightseeing cultural tourists (high centrality/shallow experience)
• The casual cultural tourists (modest centrality/shallow experience)
• The incidental cultural tourists (low centrality/shallow experience)
• The serendipitous cultural tourists (low centrality/deep experience)

Archaeological tourism

Archaeological tourism is an alternative form of cultural tourism, which aims to promote the
passion for historical-archaeology and the conservation of historical sites. Promoted to encourage
the development of cultural associations, and companies and cooperatives can be found that
dedicate themselves to offer this type of service.

Include all types of products associated with public archaeological promotion; example:
• Visit to archaeological sites
• Reenactment of historical occurrence
• Archaeological tourism is ideal for which:
• They look for a higher knowledge and sublimate
• Tie to the meditation and the relaxation
• Integration with the Mother Nature

The objectives of archaeological tourism are:
• To offer a wonderful and unforgettable experiences
• An intensive course and of introduction to each of these manifestations of the human
knowledge

Archaeological sites, particularly those with spectacular ruins or monumental art, have drawn
tourists for centuries, as they drew explorers and adventures in even earlier times. Several countries
have for years had programs resembling the main points of archaeological tourism for economic
income, including Egypt, Mexico and Peru. Archaeological preservation can be enhance by better


public understanding of archaeological interpretation and the nature of archaeological resources,
including in many cases, their fragility.

Public participation activities that tourists can take advantage of range from:
• Visits to sites with good quality interpretation;
• To visit the excavations in progress; and
• The opportunities to participate in excavations

Educational tourism

Definition

“Reserved for language studies abroad or generally for any kind of trips associated with systematic
learning”

“Tourists activities undertaken by those who are undertaking an overnight vacation and those who
are undertaking an excursion for whom education and learning is a primary secondary part of their
trip”

Educational tourism may consist of:
• General travel for education (“Edu-Tourism”)
• University/college students’ and schools tourism

Can be independently or formally organized and can be undertaken in a variety of natural or man-
made setting. Developed because of the growing popularity of teaching and learning of knowledge
and the enhancing of technology.

The main focus:
• Visiting another culture (i.e. student exchange and study tours)
• To work and apply skills learned inside the classroom in a different environment (i.e.
international practicum training program)

Language Education

The teaching and learning of language. This includes:
• Improving a learner’s mastery of her or his native language
• Second language acquisition

There are three principals’ views:
• The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related elements to code
meaning (i.e. grammar)
• The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish a certain function,
such as requesting something
• The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and the maintenance of
social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in
conversational exchanges

Sport tourism

Sport tourism is a multi-billion dollar business, one of the fastest growing areas of the global travel
and tourism industry. Sport tourism can be defined as:



“All forms of active and passive involvement in sporting activity, participated in casually or in an
organized way for non-commercial or business/commercial reasons, that necessitate travel away
from home or work locality”

“Travel for the sake of either viewing or participating in a sporting event staying apart from their
usual environment”

Sport tourism is now a tool to achieve many things, make money, create thousands of new jobs and
even help change cultural perceptions. In some instances, sports have been used to advance cultural
and political interests.

Potential for growth:
• Increased media exposure
• Increasing number of sport fans want to experience live events
• Low-cost regional airlines

There are three (3) principal types of sport tourism, including:
• Active sport tourists – those who actively participate in a sporting experience as a tourist
• Event sport tourists – those who attend the event to be a spectator
• Nostalgic sport tourists – those who visit a lace to pay homage to sport (such as iconic
stadium or hall of fame)

Sports Competition

There are some major international sporting events, which have given great impetus to sport
tourism. These events generate millions of tourist worldwide and the host nation benefit a great deal
from these events.
• Olympic Games (Summer)
• Olympic Games (Winter)
• World Cup (Football, Cricket, Rugby, etc)
• Asian Games
• Regional Games
• National Games

The above events are held regularly but not necessarily in the same country each time

Major advantages:
• Augmentation of infrastructure of the host country in the form of accommodation,
transportation, wayside facilities, built especially for the event in hope it will trigger off new
tourist demand
• Providing host city and country with a unique opportunity to sell/market itself, its culture
and its attractions directly to a wide international audience .i.e.
o Opening ceremony of Olympic Games in Beijing, China
o Asian Games in Delhi, India
o etc



• Boost in tourism activity during the event as also post event period. It accelerates the growth
of international tourism .i.e.
o F1 Grand Prix
o World Cup Rugby in New Zealand
o SEA Games in Indonesia
o etc
• Spread tourist demand by way of attracting additional tourists over and above those who
visit specifically for the event itself
• Brings in economic uplift to the local area and host community

Spiritual interest/pilgrimage

In religion and spirituality, a pilgrimage is long journey or search of great moral significance.
Sometimes, it is a journey to a shrine of importance to a person’s beliefs and faith.

Examples:
• Muslim pilgrimage at Makkah
• Buddha’s birthplace at Lumbini, Nepal
• Christianity at Vatican City
• Judaism at Jerusalem, Israel

However, now religion is being seen more and more as a privatized and pluralized experience
where the “spiritual” and the “religious” are separate. This is where by, emerge the personality cults
cultivated by communist leaders. i.e.
• A visit to Lenin’s Mausoleum in Red Square, Moscow
• Visits of homage to Mao Zedong, Kim Il Sung and Ho Chi Minh

Other types of special interest tourism

Nature-based tourism

Nature in tourism involves experiencing natural places, typically through outdoor activities that are
sustainable in terms of their impact on the environment. Nature-based tourism encompasses many
leading and rapidly growing tourism subsets including – soft and hard adventure activities, beach



tourism, wildlife tourism, scenic driving and sightseeing, eco-tourism and garden tourism. Nature
tourism may be crucial to the experience or may simply enhance the experience. It is also includes
the benefits of nature such as relaxation and enriching the spirit.

Aboriginal tourism

Aboriginal tourism is defined as:
• Aboriginal tourism experiences that are Aboriginal-owned
• Aboriginal tourism businesses where Aboriginal people and/or community benefit by
gaining employment and income
• Aboriginal tourism experiences that provide consenting contact with Aboriginal people,
cultural heritage or land

The following principles underpin the Aboriginal Tourism Development Plan:
• Aboriginal involvement in tourism is not restricted to cultural tourism.
• For Aboriginal tourism to be effective and meaningful, it must involve and benefit the
Aboriginal community.
• To ensure successful outcomes, Aboriginal tourism enterprises will be based on sound
business planning and identified customer needs.
• Aboriginal tourism operations are part of the mainstream tourism industry network.

Urban tourism

Takes place in large cities where tourism not a primary activity of the urban area and serve both
holidays and businesses travelers. Location - relate to the transportation system and major attraction
features. Special problems of urban tourism planning:
• Competing demands for development of certain prime sites
• Traffic congestion in central areas
• Over-use of primary tourist attractions
Advantages:
• Generating income and employment
• Support urban facilities and services
• Justify and paying for historic preservation and infrastructure improvements
• Vital force for inner-city redevelopment and revitalization

Food and wine tourism

Wine and food is one of the five iconic experiences identified as a major draw card for tourists to
the state and includes wine tasting, vineyards, wine education, indulgence and romantic escapes,
complemented by fine food produced with fresh, local ingredients and opportunities to wine and
dine in natural settings.

Wine tourism encompasses a wide range of experiences built around tourist visitation to wineries
and wine regions. This includes wine tasting, enjoyment of wine and food, the exploration of
regional environments and the experience of a range of cultural, nature based and lifestyle activities

The main motivations for visiting a particular winery include recommendations from friends,
information obtained at visitor information centers, referrals from colleagues and friends, past
experience with wine from the specific winery visited, awareness of a winery brand, the opportunity



to purchase boutique wines that are not available in city wine outlets, proximity to the winery or
region and the physical appearance of the winery from the roadside when driving past.

Cruises tourism

A cruise is, according to the Collins English Dictionary, 2008, a trip by sea on a liner for leisure,
unusually docking at various ports during its journey. A cruise ship tourist is one who travels
around on such a ship.

The cruise industry is growing at a rapid speed and is one of the major areas of tourism growth at
the beginning of the new millennium. There are few specific features that are appealing to travelers
to cruise traveling:
• Passengers have the opportunity to visit many places in a short period of time without issues
pertaining other modes of transport;
• The ships are self-contained;
• Cruise ships have a cruise director and staff whose only function is to make sure passengers
have an pleasant time;
• High quality food is served in a stylish manner and
• Everyone begins and ends their vacation on the same day (Dowling R.K 2006:3).

UNIT 3:
SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM INTERACTIVE SYSTEM
Chapter objectives
• Explore and discuss special interest tourism interactive system: the tourism-product
supply, special interest tourism demand and image creation/media
• Identify and explore the roles and responsibilities of special interest tourism stakeholders:
government, service provider, host/local communities, as well as tourists’/visitors’
awareness

Special interest tourism interactive system



SIT, it is suggested, should be viewed as part of a system, an interdisciplinary system, which
comprises the overall environment (local to global), the tourist demand system, the tourism industry
supply system with the media being conceptualized as a major influencer on tourism in the 21st
century, (see Fig. 1).

It is the merging of all these components that make up SIT. The overall system is representative of
political, economical, ecological, technological, and socio-economical and socio-cultural concerns,
at local to global level. The tourism industry supply system is made up of tourism
places/destinations, the travel and tourism organizers/operators, travel agents, accommodation
businesses, transport, and SIT facilities and infrastructure.

The tourist demand system consists of the individual’s financial situation, possession or access to
necessary tourism activity equipment, the cognitive determinants (perception, awareness and
learning), activating determinants (emotions, needs, motives, attitudes, images), and personal
characteristics (involvement, perceived risk, values) (Dreyer, 1995). The demand side is sub-
divided into intra- and inter-personal components that recognize the internal and external
motivational determinants for demand, including the desire to gain insight, and to use the resultant
‘‘self-image’’ for peer approval.

This includes guides and tourism operators, as the very media that help shape the demand for a
product also help shape the design, presentation and representation of the product by those who
supply it. They too are part of a closed system that fuses representation of places and action with the
production and reproduction of tourism experiences.

The tourism product - supply

SIT was seen as a ‘‘prime force in the expansion of tourism’’ by Read in 1980 with the product
range having expanded from that of a boutique product to a mainstream offering. Initially SIT



organizations were perceived to have focused on rather homogeneously considered groups of
customers such as in adventure tourism, eco-tourism, sport tourism and cultural tourism for tourists
seeking the ‘‘hard or specialized’’ end of the market, being ‘‘serious leisure participants’’.

However, it is now apparent that operators have diversified their offerings to attract the large market
segment of the ‘‘soft’’ or ‘‘novice’’ end of the spectrum, and intervening stages, either based on
their own expertise within the field of special interest or their awareness of the growing latent and
salient consumer demand. A constant reciprocal exchange between supply and demand influences
the evolvement, growth and access to new leisure and tourism experiences.

Technology, time squeeze, space contraction, affluence and increased availability of leisure
equipment and travel products have impacted on leisure and travel trends and diversified activities
and destinations from the ‘‘old’’ to the ‘‘new’’. Consequently, it becomes possible to ‘‘re-package’’
in ways within which, an environment may contain the appropriate mix of new or old activities
done in a new way to be optimally arousing, with the individual believing that:
• she/he has enough ability to succeed at the task and
• Possessing a positive role in sustaining the quality of one’s life and promote personal
growth.

In short, to repeat, experiences are sold on the premise of being life enhancing.

Special tourism interest demand

According to the World Tourism Organization, tourism consumption patterns reflect the increasing
diversity of interests of the late-modern leisure society with ‘‘SIT’’ having emerged, reflecting the
new values which include ‘‘increased importance of outdoor activities, awareness of ecological
problems, educational advances, aesthetic judgment and improvement of self and society’’.

Tourism prefixed with specific descriptors, such as ecotourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism
and “SIT’’, serve to indicate qualitative difference from those of mass tourism, thereby ‘‘promoting
socially just forms of tourism’’ that meet tourists’’ needs to engage in modes of behavior that, at
best, again, enhance sense of self, and at worst, may be ‘‘justified’’ as being socially responsible .
Individuals increasingly adjust their needs and desires based on images of societal behavior that
‘‘promises’’ societal acceptance.

The tourist in the 21st century is ‘‘searching for new and exciting forms of travel in defiance of a
mass-produced product’’ yet without ‘‘actually having to involve themselves in any way’’, a
reflection of increasing commoditization and depersonalization within modern and post-modern
society. Commoditization has changed tourism experiences in the 21st century from that of the
traditional search for the totally unknown, the utmost challenging and dangerous to that of safety
and comfort, to that of “gaze’’ but also embodiment beyond individual’s onsite experience.

However, the tourist also brings with him/her images and myths associations as portrayed in the
multiplicity of media and other sources which transform and individualize the tourist experience.
Adventure tourism for instance is regarded by Cater (2000) as commoditization of ‘‘embodied
human experiences’’ that are marketed and managed to cater for a spectrum of consumers within a
framework of myth and dramatic story line

Image creation/media

Increased exposure of high-risk leisure in the media may indeed stimulate involvement in an
activity such as mountaineering, which can evolve into a leisure or tourism career. Tourism



brochures, magazines, books, film and television, all are media for the creation of images that
fashion desires, wants and needs, creating anticipation and a way for tourists to envisage themselves
in place and action.

Media pervades every intimate human space and thus can influence value creation, beliefs and
attitudes. It generates a possible cognitive and affective response—knowledge of, and familiarity
with the activity and places within which it occurs, and an emotive response to those activities.

The tourist comes to the tourism location with pre-conceived images within which they have
allocated a role to him or herself. The tourist tries to understand and relive these images by
mirroring the representations during their holidays.

Thus, tourism provides for a ritual or sacred journey to be performed at places with meanings
imbued by the tourism industry and the wider media. Representation of places are collages of
images, of experiences and metaphors, depicting a range of similes not only born of authenticity but
enriched by ‘‘irrelevant’’ stimuli through entertainment and spectacle, with the spectacle becoming
more spectacular, thrills more thrilling and the magic of nature more magical.

Tourism places no longer only present continuity in time and space with historical and biographical
meaning but are instilled with physical and emotional sensations of a consumption-oriented society
Images are interpreted and re-interpreted and generate perceived authenticity of place and action.

Special interest tourism stakeholders

Many different interests may effect whether in a positive or negative way from special interest
tourism development:
1. Governments plays a leading role in encouraging the private sector, tourists and other
stakeholders in building a proper special interest tourism development
2. Tourism enterprises, while seeking long term profitability, should be concerned about their
corporate image, the relationship with their staff, and their impact on the global environment
and that immediately around them.
3. Local communities are seeking increased prosperity but without exploitation or damage to
their quality of life.
4. Environmentalists are concerned about the harmful impacts of tourism but also see it as a
valuable source of income for conservation.
5. Tourists are seeking a high quality experience in safe and attractive environments; they are
becoming more aware of the impacts of their traveling.
Government plays a leading role

This can best be achieved by establishing and implementing a set of policies for tourism
development and management, drawn up in concert with others that place sustainability at its
centre. Governments have a crucial role to play in the development and management of special
interest tourism. The level of government engagement in tourism varies considerably across the
world.

Contacts with governments on sustainability nevertheless reveal that most are, at least nominally,
seeking to pursue special interest tourism. This applies equally to developed and developing
countries, though the emphasis may be different. Whatever the motivation of governments, their
role relates only partly to their own actions.

Tourism is primarily an activity carried out by private sector enterprises, and it is their actions,
together with those of tourists, that are responsible for most impacts, positive and negative. A



primary function of government in fostering more special interest tourism is therefore to create an
environment that enables or influences the private sector to operate more sustainably, and
influences patterns of visitor flows and behavior so as to maximize the benefits and minimize the
negative impacts of tourism.

The key reasons for the importance of the role of government are as follows:
• Much of the sustainability agenda is about areas of public rather than private concern.
• Although the private sector is beginning to recognize its responsibility, it cannot, on its own,
be expected to take a lead on these issues.

