O sulaiman 1f

Biosciences, Biotechnology Research Asia Vol. 7(2), 559-578 (2010)

Potential of biomass cogeneration marine system powering

O.O. SULAIMAN¹, A.H. SAHARUDDIN¹, A.S.A. KADER¹ and K.B. SAMO²

¹Department of Maritime Technology, University Malaysia Terengganu, (Malaysia).
²Department of Marine Technology, University Teknologi Malaysia (Malaysia).

(Received: September 10, 2010; Accepted: October 22, 2010)

ABSTRACT

Waste disposal from ships is becoming an increasing problem in today’s society. Thus
various ways are being promoted to minimize, re-use and recycle waste streams there will always
be residual wastes in a safe and beneficial way. The classification of fuels derived from waste
sources as sustainable is controversial especially when it is linked to carbon cycle and food. The
processing of these waste types, by various means, to provide fuels for electricity and heat
generation, and transportation fuels, can provide many environmental advantages in term of
energy production that lead to vast reduction in the waste stream, production of valuable byproducts,
waste land reduction and the killing of the pathogens and bacteria that cause disease. The
process can be more sustainable by using hybrid cogeneration biomass system for marine
system. This paper will consider how enormous waste from ship and port and discuss potential of
hybrid biomass cogeneration for marine system for port powering.

Keywords: Alternative energy, sustainability, hybrid, port, power, energy energy,
bio-derived, waste, recycle, environment, assessment, marine.

INTRODUCTION Sustainability requirement that can be
solved through energy conservation (cf. IPCC
Green house gas (GHG) pollution is linked 2007:13) are energy and associated efficiency,
to energy source. Large amount of pollution Development, environment, poverty. Stakeholder
affecting air quality is prone by reckless industrial from government's consumers, industry
development. For years, many think that everything transportation, buildings, product designs
that run into the trio of nature, the atmosphere, ocean (equipment networks and infrastructures) must
and soil is infinite. The atmosphere and the ocean participate in the decision work for sustainable
that is providing source of freshening, winds and system. Recently the marine industry is getting the
current are far more vulnerable to polluting activities following compliance pressure regarding
from manmade energy sources that have run off environmental issues related to emission to air
into them too many poisons that the air, the ocean under IMO MARPOL Annex VI. A world without port
and land may cease to serve more purpose if care means a lot to economy transfer of goods,
is not taking to prevent pollution affluence. Human availability of ships and many things. Large volume
activities are altering the atmosphere, and the of hinterland transportation activities import tells a
planet is warming. It is now clear that the costs of lot about intolerant to air quality in port area.
inaction are far greater than the costs of action. Adopting new energy system will make a lot of
Aversion of catastrophic impacts can be achieved difference large number of people residing and
by moving rapidly to transform the global energy working in the port. Most port facilities are powered
system. by diesel plant. Integrating hybrid of hydrogen and

560 Sulaiman et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 7(2), 559-578 (2010)

solar into the existing system will be a good way for system for effectiveness to curb climate change
the port community to adapt to new emerging clean contributing factor, price of oil, reducing treat of
energy concept1,2. depletion of global oil reserve. Malaysia tropical
climate with reasonable sunlight fall promise usage
The search for new source of energy to of source of sun hybrid candidate energy, also
mitigate threat of climate change is becoming an hydrolysis from various components to produce fuel
urgent matter. New knowledge and technology cell and hybridization with conventional system and
have emerged. and race is on for the choice of the combined extraction of heat from entire system
best. Ports of the world collect massive waste from seem very promising to deliver the requirement for
the ship and oil platform. There is no drain in this future energy for ports.
planet; the waste got nowhere to go, but to return
back to the system with consequential This paper discuss available marine
environmental damage, contamination of rivers, environmental issues, source of energy today,
estuarine and the ocean and landfill and associated evolution of alternative energy due to the needs of
degradation as well as cost treatment. The greatest the time and the barrier of storage requirement,
challenge for humanity lies in recycling waste for system matching of hybrid design feasibility,
production of energy. regulations consideration and environmental
stewardship. The paper also discusses holistic
Sources of alternative energy are natural. assessment requirement, stochastic evaluation,
There has been a lot of research about the use of using system based doctrine, recycling and
free fall energy from the sun to the use of reverse integrated approach to produce energy. With hope
electrolysis to produce fuel cell. For one reason or to contribute to the ongoing strives towards
the other these sources of energy are not reducing green house gases, ozone gas depletion
economical to produce. Most of the problems lie on agents and depletion of oxygen for safety of the
efficiency and storage capability. Early human planet in order to sustain it for the right of future
civilization use nature facilities of soil, inland generation.
waterways, waterpower which are renewable for
various human needs. Modern technology Energy, environment and sustainable
eventually replaces renewable nature with non development
renewable sources which requires more energy Since the discovery of fire, and the
and produces more waste. Energy, Economic and harnessing of animal power, mankind has captured
Efficiency (EEE) have been the main driving force and used energy in various forms for different
to technological advancement in shipping. purposes. This include the use of animal for
Environmental problem linkage to source of energy transportation, use of fire, fuelled by wood, biomass,
poses need and challenge for new energy source. waste for cooking, heating, the melting of metals,
The paper discuss risk based iterative and windmills, waterwheels and animals to produce
integrative sustainability balancing work required mechanical work. Extensive reliance on energy
between the 4 Es in order to enhance and started during industrial revolution. For years there
incorporate use of right hybrid combination of has been increased understanding of the
alternative energy source (Biomass, solar and environmental effects of burning fossil fuels has
hydrogen) with existing energy source (steam diesel led to stringent international agreements, policies
or steam) to meet marine system energy demands and legislation regarding the control of the harmful
(port powering). emissions related to their use. Despite this
knowledge, global energy consumption continues
Hybrid use of alternative source of energy to increase due to rapid population growth and
remains the next in line for the port and ship power. increased global industrialization. In order to meet
Public acceptability of hybrid energy will continue the emission target, various measures must be
to grow especially if awareness is drawn to risk taken, greater awareness of energy efficiency
cost benefit analysis result from energy source among domestic and industrial users throughout
comparison and visual reality simulation of the the world will be required, and domestic,

Sulaiman et al., Biosci., Biotech. Res. Asia, Vol. 7(2), 559-578 (2010) 561

commercial and industrial buildings, industrial methods and fuels for heating and transport must
processes, and vehicles will need to be designed be developed and used. Sustainable design can
to keep energy use at a minimum. Fig. 1 shows that be described as system work that which enhances
the use of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) accounted ecological, social and economic well being, both
continue to increase]. Fig. 2 shows the contribution now and in the future. The global requirement for
of total energy consumption in the by global region sustainable energy provision is become
and Fig. 3 show natural gas consumption2, 3. increasingly important over the next fifty years as
the environmental effects of fossil fuel use become
apparent. As new and renewable energy supply
technologies become more cost effective and
attractive, a greater level of both small scale and
large scale deployment of these technologies will
become evident. Currently there is increasing global
energy use of potential alternative energy supply
system options, complex integration and switching
for design requirement for sustainable, reliable and
efficient system. The issues surrounding integration
Fig. 1: GHG Emissions Reductions through of renewable energy supplies need to be
2050, by Consuming Sector considered carefully.

Current use of renewable energy
Most renewable energy development and
supply are in small-scale, particularly on islands
and in remote areas, where the import of energy
sources through transport, pipeline or electricity grid
is difficult or expensive. Individual buildings,
industries and farms are also looking to the
possibility of energy self-sufficiency to reduce fuel
bills, and make good use of waste materials which
are becoming increasingly difficult and expensive
to dispose various studies have been carried out
Fig. 2: World consumption of energy by region into the extensive use of new and renewable
resources, to generate electricity, on a small scale,
for rural communities, grid-isolated islands and
individual farms. Recent studies focus on:
i. Security of supply: where consideration is
given to intermittent sources, demand and
supply must be as well matched as possible,
and this is generally a function of climate.
Available supply sources should be
considered in order to find the best possible
correlation between demand and supply.
ii. Hybrid with conventional system: where
energy limited sources used as spinning
Fig. 3: World consumption of natural gas EIA, 2007
reserve for times when the intermittent supply
does not meet the demand. If this type of
Various measures must be taken to reduce spinning reserve is not available, the need
emission targets. The current reliance on fossil fuels for adequate electricity storage was shown
for electricity generation, heating and transport to be an important consideration, especially
must be greatly reduced, and alternative generation in smaller scale projects.