In all countries, the special interest tourism sector is fragmented into many thousands of businesses,
mainly micro or small enterprises. Collectively their actions can make a difference, while
individually they cannot, so coordination is needed. Furthermore, very small businesses often need
external support and advice if they are to change their operations successfully to meet a new agenda
Governments are responsible for many functions that are fundamentally important to the sustainable
development of tourism, such as land use planning, labor and environmental regulations, and the
provision of infrastructure and social and environmental services.

Many governments are already actively engaged in supporting tourism through marketing,
information services, education and in other ways, often through joint public-private frameworks.
These arguments and functions are applicable at both national and local government levels.

In many countries, many of the objectives and actions that governments are pursuing can be said to
be in line with sustainability, and there is considerable recent interest in relating special interest
tourism policies to wider sustainable development or poverty reduction strategies.

However, as has already been pointed out, the understanding of what the sustainable development
of tourism entails, and even the terminology, is not consistent between governments. A more
systematic approach to link sustainability aims and principles to policies and tools are needed.

Services provider

Tour operators are businesses that combine two or more travel services (e.g. transport,
accommodation, catering, entertainment, and sightseeing) and sell them through travel agencies or
directly to final consumers as a single product.

A tour operator is thus a crucial link in the distribution chain, representing the central connection
between customers and providers of tourism services, and thus has the power to influence both the
demand and the supply side. The product that a tour operator sells to customers is the 'package tour',
i.e. the packaged combination of transport, accommodation and services.

Due to bulk-buying the tour operator is able to offer this package at a cheaper price than the
customer would have been able to achieve dealing directly with individual suppliers. This package
is distributed to the customer either directly (e.g. via direct sell, internet) or via a ‘middleman’ (the
travel agent) who arranges the sale of the package for commission, usually 10% of the retail price.

The role of the tour operator in the distribution chain:



Tourism Distribution Channels

The tourism channel of distribution is an operating structure, system or linkage of various
combinations of organizations through which a producer of travel products describes, sells, or
confirms travel arrangement to the buyer.

SUPPLIERS:
Transportation providers, accommodations, food services, resorts,
recreation, entertainment, Etc.
Host Specialty
Tour
Direct Retail Specialty Specialty Channeler
Whole-
Via Travel Channeler Channeler
Retail Tour saler
Internet Agent Specialty Tour
Travel Whole-
Telephone Channeler Whole-
Agent saler
Suppliers Home-based saler
Retail Retail Tour
Office Travel Retail
Travel Travel Whole-
Agent Travel
Agent Agent saler
Agent

CUSTOMERS:
Individuals, pleasure groups, business groups, Etc

Travel Agents

What is a Travel Agency?
Travel agency – (a middleman) a business or person selling the travel industry’s individual parts or
a combination of the parts to the consumer. In marketing term: an agent middleman, acting on
behalf of the client, making arrangements with suppliers of travel (airlines, hotels, tour operators)
and receiving a commission from the suppliers and/or a fee from the client

Other tourism distribution members:
• Internet service provider
• Consolidators
• Tour wholesaler
• Specialty channeler

Distribution members Explanation



Internet service provider Companies that provide domain space for others on computer
servers they own, companies that provide travel information that
they develop, and companies that provide a combination of the two
Consolidators A travel firm that makes available airplane tickets and sometimes
other travel products at discount prices. These are usually sold to
retail travel agencies but also sometimes sold directly to the public.
Tour wholesaler A company that plans markets and (usually) operates tours.
Marketing is always through intermediaries such as retail travel
agents, an association, a club or a tour organizer – never directly to
the public as is sometimes done by tour operators.
Specialty channeler Include such organizations as incentive travel firms, business
meeting and convention planners, corporate travel offices,
association executives, hotel representatives, travel consultants and
supplier sales offices. They have considerable power to influence
when, where and how people travel

Host/local communities

Community-based tourism ventures should be used to distinguish those initiatives which are
environmentally sensitive, but which also aim to ensure that members of local communities have a
high degree of control over the activities taking place, and a significant proportion of the benefits
accrue to them (Liu, 1994; Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996).

This is in contrast to tourism ventures which are controlled wholly by outside operators, and it is
also distinct from contexts in which most of the economic benefits of tourism accrue to the
government (Akama, 1996). A community-based approach to ecotourism recognizes the need to
promote both the quality of life of people and the conservation of resources.

It is now recognized in parts of Africa, for example, that local people should be compensated for the
loss of access to resources they suffer when wildlife parks are created. While tourism rhetoric
suggests that there is much support for community-based tourism ventures, it is difficult to find
successful cases of this in practice.

A useful way to discern responsible community-based tourism is to approach it from a development
perspective, which considers social, environmental and economic goals, and questions how
ecotourism can “. . . Meet the needs of the host population in terms of improved living standards
both in the short and long term” (Cater, 1993). Community-based approaches to tourism therefore
need to acknowledge the importance of social dimensions of the tourism experience, rather than
primarily focusing on environmental or economic impacts.

Frameworks for determining the Impacts of Special Interest Tourism Initiatives on Local
Communities

Signs of empowerment Signs of disempowerment
Economic empowerment Ecotourism brings lasting economicEcotourism merely results in small,
gains to a local community. Cashspasmodic cash gains for a local
earned is shared between manycommunity. Most profits go to local
households in the community. Thereelites, outside operators, government
are visible signs of improvementsagencies, etc. Only a few individuals
from the cash that is earned (e.g.or families gain direct financial
improved water systems, housesbenefits from ecotourism, while
made of more permanent materials). others cannot find a way to share in


these economic benefits because they
lack capital and/or appropriate skills.

Psychological Self-esteem of many communityMany people have not shared in the
empowerment members is enhanced because ofbenefits of tourism, yet they may face
outside recognition of thehardships because of reduced access
uniqueness and value of theirto the resources of a protected area.
culture, their natural resources andThey are thus confused, frustrated,
their traditional knowledge.disinterested or disillusioned with the
Increasing confidence of communityinitiative.
members leads them to seek out
further education and training
opportunities. Access to
employment and cash leads to an
increase in status for traditionally
low-status sectors of society e.g.
women, youths.

Social empowerment Tourism maintains or enhances theDisharmony and social decay. Many
local community’s equilibrium.in the community take on outside
Community cohesion is improved asvalues and lose respect for traditional
individuals and families workculture and for elders. Disadvantaged
together to build a successfulgroups (e.g. women) bear the brunt of
ecotourism venture. Some fundsproblems associated with the tourism
raised are used for communityinitiative and fail to share equitably
development purposes, e.g. to buildin its benefits. Rather than
schools or improve roads. cooperating, individuals, families,
ethnic or socio-economic groups
compete with each other for the
perceived benefits of ecotourism.
Resentment and jealousy are
commonplace.
Political empowerment The community’s political structure,The community has an autocratic
which fairly represents the needsand/or self-interested leadership.
and interests of all communityAgencies initiating or implementing
groups, provides a forum throughthe tourism venture treat
which people can raise questionscommunities as passive beneficiaries,
relating to the ecotourism venturefailing to involve them in decision-
and have their concerns dealt with.making. Thus the majority of
Agencies initiating or implementingcommunity members feel they have
the ecotourism venture seek out thelittle or no say over whether the
opinions of community groupsecotourism initiative operates or the
(including special interest groups ofway in which it operates.
women, youths and other socially
disadvantaged groups) and provide
opportunities for them to be
represented on decision-making
bodies e.g. the Wildlife Park Board.



Environmental activities

WTTC concern:
• Political instability or increased competition for land could lead to loss of potential tourism
destinations and degradation of existing destinations
• Loss of landscape and wildlife could cause a decrease in customer satisfaction hence lower
propensity to travel
• Higher fuel prices could lead to operational price increases and corresponding decreases in
the number of travelers in this price-sensitive market

WTTC subsequently proceeds to examine the key environmental issues under five headings:
• Global warming
• Depletion of the ozone layer
• Acid rain
• Depletion and pollution of land resources
• Depletion and pollution of water resources

WTTC presents a positive vision of tourism and environment:
• Travel and tourism is an integral aspect of modern societies
• Global awareness of environmental damage is developing rapidly
• The resources of the world’s largest industry can and must be harnessed to achieve
environmental goals
• The industry has the potential to influence billions of customers per year and to use its
leverage to achieve beneficial environmental effects
• The customer challenge will exert a growing pressure to achieve environmental
improvements
• Environmental lobbies will add pressure to develop good environmental practice
• Self-regulation must be developed rapidly and effectively and used to influence the
development of appropriate and workable regulations
• Corporate environmental mission statements are a vital first step toward self-regulation
• Environmental leadership must come from the major international companies

Sustainable Development

Definition:
“The ability of a destination to maintain the quality of its physical, social, cultural and
environmental resources while it competes in the marketplace”

In discussing the responsibility for sustainable development in the field of special interest tourism -
the four main areas needs to be addressed:
• The premises on which sustainable development policy in tourism should be based
• The most critical areas of sustainable development as applied to special interest tourism
• How responsibility for sustainable development in tourism should be allocated
• An agenda of suggested sustainable development actions for the tourism sector

Agenda to support a sustainable development program:
• Maximum total visitation levels to a community/region
• An obligatory tax to support tourism infrastructure planning, development and maintenance
• Community-supported legislation to protect and preserve unique resources and heritage sites



• Community and industry consensus concerning architectural and signage standards
• Support for standards and certification programs that encourage staff development and the
delivery of high-quality service

Ecotourism

Definition:
“Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of
local people”

Should adhere to the following principles:
• Minimize impact
• Built environmental and cultural awareness and respect
• Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts
• Provide direct financial benefits for conservation
• Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people
• Raise sensitivity to host countries’ political, environmental and social climate
• Support international human rights and labor agreements

Benefits and importance of ecotourism:
• Provides job and income for local people
• Makes possible funds for purchasing and improving protected or natural areas to attract
more eco-tourists in the future
• Provides environmental education for visitors
• Encourage heritage and environmental preservation and enhancement

Dangers and limitations of ecotourism:
• Tourism may consume and over consume the resources that used by local people
• The local population and the tourists may competing for scarce natural resources
• Scientific knowledge of visitor impacts on remote areas
• Tourism is multifaceted industry and almost impossible to control

Tourists/visitors awareness

Influencing travel choices and visitor flows

Influencing travel choices and visitor flows means influencing the nature of trips taken. Key factors
relevant to sustainability include:
• When trips are taken: as already mentioned, travel out of season may often be more
sustainable.
• Places visited: strategic decisions should be taken about the level of visitation to be
encouraged in different areas. For example, visits to protected areas may be encouraged
because of the revenue they bring to conservation or, alternatively, they may need to be
discouraged because of the ecological sensitivity of the area.
• Transport used: the significantly greater environmental impact of travel by private car or air
compared with other forms of transport has already been mentioned.
• Operators and enterprises selected: encouraging visitors to select operators that follow
sustainability principles will make consumption more sustainable.



• Group size: in many places, larger volumes of people arriving at the same time can be more
disruptive to environments and communities.
• Length of stay: in general, longer trips may bring more benefits to host communities and be
more sustainable than short trips.

Influencing visitor behavior and awareness

Visitors should be encouraged to:
• Respect host communities and avoid all forms of disruptive behavior.
• Find out about the natural and historic heritage and culture of the area.
• Purchase local products.
• Reduce personal environmental impact—e.g. using water and energy sparingly, recycling
waste and not leaving litter.
• Follow good practice with respect to outdoor activities, including wildlife watching.
• Support conservation and social projects, financially or in other ways.

Code of Ethics for Tourists

 Enjoy our diverse natural and cultural heritage and help us to preserve it
 Assists us in conservation efforts through the efficient use of resources, including energy
and water
 Experience the friendliness of our people and the welcoming spirit of our communities. Help
us to preserve this attributes by respecting our traditions, customs and local regulations
 Avoid activities that threaten wildlife or plant populations or that may be potentially
damaging to our natural environment
 Select tourism products and services that demonstrate social, cultural and environmental
sensitivity

UNIT 4:



PARTICIPATION IN SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM
Chapter objectives
• Examine and explore the factors that affect participation in special interest tourism:
demographic and market segmentation, socio-economics factors, social change and trends,
consumer behavior, increased disposable income and political stability
• Discuss on destination marketing, as well as the destination mix: attractions, facilities,
infrastructures, transportations and hospitality resources

Market segmentation

Market segmentation is a concept in economics and marketing. The strategy of market segmentation
recognizes that few vacation destination areas are universally acceptable and desired.

Therefore, rather than dissipate promotion resources by trying to please all travelers, specialist
providers should aim the promotional efforts specifically to the wants and needs of likely prospects.
An effective market strategy will determine exactly what the target markets will be and attempt to
reach only those markets.

Marketing researchers typically have two (2) objectives in this regard:
• To determine what segments or subgroups exist in the overall population
• To create a clear and complete picture of the characteristics of a typical member of each of
these segments

The target market is that segment of a total potential market to which the tourism attraction would
be most salable. A market segment is a sub-set of a market made up of people or organizations
sharing one or more characteristics that cause them to demand similar product and/or services based
on qualities of those products such as price or function.

A true market segment meets all the following criteria:
• It is distinct from other segments (different segments have different needs)
• It is homogenous within the segment (exhibit common needs)
• It respond similarly to a market stimulus
• It can be reached by a market intervention

Market segmentation can be defined as “the process of dividing a market into distinct groups of
buyers who might require separate products and/or marketing mixes”

Market segmentation analysis is typically based on the four factors of:

Factors Explanation
Socio-economic or Demographic Categorizes tourists based on their socio-economic characteristics
such as age, education, and income levels
Product-led segmentation Which relates to the types of tourists to the particular tourism
products such as attractions and facilities that the area has to offer
or can potentially offer
Psychographic Which involves grouping tourists by their attitudes, interest,
lifestyles and travel motivation
Geographic Which groups tourists by location of origin as related to the time-
distance and cost of traveling to the tourist destination, and also



considers the environmental and cultural contrast and similarities
between the origin and destination

Requirements for effective segmentation

1. Measurability - The degree to which the segment’s size and purchasing power can be
measured
2. Accessibility - Segments can be accessed and served
3. Substantiality - Segments are large or profitable enough to serve as markets
4. Actionability - Effective programs can be designed for attracting and serving segments
5. Differential - Segment must respond differently to different marketing mix elements and
programs

Market segmentation determinants in special interest tourism

Demographics

Demographics are the characteristics of a human population as used in the government, marketing
or opinion research. Commonly used data are sex, race, age, income, disabilities, mobility (in terms
of travel time to work or number of vehicles available), educational attainment, home ownership,
employment status and even location.

A demographic trend describes in a population over time i.e. the average age of a population may
increase or decrease over time. Certain restrictions may be set in place i.e. the one child policy in
China. Marketers typically combine several variables to define a demographic profile.

A demographic profile provides enough information about the typical member of this group to
create a mental picture of this hypothetical aggregate.

Socio-economic Factors

Socio-economics - The study of the relationship between economic activity and social life. In many
cases, socio-economic focus on the social impact of some sort of economic change. Such changes
might include: Closing factory, market manipulation, the signing of international trade treaties, new
natural gas regulation, etc

Examples of socio-economic impacts:
• New technologies such as cars or mobile phone
• Changes in laws



• Changes in the physical environment
• Ecological changes

These may affect patterns of consumption, the distribution of incomes and wealth, the way in which
people behave and the overall quality of life

Social Change and Trends

Sociology – is the study of society (to develop and refine a body of knowledge and theory about
human social activity, often with the goal of applying such knowledge to the pursuit of social
welfare).

Social change can be defined as alterations in basic structure of a social group or society. An ever
present phenomenon in social life, but has become especially intense in the modern era. Social
changes came about when individuals or groups choose to go against social norms. The concept of
social change implies measurement of some of the characteristics of a group of individuals.

Social change is a topic of sociology and social work, but also involves political science,
economics, history, anthropology, and many other social sciences.