Emerging renewable energy system intermittent sources. It is prudent to use as diverse
In order to provide a reliable electricity a mix of generators as possible.
supply, reduce energy wastage, and enable the
energy requirements for heat and transport to be Where substantial amounts of intermittent
met, the outputs of these intermittent sources may sources are used in a system, it is useful to have an
be supplemented by various means. These may outlet for excess electricity, in order to avoid wastage.
include the use of storage devices and the use of The electricity stored, using various means,
biomass and waste materials in engines, turbines depending on the scale of storage required can be
and fuel cells for the production of electricity and available for use at times when there is not enough
heat, in vehicles for transportation, or in heating being generated to meet demand. The sizing and
supply or storage systems. The integration and type of storage system required depends on the
control strategies for all of these components must relationship between the supply and demand
be carefully considered and implemented, and this profiles. For excess amount electricity produced this
complexity has been seen as a barrier to could be used to make hydrogen via the electrolysis
renewable energy system deployment. There are of water. This hydrogen could then be stored, used
many possible supply combinations that can be in heaters or converted back into electricity via a
employed, and the optimum combination for a fuel cell later as required. Using excess electricity,
given area depends on many factors. The balances this hydrogen could be produced centrally and
being considered can be complex, and this piped to for port or produced at vehicle filling stations
highlights the need for a decision support for haulage, or at individual facilities in the port6,7.
framework through which the relative merits of
many different scenarios and control strategies Energy consumption, demand and supply
for a chosen area can be quickly and easily Energy is considered essential for
analyzed4,5. economic development, Malaysia has taken
aggressive step in recent year to face challenges
The intermittent nature of most easily of the world of tomorrow, and this includes research
exploited sources of alternative energy remains the activities strategic partnership. One example is
major problem for the supply the electricity network. partnership with the Japanese Government for
This has implications for the management of this construction on sustainable energy power station
transitional period as the balance between supply in the Port Klang power station, Pasir Gudang power
and demand must be maintained as efficiently and station, Terengganu Hydro-electric power station
reliably as possible while the system moves towards and Batang Ai Hydro-electric power station which
the ultimate goal of a 100% renewable energy are main supply to major Malysian port. The above
supply over the next fifty to one hundred years. It enumerated power stations are constructed with
important to take the of amount intermittent electricity energy-efficient and resource-efficient
sources that can be integrated into a larger-scale technologies. Where power station are upgraded
electricity supply network into consideration. the power station by demolishing the existing aging,
inefficient and high emission conventional natural
Excess supply could be supplied by plant gas/oil-fired plant (360MW) and installing new
run on fuels derived from biomass and waste. The 750MW high efficiency and environment friendly
renewable hybrid age require utilities, local combined cycle gas fired power plant built at amount
authorities and other decision makers to be able of JPY 102.9 billion. Table 1 shows Malaysia energy
to optimization that beat constraints, potentials, and environmental data from EIA, and Table 2
and other energy requirements from port shows energy outlook for Malaysia.
powering. When intermittent electricity generating
sources are used in a sustainable energy supply The combined-cycle generation plant is
system, it is important to consider how well the estimated to reduce the power station's
profiles of demand and supply of electricity match. environmental impact, raise generation efficiency
It is advisable to seek the best possible match by and make the system more stable. The total capacity
using varying amounts of a range of different of power generation of 1,500MW is equal to 14% of


total capacity of Tenaga National Berhad TNB in and Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission is reduced by
peninsula of 10,835MW and indeed this power 30%. Port operation energy demands are for
station is one of the best thermal power stations transportation, hot water and heat. This third
with highest generation efficiency in Malaysia of generation plan can easily be integrated with
more than 55%. The rehabilitation, the emissions alternative energy. Table 1 and 2 show Malaysia
of Nitride oxide (NOx) is reduced by 60%, Sulfur energy and environment outlook And Fig. 4 show
dioxide (SO2) per unit is reduced by almost 100% Malaysia energy consumption.

Table 1: Malaysia environmental review [EIA]

Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide 163.5 million Metric tons, of which Oil (44%),
Emissions (2006E) Natural Gas (41%), Coal (15%)
Per-Capita, Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide 6.7 Metric tons
Emissions ((Metric Tons of Carbon Dioxide) (2006E)
Carbon Dioxide Intensity (2006E) 0.6 Metric tons per thousand $2000-PPP**96.0
billion kilowatt hours

Table 2: Malaysia Energy outlook [EIA, 2006]

Proven Oil Reservoir (January 2009) 4 Billion Barrels

Oil production (2008) 727, 2000 bbl/d, of which 84% is crude
oil
Oil consumption (2008) 547,000 bbl/d
Crude oil ldistilation capacity (January 2009) 514,832 bbl/d
Proven natural reserve (2007) 83 trillion cubic feet
Natural gas production (2007) 2.3 trillion cubic feet
Natural gas consumption (2007) 1.2 trillion cubic feet
Recoverable coal reserves (2008) 4.4 million short tons
Coal production (2007) 1.1 million short tons
Coal consumption (2007) 18.5 million short tons
Electricity Installed Capacity (2006E) 23.3 gigawatts
Electricity Production (2006E) 99.1 billion kilowatt hours
Total Energy Consumption (2006E) 2.56 quadrillion Btu*, of which Natural
Gas (35%), Oil (41%), Coal (15%),
Hydroelectricity (2%)
Energy Intensity (2006E) 99.4 million Btu per person
Total Per Capita Energy Consumption ((Million Btu) (2006E) 8,891 Btu per $2000-PPP**

Fig. 2 shows the statistic of energy use in Energy demand for port work is supply from
Malaysia. The energy use in all sectors has grids which are well established in most developed
increased in recent years, most especially the world. The method and sitting of generating
energy use for transport has almost doubled it conventional energy and renewable energy
continues to grow and becoming problem. This trend determine system configuration. Hierarchy systems
is being experienced in industrialized and that can be deduced from these two variables are:
developing world i. Limited capacity energy: This includes
traditional thermal plants coal fired, gas fired,
oilfired and nuclear power plants, which


supply almost all of the electricity to the Fossil fuel use for transportation and port
national grid. The amount of electricity that activities has increased dramatically over the past
can be generated is limited by the physical decade, and shows little signs of abating. This has
capacity of the plant, time for maintenance caused concern about related environmental and
and unplanned outages. health effects. There is need to develop alternatively
ii. Limited energy plant: they are Renewable fuel system that produces little or no pollution. The
Energy Generators plant that are limited by main fuels that can be used in a variety of land, sea
the amount of energy or fuel available to and air vehicles are biogas in natural gas and fuel
them at a certain time from a certain area cell vehicles, biodiesel in diesel vehicles, ethanol
(e.g. rainfall, waste, seasonal energy crop and methanol in adapted petrol and fuel cell. Biogas
yields) and cannot always run at their rated can be converted to run on natural gas and in some
capacity. fuel cell. It must be cleaned first to create a high
iii. Intermittent energy plant: recent year has heating value gas (around 95% methane, a
seen increased hybrid generators. Growing minimum of heavy gases, and no water or other
distributed renewable generating plants has particles).
implications for the organization of the
electricity supply network. Interconnectivity Fuel cell powered engine can run on pure
network of electrical system configuration. hydrogen, producing clean water as the only
For centralized system it is better to have emission. Biodiesel can be used directly in a diesel
minor generators throughout the network engine with little or no modifications, and burns
that will allow many smaller areas of that much more cleanly and thoroughly than diesel,
network to become mainly self sufficient, with giving a substantial reduction in unburned
the grid stand as backup. hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate
matter. The main barriers to the implementation of
alternative fuels is the requirement for a choice of
fuel at a national level, the necessity to create a
suitable refuelling infrastructure, the length of time
it will take to replace or convert existing vehicles,
and the need for a strong public incentive to
change3,7,8.

Biomass demand and supply
Recent year has witnessed emerging
trade on biofuel product between the US, EU, and
Asia. Particularly South America, Brazil has already
Fig. 4: Malaysia Natural gar production been branded to be producing en-mass ethanol
and consumption trend, from sugar cane since the 1970s with a cost per
unit reportedly the lowest in the world. The top
importers from US, EU, Japan and Korea have
increasing demand that will have to be satisfied by
increased shipping capacity. Also seaborne
vegetable oil supply is increasingly growing. The
EU imports 5.7 mt in 2001 and rise to 10.3 mt for
2008, an almost 50% of total capacity. Fig. 2 show
statistic of present food related biofuel, this reflect
future food scarcity. Fig. 1 shows the present global
percentage of consumption for ethanol. Brazil
exports the most ethanol globally at about 2.9
Fig. 5: Malaysia Natural electricity
million tonnes per year7,9.
consumption (EIA, 2007)