Some of the social changes that may occur:

 A change in social structure: the nature, the social institutions, the social behavior or the
social relations of a society, community of people and so on
 When behavior patterns change in large numbers, and this change is visible and sustained:
once there is deviance from culturally-inherited values, rebellion against the established
system may result, resulting in a change in the social order
 Any event or action that affects a group of individuals who have shared values or
characteristics
 Acts of advocacy for the cause of changing society in a way subjectively perceived as
normatively desirable

Consumer Behavior

Consumer behavior is the when, why, how and where people do or do not buy products (blends
elements of psychology, sociology, social anthropology and economics). It main roles:
• Attempts to understand the buyer decision making process, both individually and in groups
• Tries to assess influences on the consumer from groups such as family, friends, reference
groups and society in general

Customer behavior study based on consumer buying behavior, with the customer playing the three
(3) distinct roles of (1) user, (2) payer and (3) buyer. Relationship marketing is an influential asset
for customer behavior analysis as it has a keen interest in the re-discovery of the true meaning of
marketing through the re-affirmation of the importance of the customer or buyer.

Belch and Belch define consumer behavior as “the process and activities people engage in when
searching for, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating and disposing of products and services so as
to satisfy their needs and desires.



Below is the Black Box Model of consumer buying behavior.

Marketing Other Buyer’s
Buyer’s black box
Stimuli Stimuli Responses

Product choice
Product Economic
Brand choice
Price Technological
Dealer choice
Place Political Buyer
Buyer
Decision
Characteristics Purchase timing
Promotion Cultural Process
Purchase amount

Below is the buyer decision process:

Need Information Evaluation of Purchase Post-purchase
Recognition Search Alternatives Decision Behavior

1. Problem recognition
The buying process starts when the buyer recognizes a problem or need
2. Information search
An aroused consumer may or may not search for more information. How much searching a
consumer does will depend on the strength of the drive, the amount of initial information,
the ease of obtaining more information, the value placed on additional information and the
satisfaction one gets from searching
3. Evaluations of alternatives
Unfortunately, there is no simple and single evaluation process used by all consumers or
even by one consumer in all buying situations. There are several evaluation processes:

Attitude of
Others
Purchase
Evaluation of Purchase
Decision
Alternatives Intention
Unexpected
Situational
Factors
4. Purchase decision
In the evaluation stage, the consumer ranks brands in the choice set and forms purchase
intentions. Generally, the consumer will buy the most preferred brand
5. Post-purchase behavior
The marketer’s job does not end when the customer buys a product. Following a purchase,
the consumer will be satisfied and dissatisfied and will engage in post-purchase actions of
significant interest to the marketer.

Below are the personal characteristics that will affect consumer behavior:


Cultural
Social
Personal
Psychological
Age and life-
cycle stage
Culture
Reference Motivation
Groups Occupation
Perception
Economic
Subculture Circumstances Buyer
Family Learning
Lifestyle Beliefs and
Roles and attitudes
Social class Personality and
Status
Self-concept

Cultural factors

• Culture - The most basic determinant of a person’s wants and behavior. It compromises the
basic values, perceptions, wants and behaviors that a person learns continuously in a society.
• Subculture - Each culture contains smaller subcultures, groups of people with shared value
systems based on common experience.
• Social classes - These are relatively permanent and ordered divisions in a society whose
members share similar values, interests and behaviors.

Social factors

 Reference groups - These groups serve as direct (face to face) or direct point of comparison
or reference in the forming of a person’s attitude and behavior.
 Family - Family members have a strong influence on buyer behavior. The family remains
the most important consumer-buying organization in any society.
 Role and status - A role consists of the activities that a person is expected to perform
according to the persons around him or her. Each role carries a status reflecting the general
esteem given to it by society. People often choose products that show their status in society.

Personal factors

 Age and life-cycle stage - The types of goods and services people buy change during their
lifetimes. As people grow older and mature, the products they desire change. The makeup of
the family also affects purchasing behavior.
 Occupation - A person’s occupation affects the goods and services bought.
 Economic situation - A person’s economic situation greatly affects product choice and the
decision to purchase a particular product
 Environment - Many marketers use a concept related to personality: a person’s self-concept
(also called self-image). Each of us has a complex mental self-picture, and our behavior
tends to be consistent with that self-image.



 Lifestyle - Lifestyle profile a person’s whole pattern of acting and interacting in the world.
When used carefully, the lifestyle concept can help the marketer understand changing
consumer values and how they affect buying behavior.
 Personality and self-concept - Each person’s personality influences his or her buying
behavior. By personality we mean distinguishing psychological characteristics that disclose
a person’s relatively individualized, consistent and enduring responses.

Psychological factors

 Motivation - A need becomes a motive when it is aroused to a sufficient level of intensity.
Creating a tension state causes a person to act to release the tension.
 Perception - Perception is the process by which a person selects, organizes and interprets
information to create a meaningful picture of the world.
 Learning - Learning describes changes in a person’s behavior arising from experience.
 Beliefs and attitude - A belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds about something.
An attitude describes a person’s relatively consistent evaluation, feelings and tendencies
toward an object or an idea.

Increased Disposable Income

Disposable income – total personal income minus personal current taxes. In national accounts
definition, personal income, minus personal taxes equals disposable personal income – subtracting
personal outlays (which includes the major category or personal/private consumption expenditure)
yields personal/private saving.

The marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is the fraction of a change in disposable income that is
consumed. Discretionary income is income after subtracting taxes and normal expenses (such as
rent or mortgage, utilities, insurance, medical, transportation, property maintenance and etc) to
maintain a certain standard of living . Commonly, disposable income is the amount of ‘play money’
left to spend or save.

Political Stability

A political system is a system of politics and government – usually compared to the legal system,
economic system, cultural system and other social systems.

There are several definitions of ‘political system’:
• A complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as political parties, trade unions, lobby
groups), the relationships between those institutions and the political norms and rules that
govern their functions (constitution, election law)
• Composed of the members of a social organization (group) who are in power
• A system that necessarily has two properties: (1) a set of interdependent components and (2)
boundaries toward the environment with which it interacts
• A concept in which theoretically regarded as a way of the government makes a policy and
also to make them more organized in their administration
• One that ensures the maintaining of order and sanity in the society and at the same time
makes it possible for some other institutions to also have their grievances and complaints put
across in the course of social existence



Destination marketing

Classification of visitor destination segments

The most commonly used classifications are based on whether the tourist travels with a group or
independently.

The common terms are:
• Group inclusive tour (GIT)
• Independent traveler (IT)

National tourism offices, international airlines, and others involved in international travel frequently
used these designations. Here are some of the classification describing tourists by their degree of
institutionalization and their impact on the destinations:
• Organized mass tourists
• Individual mass tourists
• Explorers
• Drifters

Mass tourism can be defined as the act of visiting a destination with large amounts of people at one
time, and the study of the effect that large amounts of people can have on a particular destination, or
on a particular destination which has been over-exposed by single tourists having been there
repeatedly.

Designations Explanation
Organized mass tourists This corresponds to the GIT. These people have little or no
influence over their travel experience other than to purchase one
package or another. They commonly travel in a group, view the
destination through the windows of a bus, and remained in pre-
selected hotels. Shopping in the local market often provides their
only contact with the native population
Individual mass tourists These people are similar to the previous category but have
somewhat more control over their itinerary. For instance, they may
rent an auto to visit attractions
Explorers These people fall in the IT classification. They plan their own
itineraries and make their own reservations, although they may use
a travel agent. They tend to be very sociable people who enjoy
interacting with people at the destination
Drifters These people, the backpacker group, will seldom, if ever be found
in a traditional hotel. They may stay at youth hostels with friends
or camp out. They tend to mix with lower socio-economic native
groups and are commonly found riding third-class rail or bus. Most
tend to be young.

The destination mix

For a location to develop as a tourist destination a number of interrelated components must be
present, or brought into existence. The importance of destination mix components is in attracting
tourists to visit a destination, or deciding to spend their vacation elsewhere if the destination mix is
perceived to be inadequate relative to tourist needs and wants.



The destination mix consists of 5 elements:
• Facilities
• Attractions (including events)
• Infrastructure
• Transportation
• Hospitality resources

1. Facilities - Those support the growth of tourism and exist in such aspects as accommodation,
food and beverage service and so on that meet the basic needs of tourists visiting the
destination.

2. Attractions - which as we have noted earlier underpin the industry and represent the main
reason for tourists visiting the area to experience its natural, built or cultural environments.

3. Infrastructure - This includes such aspects as roads, airports, water supplies, electricity and
other public works, communication, and health care services. Depending upon the nature of the
experience that they are seeking, for some tourists the availability of infrastructure may be a
strong determinant of the decision to visit a location. As we will see in the following module,
those tourists described as ‘psychocentric’ will generally be expecting ‘all the comforts of
home’ while so-called ‘allocentric’ tourists may be prepared to accept whatever the location has
to offer since for them the touristic experience also requires a degree of authenticity which may
not be attainable if the location has little more than ‘home comforts’ to offer.

4. Transportation - is closely related to infrastructure and is of paramount importance in the
development of tourism. Clearly, if tourists are unable to access the location it will have little
opportunity to attract tourists unless its attractions are so outstanding that tourists are prepared
to suffer the inconvenience of a ‘rugged journey’ which for some may itself be an important
aspect of the experience that they are seeking.

5. Hospitality - This refers to the way in which services are provided and delivered to tourists
visiting the area.

What is more important is for us to recognize that all elements must exist in some form for the
destination to develop and, in order to meet the expectations of tourists, these components must be
able to work successfully together, again in ways that meet tourist expectations.

Should one of the destination mix components be absent, undeveloped, or functioning in ways that
do not complement other elements, the future of the destination may be jeopardized. In the case of
some countries it may be that while the basic attractions are spectacular, their potential remains
undeveloped because transport access is limited, infrastructure is undeveloped, or the service
required by tourists are not available.

Of course, it is also apparent that for some destinations the lack of access and so on may offer a
degree of protection from the impacts of mass tourism, and it is only inaccessibility that prevents
more than the hardiest of tourists visiting. It should also be acknowledged that some elements of the
destination mix may in fact be attractions in their own right.

For example, it could well be that what attracts tourists to visit a particular destination is the
reputation of a particular hotel or restaurant—consider, for example, the perception of Raffles Hotel
in Singapore. In other instances, the form of transport may be the attraction as tourists make their



reservations on The Orient Express, or take a rail trip through the Rockies, or travel central
Australia on The Ghan.

Classifying attractions

In order to understand the linkages between attractions and tourism development, Mill and
Morrison (1998) have developed a very useful model framework for classifying attractions on the
following basis:
• Scope - which classified the attraction as either Primary or Secondary, Primary attractions,
as the term suggests, are of such significance on the tourism map that tourists will travel
considerable distances to visit them, and the visit may extend over several days or longer.
Secondary attractions, on the other hand, are relatively less important, and may be visited
only in the process of stopping over on the journey to the primary attraction.
• Ownership - that recognizes that some attractions are owned by the public (or government)
sector, others are owned and operated by private sector enterprises, and still others are
owned by not-for-profit organizations.
• Permanency - that recognizes that some tourism attractions are permanent site attractions
while others are more in the nature of transitory events.
• Drawing power - This refers essentially to the distance over which tourists are prepared to
travel to the destination and its attractions. Clearly from the earlier discussion, primary
attractions will have a drawing power that may extend internationally and nationally, while
secondary destinations and attractions may only attract tourists from local, state or regional
areas of origin.

In considering tourism development at the global scale it is apparent that there are numerous
secondary destinations and attractions the drawing power of which may be limited to, perhaps, only
the internal or domestic market.

However, some destinations are obviously endowed with primary attractions (perhaps the only one
of its kind in the world) and tourists are prepared to travel globally to experience them. In all of this,
whether a location is perceived as being either primary or secondary in terms of its attractions and
its destination mix will reflect the nature of tourists who visit and the touristic experience that they
are seeking.



UNIT 5:
APPEAL AND MOTIVATION IN SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM
Chapter objectives
• Understand and explain the general concept of sociology of tourism
• Discuss and analyze the appeal and motivation to take part in travel among different types
of tourists’ personality and travel behavior
• Explain about group influences on travel behavior

Sociology of tourism

Introduction

Sociology:
The science of society, social institutions and social relationships

Visitors to a community or area create social relationships that typically differ greatly from the
affiliations among the indigenous population. The ultimate effects of travel experiences on the
population in the areas of origin as well as in places of destination should determine to what extent
societies encourage or discourage tourism.

Effects on individual

Find an environment that is unfamiliar in terms of:
• Geographically
• Personally
• Socially
• Culturally

Faces problem which solutions must be found:
• Manage resources of money and time
• Manage social interactions and social relations
• Determining the extent of Cultural Distance

Cultural distance – refer to the extent to which the culture of the area from which the tourists
originates differs from the culture of the host region - Must superficially study the country to be
visited.

Travel experiences have a profound effect on the traveler as well as on society, because travel
experiences often are among the most outstanding memories in the traveler’s life.

Effects on the family

As a family is growing and the children are maturing, the trips taken as a family are highlights of
any year. The excitement of preparation and anticipation and the actual travel experience are



memorable occasions of family life. Travels with a measure of adventure are likely to be the most
memorable.

Family travel purposes:
• Adventure
• Educational

Study before taking the trip and expert travel counseling greatly add to a maximization of the trip’s
benefits

Effects on society

Significant influence on national understanding and appreciation of other people. The presence of
visitors in a country affects the living patterns of the indigenous peoples:
• Tourism: security and crime
• Resentments*
• Changing population and travel interests

The way visitors conduct themselves and their personal relationships with citizen of the host
country often has profound effect on the mode of life and attitudes of local people. Favorable
situations exist when visitors and residents of the host country mingle socially and become better
acquainted.

* Negative social effects on a host society
• Introduction of undesirable activities such as gambling
• The so-called demonstration effect of local people wanting the same luxuries and imported
goods as those indulged in by tourists
• Racial tension; particularly where there are very obvious racial differences between tourists
and their hosts
• Development of a servile attitude on the part of the tourist business employees
• ‘Trinketization’ of crafts and art to produce volumes of souvenirs for the tourist trade
• Standardization of employee roles such as the international waiter – same type of person in
every country
• Loss of cultural pride, if the culture is viewed by the visitor as a quaint custom or as
entertainment
• Too rapid change in local ways of life because of being overwhelmed by too many tourists
• Disproportionate numbers of workers in low-paid, menial jobs characteristic of much hotel
and restaurant employment

Motivation: why people travel?

Danger and Thrills

Due to a certain reason, also can be classified as Dark Tourism. For example, war in Palestine
Due to this situation, a lot of people go to Palestine to offer help and humanity.

Other example; tsunami in several countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, Japan and Sri Lanka.
People came from all over the world to look for their families, relatives and friends. Some offer
helps, some to get information about the disaster.



Challenge

It is a call and summons to engage in any contest, as a skill, strength, etc. or something that by its
nature or character serves as a call to battle, contest, special effort etc. Suitable for people who want
to go over their limits especially allocentric tourists. This type of tourists also known as challenger
This motivation is full of adventure, so the people need to pay attention to their safety

Skill Improvement

A tourist usually goes to a certain country to learn. In this case, often, the learners improve
themselves in terms of:
• Acquire a foreign language
• Get to know the culture of the country
• Getting the certificate in courses they are taking

Escape and Relaxation

Recreation or fun is the expenditure of time in a manner designed for therapeutic refreshment’s of
one’s body and mind. While leisure is more likely a form of entertainment or sleep, recreation is
active for the participant but in a refreshing and diverting manner. Example of practicing or
appreciating:
• Art
• Computer games
• Yoga
• Sledding
• Shopping
• Etc.