Bioenergy Table 1: World ethanol consumption 2007 [EIA]
The 21st century is becoming age of
recycling where a lots of emphasize is placed on Region Consumption
reducing waste and reuse of material to curb current
environmental problems, maximizing use of World ethanol 51 million tones, 2007
depleting natural resources and conserve energy. consumption
Modern day sustainable use and management of US and brazil 68%
resource recommend incorporating recycling EU and China 17% - surplus of 0.1
culture in human ways and the use of modest million tones
process. Biomass is not left behind in this. The use US deficit 1.7mt
of biomass energy resource derived from the EU deficit 1.3 mt
carbonaceous waste of various natural and human World deficit 1mt
activities to produce electricity is becoming popular.

Table 2: Biofuel growth [NREL]

Biofuel source Growth in 2008 Gowth per annum

Vegetable oil 33 mt in 2000 to 59 mt 7.5%
Palm oil 13 mt in 2000 to 32 mt 8.9%
Soya bean 7 mt to some 11.5 mt 39%

Biomass is considered one of the clean, more low sulfur content, this give biomass combustion
efficient and stable means of power generation. advantage of less acidification than fossil fuel
Enormous waste being generated from marine source.
system make it imperative for marine industry to
tap this new evolving green technology to employ Biomass remains potential renewable
mobile based micro generation biomass for mobile energy contributor to net reduction in greenhouse
for marine energy system. gas emissions and offsetting of CO2 from fossil
generation. The current method of generating
Advantage of biomass compared to other biomass power is biomass fired boilers and Rankine
renewable based energy systems is that biomass steam turbines, recent research work in developing
can generate electricity with the same type of sustainable and economic biomass focus on high-
equipment and power plants that burn fossil fuels. pressure supercritical steam cycles. It uses
Innovations in power generation of fossil fuels may feedstock supply system, and conversion of
also be adaptable to the use of biomass fuels. Also biomass to a low or medium Btu gas that can be
the ashes from biomass consumption, which are fired in combustion turbine cycles. It result in
very low in heavy metals, can be recycled. Various efficiencies of one-and-a-half times that of a simple
factors notably have hindered the growth of the steam turbine. Biofuels has potential to influence
renewable energy resource, especially efficiency, marine industry, and it as become importance for
likewise most biomass power plants operating today ship designers and ship owners to accept their
are characterized by low boiler and thermal plant influence on the world fleet of the future. Especially
efficiencies. Both the fuel’s characteristics and the the micro generation concept with co generation
small size of most facilities contribute to these for cargo and fuel can be a good biomass system
efficiencies. In addition, such plants are costly to for ship. And the waste being dumped by ships in
build. All in all, converting waste into fuel is port can be use to power land based and coastal
beneficial even without a energy gain, if that waste infrastructure.
will otherwise pollute the environment. Biomass has


This paper discuss review of conceptual Biomass developmental trend
work, trend, sociopolitical driver, economic, The concept of using of biofuels for energy
development, risk approach and future of biomass generation has been existing for a long time. In the
with hope to bring awareness to local, national and face of challenges posed by environmental need,
multinational bodies making to adopt biofuels the treat of climate change, pollution of water
policies. The maritime industry is always slow to resources, and its growth is likely to dominate
adopt new technology. The paper direct awareness renewable energy market. The production and use
call to maritime multidisciplinary expertise in of biofuels worldwide has grown significantly in
regulation, economics, engineering, vessel design recent years. Biofuels exist in solid, liquid or gas
and operation to break the nity gritty barrier. Time form, thereby potentially affecting three main core
has come for the shipping industry to take energy markets of materials. Solid biofuels or
advantage of growing tide to tap benefit promised biomass is used in external combustion. Table 3
by use of waste to power generation for marine shows trend in biomass development. Biomass use
system. in the shipping industry is limited to liquid biofuel