Discovery

Motivated by certain factors, one of them might be the pleasure of finding new knowledge; new
discovery, which are:
• Something new that has been learnt or found
• The fact or process of finding out about something for the first time
• The process or act of finding something or somebody unexpectedly or after searching
• A previously unknown musician, actor, performance or other person who has been identified
by somebody as having exceptional talent or unusual beauty
• The recognition of somebody’s talent or beauty, leading to that person’s fame

Status and Image

Social status – the honor or prestige attached to one’s position in society (one’s social position) -
May also refer to a rank or position that one holds in a group, for example son or daughter,
playmate, pupil, etc. Can be determined in two ways:
• Achieved status – one can earn their social status by their own achievements



• Ascribed status – placed in the stratification system by their inherited position

Novelty

The quality of being new. It is also refers to something novel; which is striking, original or unusual.
The term can have pejorative sense and refer to a mere innovation.
Novelty can refer to:
• Novelty item i.e. A small manufactured adornment, toy or collectible
• Promotional item, novelties used in promotional marketing
• Novelty (patent), part of the legal test to determine whether an invention is patentable
• Novelty as described by the theory of emergence, regarding how new complexity arises
from more simple interactions
• Novelty dance, a type of dance that is popular for being unusual or humorous
• Novelty song, a musical item that capitalizes on something new, unusual or a current fad
• Novelty show, a competition or display in which exhibits or specimens are in way some
novel
• Novelty architecture, a building or other structure that is interesting because it has an
amusing design

Personality and travel behavior

A typology of personalities was developed by sociologist David Riesman – a case of categorizing
personalities on the basis of social character:

1. Tradition-directed
• A rigid set rules, usually backed by powerful religious and beliefs, prescribed what
should be done under what circumstances and why
• In this societies, people wear, eat and drink that which tradition says they should and
little else, for even minor deviations are punished
2. Inner-directed
• Each person has to decide for himself, in view of his own enlightened self-interest, the
proper course to take in a world that has becoming increasingly complex
• Consumption of products and services is determined by the contribution this
consumption makes to the long-term benefit of the individual
3. Other-directed
• The person who directs his behavior toward securing the esteem and approval of his
immediate peers
• Consumption is determined by the contribution consumption makes to status and
popularity

While, the DISC behavior system categorizes behaviors through four styles; Dominance,
Influencing, Steadiness, and Compliance.

• Dominance: People who tend to have this characteristic in their travel personality tend to be
in a hurry, will take the risky shortcuts, and may be competitive if it’s a whole caravan of
drivers participating.
• Influencing: When you travel with this type be prepared for chatter. While others are
sleeping this is the guy telling jokes and stories. They are trusting and are optimistic about
the trip.



• Steadiness: These are the ones who come prepared and seek to help out all the travelers
journeying with them. They bring snacks for the group, they enjoy the journey and don’t
need it hurried. Changes to the plan however make them nervous.
• Compliance: The last style are your driver’s who keep the rules. Speed limit says 45 even
though everyone else is doing 70? They still won’t budge. They have their trusty GPS ready
and are exacting on the route they take. It will be rare to see these types making mistakes
without noticing.
However, one of the best known and most frequently employed type-casting approaches classifies
people either as introverts or extroverts:
• Introverts – people who are normally preoccupied with themselves and their own objective
world
• Extroverts – people oriented primarily toward others and the external, objective world

For people that does not really belong in either category, could be solved by adding a third, in-
between category of people- the term ambivert has been suggested

A very similar classification system categorizes people as:
• Psychocentric – people are concerned with little problems and with themselves, and they
are generally anxious, somewhat inhibited and non-adventuresome
• Allocentric – persons are adventurous, self-confident, curious, outgoing and eager to reach
out and experiment with life
• Midcentric are person that are between the two extremes, and belong to neither of the
extremes
The travel behavior of the above differs significantly in important ways

Travel characteristics of psychographic types:

Pyschocentrics Midcentrics Allocentrics
Tourists who like things beingTourist who go to places thatTourists who try new things
planned have been popularized by
allocentric They don’t like things being
They are afraid to take risks organized or planned
They are not so adventurous,
They often travel to places theyneither are they afraid They do not return to the same
are familiar with destination

They like being adventurous

Group influences on travel behavior

A person joins groups because they satisfy certain needs. They protect, they help solve problems,
they allow him to meet and associate with certain types of people, they provide models of behavior,
they enhance his self-image and they provide him with numerous yardsticks for evaluating his own
behavior.

Example:
• Someone who joins an exclusive country club may do so because it gives him status and
allows him to meet with successful people in his community



• A business person who travels frequently joins the Airlines Passengers Association to keep
abreast of matters concerning airline safety, convenience, and fares, in addition to enjoying
such benefits as hotel and car rental discounts

A guided tour group provides at least five (5) fundamental benefits for its members. These are
physical, psychological, economic, and social in nature
• Planned tours solve the problem of what to see within a limited amount of time. The
itinerary condenses a large geographic area into a selective smorgasbord of highlights of
tourist attractions.
• The planned itinerary provides psychological security to group members, who know
beforehand where they will be going and in what hotels they will stay
• Also provides economic simplification and security. Group members know ahead of time
the cost of the entire trip
• The guided tour minimizes external social problems for group members. Tour coordinators
and tour guides act as buffers between group members and the foreign social environment
by arranging for transportation, interpreting and handling various problems that arise
• The tour minimizes potential friction between group members and sets the scene for in-
group solidarity. The group tour provides opportunities for sharing experiences and
confronting the unfamiliar in a collective way

Social stratification

Social stratification describes the way people are placed in society. It is associated with the ability
of individuals to live up to some set of ideals or principles regarded as important by the society or
some social group within it. The members of a social group interact mainly within their own group
and to a lesser degree with those of higher or lower status.

Example of social stratification:
• Wealth and income (most common) – ties between persons with the same personal income
• Gender – ties between persons of the same sex and sexuality
• Political status – ties between persons of the same political views/status
• Religion – ties between persons of the same religion
• Ethnicity/race – ties between persons of the same ethnic/racial group
• Social class – ties between persons born into the same group

Social class and travel behavior

What is social class?

All human societies can be broken down into groups on the basis of status and prestige. Every
society has functions that must be performed, and every individual assumes one role or another in
performing them.

A social class consists of a large number of individuals who are approximately equal to each other
in terms of social status. The social class to which any given individual or family belongs can
depend on several factors, but it is widely agreed that the most important factors are:
• Education
• Occupation
• Wealth and income



A social class system

Social class Membership
Locally prominent families, third or fourth generation wealth. The
Upper-upper aristocracy. Merchants, financiers, or higher professionals. Wealth is
inherited.
Newly arrived in upper class. Nouveau riche. Not accepted by upper-upper
Lower-upper
class. Executive elites, founders of large businesses, doctors and lawyers.
Moderately successful professional, owners of medium-sized businesses,
Upper-middle
and middle management. Status conscious. Child and home centered.
Top of average-man world. Non-managerial office workers, small business
Lower-middle owners, and blue-collar families. Described as striving and respectable.
Conservative.
Ordinary working class. Semi-skilled workers. Income often as high as next
Upper-lower
two classes above. Enjoy life. Live day to day.
Unskilled, unemployed, and unassimilated ethnic groups. Fatalistic.
Lower-lower
Apathetic.

Life characteristics and travel

Travel Patterns related to Age

With age (late sixties and upward) the traveler may become more passive. Family recreation
patterns are associated with life stages of the family. The presences of young children tend to
reduce the number of trips taken, whereas married couple with no children is among the best travel
prospects. As the children grow up, families will increase their travel activities. As the children
leave home, the married couple more likely has more discretionary income and are financially able
to afford more travel.

Senior Citizen Market

A major trend is the growth of the over-65 senior citizen market and the semi-senior citizen market
– that is, those over 55 years old. Dubbed as the mature market, senior market, retirement market or
elderly market. It is an important and growing market.

Income

Buying power is another factor for the tourism manager to consider. There is no question that a
large and increasing percentage of the population today has sufficient discretionary income to
finance business and pleasure travel, although some families may be limited to inexpensive trips.
The frequency of travel and the magnitude of travel expenditures increase rapidly as income
increases. The greater the income, the more likely a household will travel.

Education

Another factor is education, because it tends to broaden people’s interests and thus stimulate travel.
People with college education take more pleasure trips than do those with high school educations,
and so on. Educators are forecasting continued increased in the average educational level, which
would result in a continued positive impact on pleasure travel. Education is closely correlated with
income and occupation, so the rising level of education should help to increase the demand for
travel.



Travel and the Handicapped

This group constitutes an excellent potential market for travel if the facilities and arrangements are
suitable for their use and enjoyment. The high percentage of disabled persons creates a substantial
potential for emergency situations, and the planning and management of travel equipment and
facilities must aim for a major reduction or elimination of such possibilities.

The number of nights away from home differed considerably between those traveling with
handicapped persons and those without. Many households reported little difficulty in using
accommodations, because of careful planning before making the trip. The majority of difficulties
encountered seemed to be at recreational facilities.

The appeal of special interest tourism

Demographics and psychographics types

Demographics Psychographics
Demographics are the characteristics of a human Psychographics are any attributes relating to
population, commonly used data are sex, race, personality, values, attitudes, interests or lifestyles
age, income, disabilities, mobility (in terms of– also called IAO variables (interest, attitude,
travel time to work or number of vehiclesopinion).
available), educational attainment, home
ownership, employment status and even location. For example, historical generations are defined by
Distributions of values within demographic psychographic variables like attitudes, personality
variables, and across households, are both offormation, and cultural touchstones.
interest, as well as trends over time.
When a relatively complete profile of a person or
Frequently used in economic and marketing group’s psychographics make-up is constructed,
research. this is called as psychographic profile.

Demographics trends describe the changes inPsychographic profiles are used in market
demographics in a population over time i.e. the segmentation as well as in advertising.
average age of a population may increase or
decrease over time. Certain restrictions may beSome categories of psychographic factors used in
set in place i.e. the one child policy in China market segmentation include:
• Activity, Interest, Opinion (AIO)
A demographic profile provides enough • Attitudes
information about the typical member of this • Values
group to create a mental picture of this
hypothetical aggregate.

VAL’s lifestyle model

The acronym VALS, (for, Values; Attitudes and Lifestyles) is a psychographic segmentation.
VALS places US adult consumers into one of eight segments based on their responses to the VALS
questionnaire. The main dimensions of the segmentation framework are primary motivation (the
horizontal dimension) and resources (the vertical dimension).

The VALS approach is derived from a theoretical base in Maslow’s work (1954) – it has since been
reworked to enhance its ability to predict consumer behavior. Segmentation research based on



VALS is a product of SRI Consulting Business Intelligence. According to the VALS Framework,
groups of people are arranged in a rectangle and are based on two dimensions.

The vertical dimension segments people based on the degree to which they are innovative and have
resources such as income, education, self-confidence, intelligence, leadership skills and energy.

The horizontal dimension represents primary motivations and includes three (3) distinct types:
• Consumer driven by knowledge and principles are motivated primary by ideals – include
groups called Thinkers and Believers
• Consumer driven by demonstrating success to their peers are motivated primarily by
achievement – these consumers include groups referred to as Achievers and Strivers
• Consumers driven by a desire for social or physical activity, variety and risk-taking are
motivated primarily by self-expression – include the groups known as Experiences and
Makers

At the top of the rectangle are the Innovators, who have such high resources that they could have
any of the three primary motivations. At the bottom are the Survivors, who live complacently and
within their means without a strong primary motivation of the types listed above. The VALS
Framework gives more details about each of the eight groups.

VALS Framework

INNOVATORS
HIGH RESOURCES
HIGH INNOVATION
PRIMARY MOTIVATION

IDEALS ACHIEVEMENT SELF-EXPRESSION

THINKERS ACHIEVERS EXPERIENCES

BELIEVERS STRIVERS MAKERS

LOW RESOURCES
LOW INNOVATION
SURVIVORS

 Innovators – sophisticated, high self-esteem, upscale and image is important
 Thinkers – conservative, practical, income allows many choices, look for value



 Achievers – goal-oriented lifestyle, image is very important
 Experiences – like ‘cool stuff’, like excitement and variety, spend a high proportion of
income on fashion
 Believers – conservative, like familiar and established brands
 Strivers – trendy and fun loving, money defines success, concerned about the opinion of
others
 Makers – practical people, do it yourself, unimpressed by material possessions, prefer value
to luxury
 Survivors – few resources, buy at a discount, very modest market, little motivation to buy

UNIT 6:
SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM MANAGEMENT AND LOGISTICS
Chapter objectives
• Define and outline visitor use planning in terms of establishing carrying capacity
• Understand about risk management concept, it’s process and insurance as the most used
risk management method
• Discuss and differentiate on cultural and education awareness, and its impacts towards SIT
• Explore on logistics and related services that may affect SIT

Visitor use planning

The major objectives in visitor use planning are that:
• Visitors have ample opportunity to enjoy, appreciate and understand the attraction features
• Visitor use does not reach a level that result in excessive congestion
• Visitor use does not result in environmental degradation of the feature
• Residents of the area are not preempted from visiting and enjoying their own attractions

Techniques employed to cope with the increasing number of visitors while still providing an
interesting touristic experience include:
• Audio-visual briefing in a large information center with regulated flows of visitors
• Banning of private cars
• Restriction on group bus tours
• Live entertainment provided
• Continuing expansion

Establishing carrying capacity

Carrying capacity is the maximum number of people who can use a site without an unacceptable
decline in the quality of experienced gained by visitors - Without an unacceptable adverse impact
on the society, economy and culture of the tourism area.

Establishing carrying capacities is based on the concept of maintaining a level of development and
use that will not result in environmental or socio-cultural deterioration or be perceived by tourists as
depreciating their enjoyment and appreciation of the area. Carrying capacities need to be established
generally for the planning area and calculated more precisely for each development site. Carrying
capacities can be established for both undeveloped tourism places and those that are already
developed and perhaps even reaching or exceeding their saturation levels



Measurement Criteria of Carrying Capacity

In determining carrying capacity, the two aspects to be considered are:
• The indigenous physical and socio-economic environment
• The tourism image and tourist product

With respect to the indigenous environment, the criteria for determining optimum capacity levels
include the following:
• Physical
• Economic
• Socio-cultural
• Infrastructure

Determining optimum capacity levels Determining carrying capacities relative to
tourism image or visitor satisfaction levels
Physical
• Acceptable levels of visual impact and • Overall cleanliness and lack of pollution
congestion of the destination environment
• Point at which ecological systems are • Lack of undue congestion of the
maintained before damage occurs destination environment
• Conservation of wildlife and natural • Attractiveness of the landscape or
vegetation of both the land and marine townscape
environments • Maintenance of the ecological systems and
• Acceptable levels of water, air and noise flora and fauna of natural attraction
pollution features
Economic
• Extent of tourism that provides optimum • Cost of the holiday and value for money
overall economics benefit
• Level of tourism employment suited to the
local community
Socio-cultural
• Extent of tourism development that can be • Intrinsic interest of the indigenous
absorbed without detriment to the socio- community and cultures
cultural lifestyles and activities of the • Quality of local arts, handicrafts, cuisine
community and cultural performances
• Level of tourism that will help maintain • Friendliness of residents
cultural monuments, arts, crafts, belief
systems, customs and traditions without
detrimental effects
Infrastructure
• Adequate availability of transportation • Acceptable standards of transportation
facilities and services facilities and services
• Adequate availability of utility services • Acceptable standards of utility services
• Adequate availability of other community • Acceptable standards of other facilities
facilities and services and services

Risk management



Risk management can be defined as “a strategic process that will protect the assets and ensure the
financial stability of an organization from the consequences of competitive business decision”.

Risk management will:
• Reduce uncertainty and the potential for accidental or unanticipated loss
• Provide the basis for maximizing opportunity
• Risk management is a core skill for any business and most effective when it is promoted at
the senior management level and practiced throughout the organization

Risk management mission statement:
• Outlines the overall philosophy and dedication of the company towards risk management
and its implementation
• Usually a one-page document that is posted prominently where employees will see it and
where it will be a constant reminder of its importance

An effective risk-management program has the following basic elements:
• Senior management and board directors are committed to a broad-based, strategic risk
management process, and must be practiced at all levels of the organization
• Written risk management policies and procedures must be established for the most
prominent risks, with specific objectives and targets
• There are clearly defined roles and responsibilities for managing and controlling risks
• Performance evaluations include specific risk management objectives to ensure
accountability
• Adequate resources and tools are allocated to ensure goals and objectives can be met
• Ongoing employee training is essential
• There are testing and monitoring of all programs and procedures, particularly emergency
and business recovery plans, with continual improvement as the goal
• Regular reports include independent audits prepared for senior management and board
directors. These reports concise information regarding the status, including deficiencies, of
all risk management programs.