Industry Progress

UK on June 2007 First train to run on biodiesel went into service for a six month trial period. The train
uses a blended fuel, which is Central. 20% biodiesel hybrid mix augmentation
possibility to at least a 50% mix. It has future possibility to run trains on fuels
entirely from non-carbon sources.
Argent Energy (UK) UK buses running on B100 was launched A UK pilot project where buses are run
on 26th of October on B100 Argent Energy (UK) Limited is working together with Stage coach to
2007 supply biodiesel made by recycling and processing animal fat and used cooking
oil for marine system. Limited is working together with Stagecoach to supply
biodiesel made by recycling and processing animal fat and use of cooking oil for
the pilot project.
Ohio Transit Authority Successfully tested a 20% blend of biodiesel (B20) in its buses wich eventually
(COTA) on leads to approval of fleet wise use of biodiesel. In April 2006. COTA is working to
January 15, 2006 use 50-90% biodiesel blends (B50 - B90) during the summer months.
US DOE development Funded five new advanced biomass gasification research and a A projection for
projects in 2001 regular decrease of diesel fuel consumption by over one million gallons per year.
(Vermont project)
Ford on 2008, Announce £1 billion research project to convert more of its vehicles to new biofuel
sources.
BP Australia Sold over 100 million liters of 10% ethanol content fuel to Australian motorists,
and Brazil sells both 22% ethanol petrol nationwide and 100% ethanol to over 4
million cars.
The Swedish Several Swedish universities, companies, and utilities, In 2008,Collaboration to
National Board for accelerate the demonstration of the gas turbine natural-gas firing plant (0.6
Industrial & Technical megawatts of power output for a simple gas /.turbine cycle). It is a trend that is
Development in gathering momentum.
Stockholm
‘AES Corporation Recently completed a successful trial to convert the plant to burn a mixture of coal
and biomass. With further investment in the technology, nearly half of Northern
Ireland’s 2012 renewable target could be met from AES Kilroot alone.
For power stations, B&W have orders in the EU for 45 MW of two-stroke biofuel engines with a thermal
efficiency of 51-52%. Specifically, these operate on palm oil of varying quality.


due to lack of appropriate information, economics can be classified into 3 generation types:
forecasts, sources of solid biomass include by-
products from the timber industry, agricultural crops, First generation biofuels, are made from
raw material from the forest, major parts of food like from sugar or starch, vegetable oil or
household waste, and demolition wood. All things animal fats to produce biodiesel.
being Table 3: Biomass development trend equal
using pure biomass that does not affect human and Second generation biofuels, are waste
ecological food chain is suitable energy source for derived biomass from agricultural and forestry, fast-
biomass. growing grasses and trees specially grown as so-
called "energy crops".
The current world biofuels market is
focused on: Bioethanol blended into fossil motor Third generation biofuels, use green
gasoline (petrol) or used directly and biodiesel or fuels like algae biofuel made from energy and
Fatty Acid Methyl Ester diesel blended into fossil biomass crops that have been designed in such a
diesel. The Fischer-Tropsch model involves way that their s tructure or properties conform to
catalyzed chemical reaction to produce a synthetic the requirements of a particular bioconversion
petroleum substitute, typically from coal, natural gas process.
or biomass. It is used to runs diesel engines and
some aircraft engines. The use as synthetic biofuel According to sources types
lubrication oil or aid synthetic fuel from waste seems North American Electric Reliability
promising and negates risk posed by food based Council (NERC) region supply has classified
biomass. Oil product and chemical tankers being biofuel into the following four types: agricultural
constructed now are likely to benefit from the use of residues, energy crops, forestry residues, and
biomass. However use on gasoline engines ignites urban wood waste and mill residues. A brief
the vapors at much higher temperatures pose description of each type of biomass is provided
limitation to inland water craft as more oxide of below:
nitrogen can be released to the atmosphere10, 11. i. Agricultural residues from the remaining
stalks and biomass material left on the
Biomass developmental trend spillage to ground can be collected and used for energy
shipping generation purposes this include residues
Just like tanker revolution influence on of wheat straw
ship type, demand for biomass will bring capacity, ii. Energy crops are produced solely or
bio - material change from source to production primarily for use as feedstocks in energy
area to the point of use. Technological, generation processes. Energy crops
environmental change will also require ships of includes hybrid, switch grass grown on idled,
different configuration, size and tank coating type or in pasture. The most important agricultural
as well as impact on the tonne mile demand. commodity crops being planted in the
Recently biofuel is driving a new technology United States are corn, wheat, and soybeans
worldwide; the use of biofuels for cars and public represent about 70 percent of total cropland
vehicles has grown significantly. Effect on shipping harvested. Thus, this is not encouraged to
is likely to be followed by shipping of large scale prevent food scarcity.
growth on exports and seaborne trade of biomass iii. Forestry residues are composed of logging
product from key exporting regions in order to residues, rough rotten salvageable dead
balance supply and demand. With excess capacity wood, and excess small pole trees.
waiting for source material it seems inevitable that iv. Urban wood, waste and mill residues are
shipping demand will increase. waste woods from manufacturing operations
that would otherwise be landfilled. The urban
Classification of biomass wood waste and mill residue category
According to generation types includes primary mill residues and urban
Biomass generation and growing trend wood such as pallets, construction waste,