Risk management process

Risk Management Process Key Components
1. Risk Identification • Knowledge of exposures through on-site inspections,
discussions with management/staff
• Review of products, services, processes and contracts
• Review of historical activities and losses
• Identification of possible risk scenarios
2. Risk Analysis • Loss frequency and severity
• Probability of occurrence
• Maximum possible loss
• Maximum probable loss
• Consequences of loss
• Possible impact on each stakeholder
• Public perception



3. Risk Control • Due diligence process
• Occupational health and safety standards
• Environmental standards
• Fire protection engineering
• Crisis and emergency plans
• Business recovery plans
• Claims and litigation management
• Risk communication
• Continual monitoring, audits
4. Risk Treatment • Contractual transfer
• Risk retention/deductibles
• Insurance/self-insurance/no insurance
• Alternative risk financing

Benefit for risk management programs:
• Effective strategic planning
• Better cost control
• Enhance stakeholder value
• Increase knowledge and understanding risks to systematic, well-informed and thorough
method of decision making minimize disruptions
• Better utilized resources
• Strengthening culture for continued improvement
• Creating the best practice and quality organization

Insurance

Insurance is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of uncertain loss
and can be defined as “the equitable transfer of the risk of loss, from one entity to another, in
exchange for payment”.

Insurance is an integral part of the risk management process.

The insurance plan will determine:
• Which assets and hazards to the business will be insured
• How mush of the assets and hazards will be covered through an insurance policy and how
much will be self-insured (covered by the business itself)
• The type of insurance needed for visitors of a particular destination are depends on the level
of danger and activities involved

For example, outdoor tourism operators might have to purchase insurance because;
• The nature of the activities – because of the risks of injury to participants associated with
many of the outdoor tourism experiences, and because of the legal avenues and remedies
available to participants, it is not reasonable to expect business owners and operators to
assume such risks without insurance
• Access to land – many land managers require operators to carry insurance as part of their
contractual land access agreement o permit systems. This is often the case when operating in
municipal, provincial and national parks, as well as on Crown and private island
• Industry partners – trade partners such as wholesalers, travel agencies and tour operators
often require insurance



• Protection of business and assets – many outdoor tourism operators have accumulated
significant assets and equity. The physical and financial assets must be protected through
property and liability insurance
• Protection of employees – insurance does not cover injuries or death caused to employees
themselves. This is covered by workers compensation benefits. Insurance will indirectly
provide coverage to employees through the liability insurance coverage.

Loss exposure by the organization can be divided into three (3) elements:

Items subject to loss Potential cause of the loss Financial consequences of loss
• Physical assets – tangible • Human causes – loss • What will be the financial
property like buildings, caused by human consequence in the event
equipment, merchandise, behavior such as of the loss of a physical
etc vandalism, arson or theft. asset, the loss of revenue
• Loss of use of physical In outdoor tourism, this because of the loss of a
assets – physical assets also refers to mistakes physical asset, a lawsuit,
damaged or destroyed to made by a guide or the loss of key
the point of loss of use. • Natural causes – loss personnel? How much
Such damaged may result caused by natural forces money will be lost if a
in the operator incurring such as weather, natural lodge damaged by a fire
a loss of revenue avalanches, tornados, can only be rebuilt in the
• Legal liabilities – the hail, rock fall, etc spring?
threat of lawsuits because • Economic causes – loss • When dealing with
of negligence or breach caused by increased physical assets, it is
of contract. This is one of competition, changes in important to calculate the
the more common risks currency rates, a financial consequences
in outdoor tourism downturn in the based on the replacement
• Personal health and economy, changes in cost of those assets rather
earning capacity – consumer tastes and than the original purchase
owner/operator or a key behavior, etc. these price, the book value, or
employee/guide becomes events are generally not the market value
unable to work because insurable
of the injury, illness or
death. Part of this risk
could be covered by a
personal accident
insurance

What insurance cannot do…?
• Insurance will not make activities safer and will neither reduce the possibility of, nor stop
incidents from happening
• Insurance usually part of the post-incident component of the risk management process
• Insurance is also part of the recovery process of a business
• Recovery refers to how a business will recover and survive after a catastrophic event such as
fatality, a large lawsuit, or a fire that burned the lodge to the ground
• Insurance might play a major part of the recovery process, but it will not save a business’
reputation
• Insurance does not ensure a business’ post-disaster survival


Cultural awareness and education

Cultural awareness and sensitivity

Definition and dimensions

Culture relates to the norms, values and beliefs that influence and shape individuals, businesses and
destinations – it is a strong determinant of behavior. Culture influences every aspect of our lives and
often people are unaware of why they do and see things in a particular way.

One of the biggest problems in the customer service exchange within the tourism industry is the
common assumption that everyone has the same needs, expectations and behavioral patterns, when
in fact the actions and reactions of people are a result of their cultural conditioning and therefore
may differ. It is therefore, important for tourism businesses to identify the specific cultural
components relevant to their organization, their market and their product/service offering.

Cultural Sensitivity

Tour managers need to develop an informed sensitivity to foreign cultural differences. It is
important for those who are dealing with inbound foreign group or escort tours outbound to other
countries. Cultural knowledge smooth interactions with foreign nationals and help adjust
expectation and provides a rich topic for tour narration.

Two (2) terms that we have to be aware in cultural sensitivity:
• Ethnocentrism – beliefs that one’s own nationality or ethnic group is superior to all others.
i.e. British, American, Jewish
• Stereotyping – tendency to belief that an unvarying pattern or manner marks all members of
a group (as opposed to statements that may apply to some members of each ethnic group,
but do not apply to all of its members). I.e. aborigine people are not educated, Japanese can’t
speak English, and Muslim is terrorists.

Establishing the link between tourism and culture

It is often the search for a cultural exchange that is an inherent part of the motivation for the tourist
to travel. The first step to meeting customer expectations is to ascertain and understand them.
Understanding the needs and expectations of the consumer and designing products and services to
meet these is relatively straightforward concept, but it is also vital to consider the factors of cultural
background and conditioning.

Customer loyalty is often affected by the perception of the level of service provision – affect their
repeat purchase decision. Service quality perception and satisfaction is affected by a person’s
cultural background. Therefore, tourism businesses should be aware of important cultural
characteristics, including values, attitudes, language, etiquette, customs and manners.



Mastery of the person’s language is not required, but trying to learn just a few simple words and
acknowledging customs can make a big difference to their level of enjoyment and subsequent
satisfaction. Learning about customers and their values, beliefs and motivations helps to understand
their responses and ultimately to better interpret their requirements.

Another aspect of culture is body language and whilst subtle, it is easily possible to offend through
inappropriate (albeit inadvertent) gestures that demonstrate a lack of respect and subsequently
undermine the business relationship.

The National Centre for Languages stresses the requirement for cultural skills in business,
specifically the tourism industry, indicating that cultural and language skills are beneficial for,
amongst others, hotel reception, tourist attraction and restaurant staff, in welcoming guests, dealing
with enquiries, taking bookings and guiding visitors.

Importance of culture to tourism businesses

There are a number of compelling reasons for those working in tourism to pay attention to cultural
awareness:

• Cultural awareness matters to all stakeholders in the tourism industry, both the tourists
themselves and the service providers.
• For tourists, understanding the culture of the destinations visited is likely to enhance their
experience and increase their enjoyment, whereas a lack of understanding has the opposite
effect.
• Culture conditions people to abide by certain norms and expectations, and if the hosts fail to
recognize these, it makes for a less positive experience.
• Employees should be culturally aware in order to provide effective customer care that meets
the needs, and exceeds the expectations of customers.
• From a business perspective, the industry decision makers need to have an understanding of
diverse cultures as they are responsible for making decisions or formulating policy affecting
culturally diverse tourists – ultimately affect income generation and competitiveness that
will impact upon long-time survival.

Culturally appropriate products and services and their benefits

Recognition of cultural diversity is one way in which tourism businesses can achieve this:

1. Adaptations that appeal to British tourists
Briton tends to have certain expectations of the accommodation product and often this
reflected in their perceptions of quality. They also stereotypically enjoy the consumption of
tea whilst abroad.

2. Importance of symbolism in the tourism offer
From an aesthetic perspective, it is important for an organization to recognize the
importance of symbolism within certain cultures. Problems may be caused when symbolic
values are incorrectly interpreted. Furthermore, advertising must also be considered from a
cultural perspective, as symbol commonly used in one culture and incorporated into product
marketing, may be considered inappropriate in another.

3. Concept of time and impact on visits



The concept and perception of time varies across cultures. In western cultures, time is
viewed as a finite resource, one that is constantly depleting. Eastern cultures have the
opposite perspective, that time are an infinite resource and are therefore unlimited

Issues when trying to adapt to cultural norms

Weiermair outlines a number of specific issues and implications facing tourism businesses and
destinations regarding the extent to which cultural norms should be considered:

• Should destinations offering local tourism activities include activities widely considered to
be global cultural norms, such as theme parks or Disney style development?
• Should local food become internationalized to suit other cultures?
• Should tourism employees interact with culturally diverse customers in a professional
manner or in a manner based on local tradition?
• Should cultural goods and heritage be managed, modernized and marketed to appeal to an
international audience or should they be preserved in their original manner and presented
through museum type products and services?

In any case, answer would depend on both the business and the destination in question, it is clear
that these are important considerations for tourism organizations

Education

Education can be defined as “any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind,
character or physical ability of an individual”.

In its technical sense, education is “the process by which society deliberately transmits its
accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another”.

Teachers in educational institutions direct the education of students and might draw on many
subjects, including reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. There is also education in
fields for those who want specific vocational skills, such as those required to be a pilot. In addition,
there is an array of education possible at the informal level, such as in museums and libraries, with
Internet and in-life experience.

Systems of formal education

The right to education has been established as a basic human right: since 1952, Article 2 of the first
Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the
right to education.

At world level, the United Nations’ International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13. Education is a concept, referring to the
process in which students can learn something:
• Instruction refers to the facilitating of learning toward identified objectives, delivered either
by an instructor or other forms
• Teaching refers to the actions of a real live instructor designed to impart learning to the
student



• Learning refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners with specific knowledge,
skills or abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion

Types of education

1. Primary education
Primary (elementary) education consists of the first 5-7 years of formal, structured
education. In general, main education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at
the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Some
education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of
secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen.

2. Secondary education
Comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by
transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to
the optional, selective tertiary, “post-secondary”, or higher education (i.e. university,
vocational school for adults). The purpose can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for
higher education or to train directly in a profession.

3. Higher education
Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage or post secondary education, is the non-
compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a secondary school. Normally
taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education
and training. Includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities.

4. Adult education
It takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning
and e-learning. A number of career specific courses are now available to students through
Internet.

5. Alternative education
Also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative is a broad term that may
be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups
and levels of education. This may include not only forms of education designed for students
with special needs, but also form of education designed for a general audience and
employing alternative educational philosophies and methods.

6. Indigenous education
Increasingly, the inclusion of indigenous models of education (method and content) as an
alternative within the scope of formal and non-formal education systems has come to
represent a significant factor contributing to the success of those members of indigenous
communities who choose to access these systems, both as students/ learners and as
teachers/instructors.

The inclusion of indigenous ways of knowing, learning, instructing, teaching, and training is
important in ensuring that students and teachers are able to benefit from education in a



culturally sensitive manner that draws upon, utilizes, promotes and enhances awareness of
indigenous tradition.

Enhances educational effectiveness, success and learning outcomes by providing education
that adheres to their own inherent perspectives, experiences and worldview. Effect of raising
the awareness of the individual traditions and collective experience of surrounding
indigenous communities and peoples, thereby promoting greater respect for and appreciation
of the cultural realities of these communities and peoples.

Logistics and related services

Logistics

Logistics can be defined as “the process of planning, implementing and controlling the efficient
and effective flow of goods, services and related information from one point of origin to point of
consumption in order to meet customer requirements”.

Logistics involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material
handling, packaging and occasionally security

Transportation

Links the various destinations and ferries people, goods and services – tourism is all about travel;
and the role of transportation in its operation is vital. It is largely due to the improvement of
transportation that tourism has expanded. The advent of flight has shrunk the world, and the motor
vehicle has made travel to anywhere possible.

Transportation system of a tourist destination has an impact on the tourism experience which
explains how people travel and why they choose different forms of holiday, destination and
transport. Access to tourist sites varies according to the nature of the site, the state of infrastructure,
and the efficiency of the public transport system.

As in increasing of the awareness of environmentally sectors, the transportation offered in such
destinations are changes to more environmental-friendly, producing minimal greenhouse gasses (i.e.
trishaw, bicycle, horse). Such approaches called green logistics.

Passenger transportation structure



TRANSPORTATION

Air Road Rail Water Other

Bus Inland

Auto Maritime

Motor Bike

Vehicles Used
for

Access

The objective of access management is to enable access to land uses while maintaining mobility and
roadway safety through controlling access location, design, spacing, and operation. The
management of destination accessibility to the extent of land, air, as well as water areas which are
utilize for visitors to enter the destination.

The control of accessibility and mobility to and within a tourism destination is one of the most
important management tools to regulate flows, reduce traffic congestion and pollution and meet
tourists’ and residents’ requirements. A destination is in many respects defined by its ability to
provide appropriate visitor access into a destination and dispersal throughout the destination.

The dispersal of visitors throughout a region can provide economic and social benefits including
improved services to the host community. Development of appropriate access for visitors to and
within a destination includes considerations of a number of key factors.

Determinants in developing appropriate access in a destination:

1. Understanding visitor demand
Determining the need for investment in transport and access facilities should be based on an
assessment of the size and growth of both residents and visitor markets, including demand
for transport types of these segments. A destination focus on attracting a combination of
visitor markets will need to plan a variety of transport options.

2. Consideration of the planning environment
Planning for the long-term transport and access infrastructure for a destination needs to take
into consideration a destination’s geographical location, community needs and values, legal
restrictions and investment potential, as well as the potential ecological, economic and social
impacts of development.



3. Ensuring transport connectivity
Visitors can use a wide range of different transport types during their trip. Ensuring linkages
and connectivity between transport options is important in providing a destination that is
easy to reach but also easy to travel within. Connectivity between visitor attraction in terms
of access routes and transport option can also influence a visitor’s initial destination choice,
length of stay and overall satisfaction.

Visa

Visa is an indication that a person is authorized to enter particular countries which issue the visa –
subject to permission of an immigration official at the time of actual entry. A visa does not
generally give a non-citizen any rights, including a right to enter a country thus remain there.

The possession of visa is not itself a guarantee of entry into the country which issue it and the visa
can be revoked at any time. The visa process merely enables the host country to verify the identity
of the visa applicant before the entry of the applicant. Special permit may also be required, such as
residency permit or work permit.

In planning and managing a particular destination, it is crucial to understand visa requirement for
both employees and visitors towards the destination.

Types of visa

Types of visa Explanation
Transit visa Usually valid for 5 days or less, for passing through the country to a third
destination.
Tourist visa For a limited period of leisure travel, no business activities allowed. Some
countries do not issue tourist visa.
Business visa For engaging in commerce in the country. These visas generally preclude
permanent employment, for which a work visa would be required.
Temporary worker visa For approved employment in the host country. These are generally more
difficult to obtain but valid for longer periods of time than business visa.
On-arrival visa Granted at a port of entry. This is distinct from not requiring a visa at all, as
the visitor must still obtain the visa before they can even try to pass
through the immigration.
Spousal visa Or partner visa, granted to the spouse, civil partner or de facto partner of a
resident or citizen of a given country, in order to enable the couple to settle
in that country.
Student visa This allows its holder to study at an institution of higher learning in the
issuing country.
Diplomatic visa Sometimes called official visa, is normally only available to bearers of
diplomatic passports
Working holiday visa For individual traveling between nations offering a working holiday
program, allowing young people to undertake temporary work while
traveling.
Courtesy visa Issues to representative of foreign governments or international
organizations who do not qualify for diplomatic status but do merit
expedited, courteous treatment.
Journalist visa Which some countries require of people in that occupation when traveling
for their respective news organizations. i.e. Cuba, North Korea, US.


Marriage visa Granted for a limited period prior to intended marriage or civil partnership
based on a proven relationship with a citizen of the destination country.
Immigrant visa Granted for those intending to immigrate to the issuing country. They
usually are issued for a single journey as the holder will, depending on the
country, later be issued a permanent resident identification card which will
allow the traveler to enter to the issuing country an unlimited number of
times.
Pensioner visa Also known as retiree visa or retirement visa, issued by a limited number
of countries (Australia, Argentina, Thailand, etc), to those who can
demonstrate a foreign source of income and who do not intend to work in
the issuing country. Age limits apply in some cases.
Special category visa Is a type of Australian visa granted to most New Zealand citizens on arrival
in Australia. New Zealand citizens may then permanently reside in
Australia under the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement.
Electronic visa The visa is applied e.g. over the Internet and stored in a computer and is
tied to the passport number.
ID Card Introduced by the UK on 25 November 2008, will replace the visa stickers
in foreigners’ passports over a gradual period.

Entry and duration period

Visas can also be:
• single-entry which means the visa is cancelled as soon as the holder leaves the country;
• double-entry, or multiple-entry which permits double or multiple entries into the country
with the same visa

Countries may also issue re-entry permits that allow temporarily leaving the country without
invalidating the visa. The validity of a visa is not the same as the authorized period of stay in the
issuing country – the visa validity usually indicates the time period when entry is permitted into the
country.

Once in the country, the validity period of a visa or authorized stay can often be extended for a fee
at the discretion of immigration authorities. Overstaying a period of authorized stay is considered
illegal immigration. Entering a country without a valid visa or visa exemption may result in
detention and removal (deportation or exclusion) from the country.

Undertaking activities that are not authorized by the status of entry can result in the individual being
deemed deportable.

Visa extensions

Many countries have the mechanism to allow the holder of a visa to apply to extend a visa. In
certain circumstances, it is not possible for the holder of the visa to do this, either because the
country does not have the mechanism to prolong visas or, most likely, because the holder of the visa
is using a short stay visa to live in a country. Some countries also may have limits as to how long
one can spend in the country without a visa, further creating a barrier to visa runs.

Exit visas



Some countries have a requirement that an individual obtain an exit visa (i.e. permit) to leave the
country. This happens mostly in countries where there is political, economic or social turmoil that
results in an increased rise in emigration. Sometimes this requirement also applies to foreign
nationals. The exit visa can also be withheld if there are pending court charges that need to be
settled or penalties that have to be meted out.

Visa refusal

A visa may be denied for a number of reasons, some of which being that the applicant:
• Has committed fraud or misrepresentation in his or her application
• Has a criminal record or has criminal charges pending
• Is considered to be security risks
• Cannot prove to have strong ties to the current country of residence
• Intends to reside or work permanently in the country she/he will visit if not applying for an
immigrant or work visa respectively
• Does not have a legitimate reason for the journey
• Has no visible means of sustenance
• Does not have travel arrangement (i.e. transport and lodging) in the destination country
• Does not have a health/travel insurance valid for the destination and the duration of stay
• Does not have a good moral character
• Is applying on excessively short notice
• Is a citizen of a country with whom the host country has poor or non-existent relations
• Has previous visa/immigration violations
• Has a communicable disease

Accommodation

Accommodation is one of the important elements in tourism industry - Also known as lodging, is a
dwelling or place of temporary residence.

People who travel and stay away from home for more than a day need a place to sleep, rest, shelter
from weather and wild, storage of luggage and access to common household functions such as
cooking . However, the term accommodation is not limit to the concrete building (i.e. hotel, motel,
resort or hostel), it is also covers in a wild nature area which is campsite (i.e. in a tent, caravan).

Whatever the type of hotel or service accommodation and wherever its location, it should:
ACCOMMODATIONS
• Fit well with its surroundings, having regard to its sitting, scale, design, materials and
landscaping
• Be in Non commercialthe local environment
harmony with Commercial
• Must be continuously maintain and renovate as to harmonize with the flow of tourist
demand and trend (i.e. boutique hotel)
Bed & Time-share
Private Non profit Institutional Hotels Motels
Accommodation structure Breakfast Facilities

Chains

Independent



Foodservice

Like the lodging industry, food service also one of the important elements in tourism industry.
Travelers, including foreign visitors, spend more money on food than anything else except
transportation, and travelers account for about one-third of the total sales in the food service
industry.

The food service consists of restaurants, travel food service and vending and contract institutional
food service. Over the past two decade, the food and beverage business has grown at a phenomenal
rate. New concept and trends in the business include the ethnic restaurants, especially those with an
oriental or Mexican flavor; increased demand for health foods, fish, local produce and regional
dishes; and variety in portion sizes.

Today, with the introduction of gastronomical tourism (or food tourism), the food and beverage
business is expected to increase more.

Food services structure

FOOD SERVICES

Fast Food Traditional
Cafeterias
Restaurants Restaurants

Independent Chain Independent In-hotel

Minimal
Specialty Specialty Specialty
Service

Ethnic Full
Broad Menu Local
Service

Local



UNIT 7:
SPECIALIST PROVIDER FOR SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM
Chapter objectives
• Identify the specialist providers for SIT and outline their roles and responsibilities
• Explore the roles and responsibilities of different tour operator organizations
• Explain and differentiate the tour operators products/services: package holidays and non-
package holidays

Specialist tourism providers

Specialist tour operators now organize such packages for those groups which can be taken to the
most appropriate location in the world.

Specialist operators fall into six (6) categories:
1. Those for specific groups, for example Club 18-30 for young people who want a fun and
exciting holiday, SAGA Holidays for senior citizen who may want a coach tour or a winter
break in the sun
2. Tours to specific destinations e.g. Australia, the Far East
3. Those taking people to exotic and exclusive places e.g. safari in Kenya, sightseeing in China
4. Those who provide specific accommodation as part of the package e.g. villa in Spain, a
caravan at the seaside, a camping holiday in the south of France
5. Those who have a specific transport as part of the tour and as part of the attraction e.g. flight
on Concorde, a journey on the Orient Express, a cruise down the Nile
6. Specialist interest operators e.g. wine-tasting in Bordeaux, hang-gliding in Wales, train-
spotting in India



Unlike wholesalers, specialist tour operators bypass the traditional sales avenue through travel
agents and sell directly to customers. The overwhelming majority of companies sold their products
both directly and via travel agents. A number of operators who use both marketing approaches
indicated that the overwhelming proportion of their sales result from direct contact with their
customers.

Direct marketing is attractive to them because they can reduce their costs considerably by not
paying commissions to travel agents. The majority of specialist tours are sophisticated travelers who
are willing to avoid travel agents, most of whom only sell conventional tour packages. The clients
of specialist tour operators fit the profile of allocentric travelers and most have already had
considerable travel experiences – who seek experiences in specific out-of-the-ordinary destinations.

Importantly, travel specialist display considerable loyalty towards the destinations they market.
After all, their entire business depends on specialized tours to a narrow range of destinations, and
while they have the ability to construct custom holidays for individual travelers, they cannot easily
substitute their destinations. They seek resorts which cater for their particular market niche and such
resorts may be a limited proportion of any destination area opportunity set.

Resorts of varying size are usually included in the company opportunity set because mass tour
operators in particular need to be represented in all of the most popular/fashionable resorts: but they
also include one or two resorts in a destination area which are unique to that tour operator. Some
tour operators, especially the specialist ones have endeavored to develop products which minimize
the negative socio-economic benefits for the host community. A number of destinations have also
sought to attract more sustainable forms of tourism that minimize the cost and maximize the
benefits of tourism for the local population.

Conversely, a number of small specialist tour operators, run by individual entrepreneurs, appear to
be embracing sustainable tourism as a core element of their business. They try to attract customers
through their contention that their product and operations are complementary with the ideas of
sustainable tourism, such as being small-scale and encouraging contact with the local people.

It could be argued that for those small operators, which focus on a narrow niche market, the
emphasis on sustainable tourism helps them to differentiate themselves from the large mass market
operators, with which they cannot compete on price

Tour operators

A tour operator typically combines tour and travel components to create a holiday - Also known as
tour wholesaler, puts together a tour and all of its components and sells the tour through his/her own
company, retail outlets, and /or approved retail agencies.

They can offer vacation packages to the traveling public at prices lower than an individual traveler
can arrange because tour wholesaler can buy services in large quantities at discounted prices. Tour
wholesaling businesses are usually one of four kinds:
• The independent tour wholesaler
• The airline working in close cooperation with a tour wholesaling business
• The retail travel agent who packages tours for its client
• The operator of motorcoach tours

Characteristics of the tour operating industry



Concentration and integration:

The package holiday market is dominated by a very small number of internationally operating tour
operators. The main trends in the industry are economies of scale, horizontal and vertical
integration.

Through these strategies, tour-operators can achieve considerable buying power and control over
their suppliers, as well as the distribution of their products. Horizontal integration refers to a
situation when companies join together with the aim to remove competition, to increase economies
of scale, and to increase purchasing power. Horizontal integration comprises mergers at the same
level in the tourism distribution or supply chain, i.e. mergers between different tour operating
companies.

Vertical integration implies the take-over or formation of businesses at different levels of the supply
or distribution chain. For a tour operator this means investment into either suppliers through
backward integration (e.g. accommodation, transport) and/or forward integration (e.g. travel
agents).
The main advantages are control over supplies in terms of quality, availability, access and price, and
the ability to reach consumers.

Vertical integration is a significant feature among the leading tour operators and has drastically
increased in recent years. The four largest UK operators all own charter airlines, accommodation,
ground-handlers and travel agents.

Specialization:

Intense integration practices have also led to increased specialization and the development of niche
operators and niche products. Small and medium size operators have to compete with larger,
integrated companies.

As vertically integrated operators capture a large proportion of mainstream package holidays,
independent operators (also sometimes vertically integrated) increasingly focus on specialization.
Independent tour operators compete by providing high quality, specialist and tailor-made services,
which is responding to the trend that holidaymakers are becoming more discerning about the
holidays that they take.

They often specialize in geographical areas or activities.

The Differences between Mainstream and Niche (Independent) Tour Operators



Tour Operators Commercial Objectives

As for any company, the commercial objective of tour operators is profit maximization. A key
feature of the mainstream operators are very low profit margins (on average 2-3% of the total
revenue after all expenditures are paid), and thus the large companies focus on increasing market-
share, i.e. increasing the volume of passengers carried, by selling on price and serving an extremely
price sensitive market.
Mainstream tour operators seek to maximize profits in three ways:

1. Minimize costs of the packages that they put together through bulk buying, owning
suppliers, providing a basic product, i.e. accommodation and transport, while additional
services are being sold as add-ons (e.g. excursions), and extremely tight yield-management

2. Maximize revenue by maximizing the volume of sales to make up for low profit margins and
price sensitivity of the mainstream market. Given the relatively fixed costs of operating in a
destination and a perishable product, avoiding being left with unsold packages is essential,
even if this means selling under cost price – i.e. a concentration on bums-on-seats.

3. Pricing strategies are an essential tool for tour operators in the UK but price increases can
only be used in a very limited way, within this very competitive and price sensitive market.
Pricing strategies, i.e. discounts, are used to lure consumers into shops and to persuade them



to buy early, thus allowing tour operators to get rid of excess capacity as early as possible
and to earn interest on deposits made on holidays to be taken months later.

Influence of Large Tour Operators

By the nature of their role and the sheer volume of their operation, large tour operators influence
many aspects of tourism development and impact:

1. Image creation: Given the fact that selling a tourism product depends largely on imagery,
the marketing and distribution channels that bring customers and suppliers together play a
crucial role. The image of the product is created by the tour operators’ promotional activity
at home in generating areas, frequently with very limited destination input.

2. Customer demand: tour operators have direct access to the clientele. As the bulk of package
holidays are sold through travel agents belonging to vertically integrated tour operators, they
are providing the images, information and options upon which customer awareness, demand,
and buying behavior are based. This enables them to open new destinations and grow them
rapidly.

3. Product price: With many destinations offering a similar product and being marketed in a
similar way, price is a major decision making factor for consumers. Package holidays are
often deliberately priced low in order to generate high demand.

4. Size, path and type of tourism: The major benefit provided by mainstream tour operators to
developing countries is that they can significantly increase the volume of tourist arrivals,
ideally leading to employment generation, export earnings and economic development.
However, this also affects the nature of the destination. High volumes are achieved by
providing low cost holidays through economies of scale, bulk-buying, and low input prices.
The first element, high volumes, does not go without the other, low prices, and vice versa.

However, there are trade-offs. High volumes of price-sensitive, low spending customer
groups are not always the most appropriate. If tourism is developed to meet the needs of
mainstream customers, it makes it more difficult to invest in more diverse areas and
products, which may have greater involvement of poor and small-scale producers.

5. Government strategy in destination. Governments may rely on multinational companies to
develop tourism in a particular destination, and in return offer financial incentives,
assistance in terms of marketing, access to slots and routes for airlines, or commitments to
fund infrastructure investments.

6. Contractual arrangements with suppliers: Tour operators are able to offer highly
competitive prices to their customers because of their ability to bulk-buy supplies at low
cost. For local suppliers (e.g. hoteliers, excursion providers), the high volume and relative
security of contracts from tour operators is attractive. However, the need to secure these
contracts and operate at low prices can make it difficult for local providers to invest in a
differentiated product or allocate extra resources to commitments. The reliance of the larger
operators and their local staff on earnings from excursion programs can create conflict with
other suppliers – often poor producers – of sightseeing and activities.

7. Linkages and market opportunities for locally-provided services : there is little incentive for
large tour operators to expand access for local entrepreneurs, where they are selling a
standardized product in which security and familiarity are more important to the customer



than local flavor. The EU Package Travel Directive further encourages operators to
encourage their clients to use the operators’ own excursions and to stay within the confines
of the products over which the originating market operators have control. Furthermore, tour
operators often earn important revenue from their own sale of excursions, which would be
undercut by promoting services sold by local businesses.

8. Leakage of expenditure: ‘Leakage’ refers to tourism payments that never reach the
destination - because they pay for services of companies in the originating or other off-shore
country – or those leave the destination to pay for imported goods. A general consensus has
been that leakages are higher if integrated Northern tour-operators are involved rather than
locally-owned enterprises. This relates to the fact that integrated companies frequently own
the main elements of the package holiday, i.e. transport and accommodation

Small operators have a less dramatic influence on tourism volumes, but can still significantly affect
the path of development by putting a new area or new type of product on the map. Part of their
product appeal is frequently a destination focus and the inclusion of local products, and they are less
likely to own downstream operations - Thus independent operators rely more on destination inputs
and can provide important markets for local products.

They are more focused on enhancing product quality rather than price competition, and can also
often have a more balanced relationship with suppliers due to the product characteristics and
volumes generated.

Tour operators’ organization/s

The two major tour operator associations in the US are the National Tour Association (NTA) and
the United States Tour Operators Association (USTOA). In Europe, it is the European Tour
Operators Association (ETOA). And in the UK, it is the Association of British Travel Agents
(ABTA) and the Association of Independent Tour Operators (AITO).

The primary association for receptive North American inbound tour operators is the Receptive
Services Association of America. Meanwhile, in Malaysia, the tour operator’s organization that
widely known is Malaysia Travel and Tour Association (MATTA).

ASSOCIATION OF BRITISH TRAVEL AGENTS (ABTA)

ABTA is the UK travel trade association for tour operators and travel agents. Previously known as
Association of British Travel Agents, it name was changed on 1 July 2007 to ABTA, the Travel
Association to reflect its wider representation of the travel industry. On 1 July 2008, it merged with
the Federation of Tour Operators.

For more then 50 years, ABTA and its members have been helping holidaymakers to get the most
form their travel by working to high professional standards and offering choice, value and quality.