and demolition debris, which are not of design. This means that heat to electricity ratios
otherwise useful. can vary from 1:1 to 5:1. This generation method is
particularly suited to the use of large quantities of
Biomass for electricity generation is treated in four solid waste or biomass, provided suitable boilers
ways in NEMS: are used, though start-up times are slow.
i. new dedicated biomass or biomass
gasification, Stirling Engines
ii. existing and new plants that co-fire biomass A Stirling engine is an external combustion
with coal, engine, where combustion of the fuel does not take
iii. existing plants that combust biomass directly place inside the engine, but in an external boiler.
in an open-loop process, and Mechanical work is derived from the pressure
iv. biomass use in industrial cogeneration changes that result from the cyclic heating and
applications. Existing biomass plants are cooling of an enclosed working gas. Heat from any
accounted for using information such as on- source may be used to run a Stirling engine,
line years, efficiencies, heat rates, and including concentrated solar rays, and waste heat
retirement dates, obtained through EIA but only fuelled Stirling engines will be considered
surveys of the electricity generation sector. here. This type of engine has many advantages
over other engines and turbines as it allows the
Choice of conventional power system use of fuels that are hard to process, and it has a
Internal Combustion and Diesel Engines fairly simple design, which makes it suitable for
Two common load following generation small-scale applications, gives the plant a lower
technologies involve the use of diesel in capital cost and reduces maintenance costs.
compression ignition engines (diesel engines), and Interest in Stirling engines is beginning to re-emerge
natural gas in internal combustion engines (ICEs). due to increased interest in biofuel use. Currently
Both of these engine types may also be run on available Stirling engine generating set outputs
sustainable fuels derived from biomass and waste, vary from 1 kWe to 200kWe, although larger engines
with diesel engines running on biodiesel, pyrolysis are feasible. Fig. 8 shows typical gas turbine
oil, or vegetable oil, and ICEs running on biogas, engine.
ethanol or methanol and this requires little or no
modification. Diesel engine generating sets with Gas Turbines
rated outputs from 50 kWe to 10 MWe, and ICE Gas turbines may be run on biogas, and
generating sets with rated outputs of between 100 are available with rated outputs of between 3 and
kWe and 2 MWe are available. Fig. 6 shows diesel 50MWe. Their operation is based on the Brayton
engine retrofit option towards reducing emission. Cycle, where incoming air is compressed to a high
Typically in the order of 2:1, and electrical pressure, fuel added to the air is burned to increase
efficiencies at full load are around 25 to 30%, again the gas temperature and pressure, and the resulting
varying with partial load. Fig. 6 shows a typical gases are expanded across the turbine blades,
internal combustion engine giving rotational movement. Coupled to a generator,
this provides electricity generation, and waste heat
Steam Turbines may also be recovered for use. Fig. 8 shows a typical
Steam turbines may be used for larger gas turbine engine operation system.
applications (between 1 and 1000 MW). These use
an external boiler to raise steam, which may be Choice of cogeneration alternative energy
fuelled by any type of solid, liquid or gaseous fuel Fuel Cells
desired. This steam is then expanded across turbine The principle of the fuel cell was
blades to produce rotary motion, and, when coupled discovered over 150 years ago. NASA has improved
with a generator, electricity]. Again, waste heat may the system in their emission free operation for
be recovered for use. Fig. 7 shows typical staem spacecraft. Recent years has also seen
engine system Electrical efficiencies at full load can improvement in vehicles, stationary and portable
range from 15 to 50%, depending on the complexity applications. As a result of this increased interest,


and it is completely cyclic as it can be readily
combined and decompose9,10,11. Table 3 shows
types of electrolyte source for fuel cell energy.