Articles of Association

The Articles of Association set out in broad terms the rules of membership, including its joining
criteria, Member’s rights and obligations, and its Account Rules (Article 10). The Account Rules



set out the financial criteria that members must meet if they are conducting certain type of business.
Their purpose is to help ensure that members are on a firm financial footing.

Consumer Protection

There is no statutory for airlines providing flight-only or other companies providing any
accommodation-only holidays to give consumer protection in unforeseen difficult circumstances.
ABTA looks after consumer protection from the tour operator end of the contract.

ABTA members protect themselves for consumer protection (unforeseen events) claims via the
ABTA Protection Plan. Unforeseen events have mainly included travel operators going into
administration or liquidation.

ABTA’s main aims are:
• To maintain high standards of trading practice for the benefit of it’s members, the travel
industry at large, and the consumers that they serve
• To create as favorable a business climate as possible for its members

Code of Conduct

The primary aims are:
• To ensure that the public receive the best possible service from its members
• To maintain and enhance the reputation, good name and standing of ABTA and its members

It is essentially a guide to good practice. Consumers place their trust in ABTA because they can
make sure that their members adhere to the Code of Conduct. Each year, they report on the number
and nature of the Code breaches, and how they’ve been resolved.

Enforcement and Appeal

The Articles of Association and The Code of Conduct are subject to enforcement and appeal
procedure. This underpins a comprehensive consumer complaints service, which includes access to
independent arbitration and meditation schemes. These services provide consumers with
confidence, as well as helping to save members considerable sums of money.

ASSOCIATION OF INDEPENDENT TOUR OPERATORS (AITO)

AITO is a British based travel trade organization that represents around 150 specialist and
independent tour operators. The organization is typically composed of outbound tour operators but
recently allowed domestic tour operators to join.

Members operate to over 140 countries with activities spanning a range of interests including
adventure, city break, culture, fly drive, luxury, safaris and sports. AITO represents some of
Britain’s best specialist tour operators. Members are independent companies, most of them owner-
managed, specializing in particular destinations or types of holidays.

The common aim is to provide the highest level of customer satisfaction by concentrating on three
main pillars: Choice, Quality and Service, enshrined in the association’s Quality Charter.



Companies admitted to AITO are all vetted and fully bonded for client’s protection, in compliance
with UK and European regulations. They are also bound by AITO’s own Code of Business Practice.

Sustainable Tourism

Green tourism and responsible travel are key concerns for AITO and its members. Each potential
member’s sustainable tourism credentials are examined before they may join, to ensure
sustainability and that local cultures and the environment are treated with the utmost care and
respect.

AITO members recognize that the destinations where they provide holidays are the life blood of the
industry, and they need to protect them with a responsible travel and sustainable policy. AITO is the
first tourism industry association to incorporate into its business charter a commitment to
Responsible Travel and Green Tourism.

Sustainable guidelines for its members based upon five (5) key objectives:
• To protect the environment – its flora, fauna and landscape
• To respect local cultures – traditions, religions and built heritage
• To benefit local communities – both economically and socially
• To conserve natural resources – from office to destination
• To minimize pollution – through noise, waste disposal and congestion

NATIONAL TOUR ASSOCIATION (NTA)

NTA is the primary group tour industry association in North America. Its membership includes:
• Group tour operates, who package and sell group tours in the US, Canada and Mexico
• Suppliers, whose businesses include hotels, attractions, restaurants, bus companies, airlines,
passenger vessels, sight-seeing companies, destination marketing organizations and other
travel and tour entities

The association provides marketing assistance, educational programs, governmental representation
and communication for its membership and it annually produces the NTA Convention and Tour and
Travel Exchange. This event offers the members the opportunity to conduct intensive business
sessions and attend education seminars that increase professionalism in the industry.

NTA requires its members to adhere to a strict code of ethics that ensures proper business activity
between individual members, for the ultimate good of the traveling public.

UNITED STATES TOUR OPERATORS ASSOCIATION (USTOA)

USTOA also represents the tour operators. The goals of USTOA are:
• To ensure consumer protection and education
• To inform the travel industry, the government agencies and the public about tour operators’
activities and objectives
• To facilitate travel on a worldwide basis

Members must subscribe to the organization’s strict code of ethics. Members are required to
represent all information pertaining to tours, to maintain a high level of professionalism and to state
clearly all costs and facilities in advertising and promotional materials.



MALAYSIA ASSOCIATION OF TRAVEL AND TOUR AGENTS (MATTA)

The national association representing the travel and tour agencies in Malaysia - Non-Governmental
Organization and main objective is to serve the members and the tourism industry. MATTA boasts
a membership of over 2,800 members, comprising local tour and travel organizations as well as
numerous overseas affiliations.

It is also the national umbrella representative body for the entire travel industry in the country .
MATTA's objective is to promote the interests of the travel and tour industry in Malaysia. MATTA
works closely with the Ministry of Tourism (Motour) as well as Malaysia Tourism Promotion
Board (MTPB), help organize fairs, seminars, convention and workshops both to create public
awareness of the tourism industry as well as to benefit its members.

Objectives
• To unite, supervise and coordinate the activities of the members.
• To publicize, encourage, promote and extend the tourist and travel trade.
• To adjudicate and settle any differences which may arise between members whenever its
arbitration is requested by both parties concerned.
• To develop friendship and common purpose among the members of the tourist and travel
industry.
• To make representations on behalf of members to Government and all organizations with
which the Association has common interest.
• To encourage the highest ethical standards of business conduct within the trade.
• To study and promote the interest of the tourist and travel trade and profession and to
educate the public regarding the function of tours and travel agents.
• To discourage unfair competition without in any way interfering with initiative and
enterprise based on fair trading.

Tour operators’ products/services

Package holidays

Package holiday consists of transport and accommodation advertised and sold together by a vendor
known as a tour operator. Other services may be provided like a rental car, activities or outings
during the holiday. Transport can be via charter airline to a foreign country.

Package holidays are a form of product bundling. Package holidays are organized by a tour operator
and sold to a consumer by a travel agent. Some travel agents are employees of tour operators, others
are independent.
Non-package holiday

Non-package holiday is where for example if you arrange your flight and accommodation
separately without combining any of these elements under the same service or company

Packaging a tour

The work involved in producing the package cam be divided into four (4) main stages:

1. Operations - Begin with planning, market research/enables the tour operators to determine
which tour sells. Once the tour destination, approximate dates, the length of tour has been



determined, the next stage is to negotiate with the supplier of transportation and ground
services.

2. Costing - An accurate costing at the various components of the package tour is vital stage in
the development of the tour – the package must be offered at an attractive price.

3. Brochures production - For distribution to travel agents and potential clients. Brochures will
typically contain general information on the tour operator and its products.

4. Promotions - Media advertising is an effective promotion and includes advertising to travel
industry professionals. Tour operators can use direct mailing and group sales representative
to promote to the potential clients.

Planning a Tour

The tour company gathers information relative to each destination/s and/or combination of
destinations and evaluates each element suppliers in terms of:
• Quality of services
• Price of services
• Price/value relationship
• Overall quality of destination
• Time to spend in each destination

Elements of a tour are: (1) Transportation, (2) lodging/accommodation, (3) dining, (4) sightseeing,
(5) attractions and (6) shopping. The tour planner also considers any other criteria as determined by
the company.

To deliver a product/service of consistently good quality to the customer, the tour company and
suppliers must work together in choosing destination to create the product/service itself with an
image that is consistent to their expectation.

Tour Costing

Costing principles are simple: you must cover expenses and you should make a profit. Or else, you
should have a break even point: the minimum number of paying customers or the minimum amount
of cost paid that the company should have in order not to lose money.

Once all the elements of tours and quotations have been assembled, it is time to ascertain the cost of
operating the tour and determine what your selling price will be.

In any budgetary process, two (2) kinds of costs exist:
• A fixed cost – the one that never changes, no matter how many people are on your tour. For
example, a particular bus may cost RM 200 a day, no matter if twenty or forty people are on
it
• A variable cost – the one that changes according to how many people take your tour. For
example, if it cost RM 5 per person to visit a mini museum, then you will have to spend RM
100 for twenty people

Brochure Production



The tour/vacation package brochure should be different from business package brochure. In
producing and advertising the tour brochure, it usually depends on the available budget. To the
benefit of customers and travel company, a tour brochure needs to contain the following:
• General information about the destination
• Itineraries that are clearly laid out
• Photographs, maps/diagrams to reinforce the information given
• Departure/return dates and prices
• Inclusions and exclusions
• Booking terms and conditions

Additional brochure contents include:
• Identity or name of the facility and logo
• Descriptive facts and illustration of the facilities/attractions
• Unique selling features

UNIT 8:



SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM’S PROSPECTS
Chapter objectives
• Outline the relationship between tourism and environment in aspect of the positive and
negative impacts of tourism towards the environment
• Discuss about the perspective on different types of socioeconomic impacts and host and
guest relationship
• Measuring economic cost and benefits, as well as identifying the different types of
economic impacts measurement
• Explore on SIT future: the role of Internet and professional travel agents, as well as travel
trends and predictions

Relationship between tourism and the environment

In its broadest definition, environment comprises all the natural and cultural surroundings of people.
In this topic, environment refers to the physical environment, which includes natural and built
components. The natural environment is what exists in nature – climate and weather, the land and
its soil and topography, geology, water features, and ecological systems.

The built environment comprised of man-made physical features, mainly all types of building
including archaeological and historic sites. The three (3) aspects of the tourism-environment
relationship are:
• Many features of the physical environment are attractions for tourists
• Tourists facilities and infrastructure constitute one aspect of the built environment
• Tourism development and tourist use of an area generate environmental impacts

Exacerbating the potential problems of the environmental impact of tourism is that it is often
developed in environmentally fragile and vulnerable environments, such as on small islands, in
coastal, marine, mountainous and alpine areas, in certain arid lands, and at archaeological and
historical sites, because these types of places offer important resources or attractions for tourists.

There are three (3) types of related environmental concerns in developing tourism
• The prevention or control of environmental impacts generated by the tourism development
itself; including tourist use of areas and remedying problems if they do arise
• The need for continuous management of resources of tourism
• Maintenance and, where necessary, improvement of the overall environmental quality of the
tourism areas for the benefit of both tourism and residents

Types of environmental impacts

Positive impacts

1. Conservation of important natural areas
Tourism can help justify and pay for conservation of important natural areas and
development of parks and reserves, including the establishment of national and regional
parks because they are attractions for tourists. Without tourism, these natural areas might be
developed for other uses or allowed to ecologically deteriorate, with a consequent loss of
environmental heritage. Marine conservation, especially of reef areas, is receiving much
attention in some places because these are important attractions for tourism, and furthermore
protect beaches from erosions.



2. Conservation of archaeological and historic sites and architectural character
Provides the incentive and helps pay for the conservation of archaeological and historical
sites that might otherwise be allowed to deteriorate, thus resulting in the loss of the cultural
heritage of areas.

3. Improvement of environmental quality
Can help provide the incentive for ‘cleaning up’ the overall environment through control of
air, water and noise pollution, littering and other environmental problems, and for improving
environmental aesthetics through landscaping programs, appropriate building designs, signs
controls and better building maintenance.

4. Enhancement of the environment
Development of well-designed tourist facilities (for example, attractive, landscaped hotel)
may enhance rural or urban landscapes that are otherwise dull and uninteresting.

5. Improvement of infrastructure
An economic as well as environmental benefit, local infrastructures of airports, roads, water,
sewage and solid waste disposal systems and telecommunications can be improved through
the development of tourism.

6. Increasing environmental awareness
In places where residents have limited interest in and concern about the natural environment
and its conservation, observing tourists’ interest and nature and realizing the importance of
conservation to the economic success of tourism can encourage local awareness in this
subject.

Negative impacts

1. Water pollution
If a proper sewage disposal system has not been installed, there may be pollution of ground
water from the sewage, or if a sewage outfall has been constructed into a nearby river, lake
or coastal sea water and the sewage has not been adequately treated, the effluent will pollute
that water area. Can also result from recreational and tourist transportation motor boats
spilling oil and gas and cleaning their bilges into the water.

2. Air pollution
Can result from excessive use of internal combustion vehicles (cars, buses, motorcycles)
used by and for tourists in particular areas.

3. Noise pollution
Noise generated by a concentration of tourists, tourist road and off-road RVs such as dune
buggies and snowmobiles, airplanes, motor boats and sometimes certain type of tourist
attractions such as amusement parks or car/motorcycle race tracks may reach uncomfortable
and irritating levels for nearby residents and other tourists.

4. Waste disposal problems
Littering of debris on the landscape. Improper disposal of solid waste from hotels,
restaurants and resorts can generate both litter and environmental health problems from
vermin, disease and pollution as well as being unattractive.
5. Visual pollution
May results from several sources:



• Poorly designed hotels and other tourist facility buildings
• Use of unsuitable building materials on external surfaces
• Badly planned layout of tourist facilities
• Inadequate or inappropriate landscaping
• Use of large and ugly advertising signs
• Overhead utility (electric and telephone) lines and poles
• Poor maintenance of building and landscaping

6. Ecological disruption
Overuse of fragile natural environments by tourists can lead to ecological damage, for
example;
• Killing or stunting the growth of vegetation in parks and conservation areas by many
tourists walking through them and compacting the soil around the vegetation,
• Trees being cut by hikers and campers for use as fuel to make campfires, and
• Erosion resulting from overuse of hiking and riding trails in steep-sloped areas
• Also, road development may interfere with normal animal migration patterns

7. Environmental hazards
Poor land use planning, sitting, and engineering design of tourists facilities, as well as any
type of development, can generate erosions, landslides, flooding and other problems. In
some cases, good planning may not prevent damage by environmental disasters but may
greatly reduce the extent of it.

8. Damage to archaeological and historic sites
Overuse or misuse of environmentally fragile archaeological and historic sites can lead to
the damage of these features through excessive wear, increased humidity, vibration,
vandalism, graffiti writing and so forth.

9. Land use problems
If not well developed according to sound land use planning principles, tourism development
can result in land use problems. Without integrated land use and infrastructure may become
overloaded, leading to traffic congestion and insufficient water supply and sewage disposal
systems.

Perspective on socioeconomic impacts

Host and Guest Relationships

Some types of socioeconomic impacts are the normal changes and stresses resulting from any kind
of economic development, even when the residents and the tourists are of the same cultural
backgrounds and socioeconomic levels, as is often the case with domestic tourism. Other impacts
result from socioeconomic differences between the residents and tourists of either the same or
different cultural background – the respective levels of social, economic and political development
of the residents and tourists can be critical factor.

A third type of impact can result from substantial cultural differences between residents and tourists
– may relate to basic value and logic systems, religious beliefs, traditions, customs, life-styles,
behavioral patterns, dress codes sense of time budgeting, attitude towards strangers and many other
factors.
Differences in languages between tourists and residents can create frustrating situations and
sometimes lead to misunderstanding. Compounding the complexity of resident-tourist relationships


is the situation that often there are various different cultural and socioeconomic levels represented
among the tourists visiting the areas, and there may also be different cultural backgrounds and
socioeconomic levels represented among the residents, all of which may come into contact with one
another.

Tourists-residents encounters occur in three (3) main contexts:
• Where the tourist is purchasing some good or service from the host
• Where the tourist and host find themselves side by side (for example, on a beach or at a
nightclub)
• Where the two parties come face to face with the object of exchanging information or ideas

Types of socioeconomic impacts

Positive impacts

1. Economic benefits
Direct economics benefits include provision of employment, income, and foreign exchange,
which lead to improved living standards of the local community and overall national and
regional economic development. Increased government revenue, through various types of
taxation on tourism that can be used to develop community and infrastructure facilities and
services and assist in general economic development.

An important indirect economic benefit is that it serves as a catalyst for the development or
expansion of other economic sectors. Another indirect benefit is improvement made to
transportation and other infrastructure facilities and services for tourism that also serve
general national, regional and community needs.

2. Conservation of cultural heritage
Can be a major stimulus for conservation of important elements of the cultural heritage of an
area because their conservation can be justified. These elements include:
• Conservation of archaeological and historic sites and interesting architectural styles
• Conservation and sometimes revitalization of traditional arts, handicrafts, dance, music,
drama, customs and ceremonies, dress and certain aspects of traditional life-styles
• Financial assistance for the maintenance of museums, theaters and other cultural
facilities and activities and for supporting the organization of special cultural festivals
and events because they are important attractions for tourists as well as being used by
residents

3. Renewal of cultural pride
A sense of pride by residents in their culture can be reinforced or even renewed when they
observe tourists appreciating it. In multi-cultural countries, regional tourism can help
maintain the cultural identity of the minority cultural groups.

4. Cross-cultural exchange
Can promote cross-cultural exchange of tourists and residents learning more about one
another’s cultures, resulting in mutual understanding and respect. Domestic tourism can
ideally help achieve cross-cultural understanding and build a sense of national unity among
diverse groups of people

Negative impacts



1. Loss of potential economic benefits
Can sometimes be generated if many tourist facilities are owned and managed by outsiders.
Potential foreign exchange earnings are reduced when imported goods and services are
utilized in tourism.

2. Economic and employment distortions
Can take place geographically if tourism is concentrated in only one or a few areas of a
country or region. Resentments by residents in the undeveloped areas may ensue from this
situation. Employment distortions may be created if tourism attracts too many employees
from other economic sectors.

Resentment and conflict may arise within families if tourism provides new and higher wage
employment for certain family members. There may be resentment by residents if migrant
workers are brought in to work in tourism.

3. Overcrowding and loss of amenities for residents
If there is overcrowding that resulting in residents cannot conveniently use the facilities,
they will become irritated and resentful of tourism. Domestic tourists also may become
resentful if their own attractions are congested by foreigners.

4. Cultural impacts
Over-commercialization and loss of authenticity of traditional arts and crafts, customs and
ceremonies can result if these are over-modified to suit tourist demands. In extreme cases,
there may be loss of cultural character, self-respect and overall social identity because of
submergence of the local society by the outside cultural patterns of seemingly affluent and
successful tourists.

Misunderstanding and conflict can arise between residents and tourists because of
differences in language, customs, religious values and behavioral patterns. Violations of
local dress codes by tourists may be resented by residents and even lead to conflicts if strong
religious values are being transgressed.

5. Social problems
Problems of drugs, alcoholism, crime and prostitution may be exacerbated by tourism,
although tourism is seldom the basic cause of such problems. However, it appears that
tourism contributes to crime, especially on a seasonal basis – occurs through the generation
frictions between the host population and tourists and the fact that the target criminals is
expanded and situations are created where gains from crime may be high and the likelihood
of detection small

Measuring economic costs and benefits

The macro level means economic measurement of costs and benefits. Micro levels of project
feasibility analysis constitute important components of tourism planning and are utilized as major
criteria, along with environmental and socio-cultural factors. The basic input for preparing
economic analysis is tourist expenditures – visitor expenditure surveys are conducted to determine
the amount and distribution of tourism spending. If little or no tourism exist in the planning area,
then expenditures can be projected based on various assumptions, including tourist spending
patterns in similar destination areas.

Types of economic impact measurement



1. Contribution to gross national or gross regional product (GNP/GRP)
Tourism is seldom shown as separate sector but is included in services, transportation and
other sectors in national or regional accounts. Consequently, estimates often based on the
income generated by tourism.

Tourism can be as important component of the economy, ranging up to 5 and 10 percent of
the total GNP or GRP for both domestic and international tourism in some large countries or
regions, and can be much more important in smaller countries with well-developed tourism
sectors and especially some island tourist destinations.

2. Contribution to foreign exchange earnings
The gross foreign exchange can be calculated from the foreign tourist expenditure patterns –
essential to determine the import content of tourism to derive the net foreign exchange
earned. Potential foreign exchange earnings are reduced when government exempt custom
duties or taxes on foreign-owned companies as investment incentives.

3. Employment generation
The local employment generated by tourism is measured based on direct or primary and
indirect or secondary jobs:
• Direct employment – which is involved in tourism enterprises
• Indirect employment – the jobs generated in the supplying sectors, such as agriculture,
fisheries and manufacturing

4. Multiplier effect *
The term multiplier is used to describe the total effect, both direct and indirect, that an
external source of income has on an economy. Based on tourist expenditures, the multiplier
effect refers to the number of round of spending with regards to the initial expenditures
within the local economy or the ways in which tourist spending filters through the economy.

5. Contribution to government revenues
Potential revenues include hotel and other uses or expenditure taxes, airport departure taxes,
custom duties on imported goods used in tourism, income taxes on tourism enterprises and
persons working in tourism, and property taxes on tourism establishment.

Input-output analysis is now widely used to examine economic impact if the basic tables
have been prepared for the country or region - Easier to accurately calculate the economic
impact of tourism. Provide a basis for enhancing tourism economic benefits.

6. Cost-benefit analysis
Can be conducted generally at the macro national and regional levels - Should be more
specifically calculated along with feasibility analysis at the project level. Cost-benefit
analysis is a technique used to determine how much benefit the economic sector will
produce in terms of foreign exchange, employment, and income and government revenues,
related to the costs of development.

Economic cost and benefits must be combined with socio-cultural and environmental costs
and benefits to arrive at an overall evaluation of the net costs and benefits of tourism to an
area. A feasibility study is detailed systematic analysis of all aspects of a particular project in
order to determine its financial, marketing, environmental and social feasibility.

*Multiplier effect – how tourism spending flows into the economy



Tourist spends for: Travel enterprises spend for: Ultimate beneficiaries:

Accountants
Wages and salaries Appliance stores
Lodging Tips and gratuities Architects
Food Payroll taxes Automobile factory
Beverages Commissions Bank workers
Entertainment Music and entertainment Carpenters
Clothing etc. Administrative & general Cooks
Gifts and souvenirs expenses Doctors
Photography Professional services Engineers
Personal care, Purchase of food beverages, etc Farmers
drug & cosmetics Purchase of good sold Government
Internal Purchase of materials & supplies Insurance workers
transportation Repairs and maintenance Manufacturing workers
Tours & Advertising, promotion & Porters
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Special interest tourism’s future
Did you know 10% of the entire Global workforce is employed in tourism? Many countries are
experiencing a shortage of trained, knowledgeable travel professionals due to this high growth
industry.

Below are excerpts from research studies by the World Travel & Tourism Council; the results of a
survey by Statistics Canada and Conference Board of Canada, Canadian Travel Distribution Report;
and TICO, the Travel Industry Council of Ontario on the growth of tourism locally and around the
world.

A survey by Statistics Canada showed 37% of people online window-shopped for travel services,
and 55% of Canadians, or more than 6 out of 10 purchased directly from a travel agency. A study
by Conference Board of Canada, Canadian Travel Distribution Report finds an even higher
percentage of travellers use the services of a travel agency. TICO, the Travel Industry Council of
Ontario reports Ontario travellers spent over $4 billion in overseas travel. Cruises, weddings,
honeymoons, luxury and adventure travel (all ages) are fast growing travel markets.

Quotes from The World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC):



"Global Travel and Tourism Exceeded US$6 Trillion in 2005; “We are witnessing the power,
speed and vitality of Travel & Tourism and how they can bring economic opportunity and jobs to
people and economies seeking sustainable development”.

"The industry is expected to grow 4.6 per cent (real terms), to US$6.5 trillion in 2006. The global
Travel & Tourism industry is expected to produce 2.5 million new jobs in 2006, comprising 76.7
million jobs, or 2.8 per cent of total world employment. Travel & Tourism are expected to create
nearly 10 million new jobs globally, for a total of 234.3 million jobs or 8.7 per cent of total
employment".

Richard Miller, Executive Vice President of WTTC said, "Although events like the tsunami,
bombings and hurricanes, as well as a major increase in the price of oil, could have dampened
demand, it appears that consumers are becoming more resilient, and Travel & Tourism continue to
be a significant part of everyday life”.

The role of Internet

The Internet is a great way to research information however for many, the amount of information
has become totally overwhelming, time consuming and at times unreliable. Customer care may be a
concern as the internet is impersonal. When there is a question or concern about a product and/or
service purchased online it is often difficult to secure assistance making it time consuming to
resolve matters (if at all) without a 'live' person to deal with.

Some companies are unresponsive to customer concerns and instead choose to "hide" behind the
Internet. Further, booking travel over the internet may be quite complex as products are not always
clearly described in an accurate way; consumers do not have the advantage of best product and
price comparisons without knowledge of all possible travel suppliers; insurance options are often
inadequately described or explained; as is entry requirements e.g. passports, visas, health and
security policies and procedures.

Highly trained professional travel agents ensure important information is provided and understood
by their client prior to travelling. Highly trained professional travel agents ensure important
information is provided and understood by their client prior to travelling. These are excellent
reasons for travellers to use the personal services of an agent rather than book over the Internet.

Providing credit card and personal information on the Internet is required when booking online, this
should be a concern to everyone. Regardless of security and firewalls, many corporations simply
can't keep up with hackers and scammers.

The role of professional travel agents

The services of a professional travel agent is invaluable. They are trained to research and price
compare for the best tour, cruise, airline, hotel etc. and to provide information on travel insurance
options; climate, entry requirements (e.g. passport, visa and health requirements) before
recommending and booking the best travel product to their client. There is a shortage of well trained
staff in the travel industry due to high growth therefore; career opportunities should continue to
increase.

Travel trends and predictions



Travel with a purpose

The rise of the package holiday and 'bucket and spade' culture during the past half century led us to
believe that travel was about jetting off for two weeks of sun, sand and souvenirs. And more
recently, the advent of low-cost airlines has seen tourism become, for many people, a race to tick
off trophy experiences and destinations.

We collect the passport stamps and the digital photos, and then move on to the next 'unmissable'
sight. If I walked into a high street travel agent today, the first question I would be asked is 'Where
do you want to go?' I've always thought that this was the wrong question: it isn't the 'where' that's
important; it's the 'why' and the 'how'. I want to go on holiday to re-charge my batteries or to
reconnect with myself.

Sometimes I want to meet new people or to discover and learn about another place and another
culture. When deciding what my next holiday will be, I try to place the focus more on what I need
from the holiday and what I can give back to destinations and local people.

As the cost of flying increases (whether it's due to increases in the cost of aviation fuel, tax rises or
the imposition of emissions trading) and 'carbon guilt' sets in - meaning we no longer feel entirely
comfortable boasting about our overseas holidays - the 'why' and 'how' of travel will surely become
more important.

When we travel in the future, it will be with more of a purpose, with not only our own needs in
mind, but also those of the destination. This new way of traveling could be described as 'deep'
travel. It will be about getting under the skin of a place. We already seek out authenticity - real
experiences rather than fake culture packaged up for tourists - but travel in 2020 will go further.

It will be about the appreciation of local distinctiveness, the idiosyncrasies and the detail, the things
that make a place unique and special. It will be as much about the smell of fresh spices in Kerala in
India and the colorful tailors of Hoi An in Vietnam as it is about rediscovering the exotic and
locally distinctive closer to home - be it bluebells in an English wood or the taste of Wensleydale
cheese.

Keeping it local

As the cost of flying increases, we'll see the end of the truly low-cost airline. Consequently, the
'local' approach will become central to travel - not only as a new mindset in the quest for local
distinctiveness but also as a factor affecting our choice in destinations. To coin a new term, travel in
2020 will be 'geo-local'. In other words, holidaymakers will travel much closer to home.

We'll begin to travel more within our own countries and continents, and less frequently beyond
them. A British family might head to Cornwall to stay in a locally run Cornish cottage, shop for
Cornish crafts and enjoy a cream tea. Holidaymakers will increasingly discover that the exoticness
of the unknown doesn't have to take the form of a desert island in the middle of the Pacific.

Tourism will no longer be dominated by Westerners either. We'll see residents of India and China
becoming more mobile than ever before from a leisure perspective. Already, hotels in India and
China that once hosted Western visitors almost exclusively are beginning to see proportion of
domestic guests’ rise, in some cases overtaking the number of foreigners.
By 2020, we'll also see the majority of hotels getting their produce, employees, materials, services
and the like from sources within their immediate vicinity. I refer to this as 'hyper-local' sourcing.



We'll see a new type of hotel - 'the ten-kilometer hotel' - for which all food and materials will have
been sourced from within a ten-kilometer radius.

In addition, these hotels will provide energy and water for guests on a metered system, and separate
charges for each will appear on their bill. Discounts will be offered for those visitors who keep their
energy and water use below average.

Alternative transport

Driven by the increased cost of flying, travel will begin to develop parallels with the slow-food
movement. We'll gradually see an appreciation of 'slow travel', with journeys made by train, boat
and bike gaining in popularity. People will gain a greater appreciation for the journey itself, as
opposed to the restless striving for the next destination.

This change in mindset will be coupled with improvements in other forms of transport, making the
whole experience more enjoyable. I hope that we'll see carbon caps set for every airline and that an
investment in rail travel - and a consequent reduction in cost - will be one of the direct beneficiaries
of carbon trading. Planning rail travel will also be easier as timetables are designed to link up fast
trains between countries and one global website is created through which to book them all.

In the same way that travelers now choose tour companies and hotels based on their responsible-
tourism credentials, new websites will allow you to choose flights from the lowest-carbon airline
for your particular journey. Although there is a widespread belief within the industry that there isn't
any alternative to kerosene aviation fuel, I think we will see airlines increasingly making use of
environmentally friendly bio-fuels. And we're sure to see the implementation of new ideas, such as
adding giant sails to cruise ships to reduce their enormous carbon footprint, and the return to old
ideas such as using airships for shorter journeys.

Holiday labeling

Over the past few decades, we've seen the food industry introduce an array of labels: fair trade,
organic, locally produced and increasingly, 'carbon ratings'. I think we'll eventually see a similar
scheme being applied to holidays, although I don't think that the labeling will be limited to the
carbon content. Although it would be fiendishly difficult to implement, a truly holistic approach to
responsible tourism would include a rating for the holiday's impact on local communities and
cultures, as well as on the local environment.

Destinations: changing climates and future planning

Climate change is already having a profound impact on tourism and will soon start to change which
destinations we feel comfortable about visiting and when. The traditional holiday migration of
Northern Europeans to Southern Europe during July and August will be threatened by temperatures
that are too hot for many tourists.

Many destinations will also be forced to change their focus. Many lower Alpine ski resorts already
have to either close or place the emphasis more on summer walking holidays. Coral bleaching,
coastal erosion and a rise in sea level will threaten many traditional diving and beach destinations.
Extreme weather events are also likely to become more frequent, reducing the tourist season in
many destinations, such as those in the Caribbean.
The consequences of global warming, including crop failures and changes in water availability, will
lead to mass migration and increased social and political instability - threatening tourism in some of
the countries that are most dependent upon it. Given the reality of climate change, destinations need



to actively plan ahead to ensure that they attract the right kind of visitors to the right areas of their
country in a way that maximizes sustainability.

Conclusion

For too long, tourism ministers have single-mindedly pursued increased tourist numbers without
fully understanding either the local economic benefits of different types of tourists or the true cost
of tourism to local cultures and the environment. Smart destinations will no longer just pursue more
tourists per se. Instead, they will focus more on the types of tourists they need and matching these to
the most suitable areas and communities within their country.

As a result, economic benefits will be maximized, while social and environmental costs are kept to
a minimum. We'll also see a change in the way that destinations are presented and marketed to
travelers. There will be further growth in consumer-led, online peer-to-peer travel advice and this
will spark a 'democratization' of travel.

By this I mean that travelers and locals alike will gradually be more empowered to speak on behalf
of a diversity of new and interesting places. Everyone will begin to have a say in the destinations of
the future, threatening the current monopoly of the 'mega-icons' and 'must-see' sights, whether it be
the Inca Trail, Kilimanjaro or the Taj Mahal. The repercussions on destinations will be vast.
Negative impacts such as overcrowding will be reduced and the benefits of tourism spread more
broadly.


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