2H2->4e- +4H+ ...(1)

4h+ +4e- +O2->2H20 ...(2)

2H2+02 -> 2H20 +Heat ...(3)

Fig. 6: Typical steam plant unit system promising and economical source that
guarantee future replacement of fossil fuel.
stationary power plants from 200W to 2 MW are However efficiency maximization of fuel cell power
now commercially available, with efficiencies plant remains important issue that needs
ranging from 30 to 50% and heat to electricity consideration for its commercialization. As a result
ratios from 0.5:1 to 2:1. Fuel cell re load follower the following are important consideration for
energy, the efficiency of a fuel cell typically efficient fuel cell power plant efficiency calculation
increases at lower loadings. Fuel cell system can be done through the following formula fi9
also has fast response. This make them well shows a typical fuel cell power system:
suited to load following and transport
applications. Fuel cell is advanced alternative
G
energy technology with electrochemical EC = g ...(4)
conversion of fuel directly into electricity without nF
intermediate stage, the combustion of fuel;
hence by-pass the restriction of second law of
G= H*T *Si ...(5)
thermodynamic .the basic fuel supply in the fuel
cell systems is hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Where: Ec=EMF, G =Gibbs function
The former has to be produced and feed in large
nF=Number of Faraday transfer in the reaction, H=
quantity as pure hydrogen. Hydrogen is the
Enthalpy, T=Absolute temperature, S=Entropy
change i=Ideal efficiency

Advantages of fuel cell include size, weigh,

Fig. 8: Typical gas turbine engine

Fig. 7: Steam engine system flexibility, efficiency, safety, topography, cleanliness.
Mostly use as catalyst in PAFC, and however
lightest chemical element as demonstrated by recovery of platinum from worn -out cell can reduce
the periodic table. Thus ,other lighter gas gases the cost and market of the use of PACF economical.
exist that can be use as fuel cell, but hydrogen It has cost advantage over conventional fossil fuel
offer greater energy per unit weight compare to energy and alternative energy. Disadvantages of
other element candidate for alternative energy, fuel cell are adaptation, training, and cost of


disposal. Fuel cell has found application in radiation to supply a solar system to convert sunlight
transportation, commercial facility, residential to electricity and distribute through existing channel.
faculty, space craft and battery. Fig. 9 shows a typical
arrangement fuel cell hybrid power configuration. Sola collector can be plate or dish type.
Stefan‘ law relates the radiated power to
Solar energy system temperature and types of surface:
History and human existent has proved
that the sun is the source of all existing energy on
P
earth. From plant photosynthesis to formation of = εσ T 4 ...(6)
biomass earth fossil fuel including oil and coal, to T
the generation of wind and hydrogen power, the
sun has his mark on almost every planetary system. Where P/A is the power in watts radiated
For decades, people have worked to generate per square meter, ε is surface emissivity, is
renewable and cost saving solar energy. But little Stefan-Boltzmann constant= 5.67x10e8 W/ . K 4
has been achieved to get a lot out f its abundant The maximum intensity point of the spectrum of
supply of sun light. Harnessing energy from sun emitted radiation is given by:
require production, distribution, control and
consumer utilization at low cost. Risk work for the
2898
system should address the back drop and hybrid λ max = ...(7)
system alternative energy system that can be T (K )
installing as auxiliary for synchronization through
automatic control system that activate storage
Hybrid system
supply whenever supply is approaching the
With a focus on developing applications
minimum setup limit. Prior to installing solar, it is
for clean, renewable, non-fossil fuel, energy
important to collect, analyze data and information σ 2msystems. Our final emphasis is on maritime related
to determined initial condition necessary to start
activities, however, as marine engineers we are
the project and come with acceptable design. Such
devoted to promoting all types of alternative &
data should be use for simulation and construction
sustainable energy technologies.Various types of
of prototype model of the system that include
engine, turbine and fuel cell may be run on a variety
existing system, central receiver, collectors, power
of fuels for combined heat and power production.
conversion, control system, sunlight storage, solar
Hybrid system can provide control over power
needs, green and sustainable energy that delivers
Table 3: Type of electrolyte fuel cell a price that is acceptable and competitive. The
power plants can be located where it is needed
Types Electrolyte Operating
temperature

Alkaline Potassium 50-200
hydroxide
polymer Polymer 50-100
membrane
Direct Polymer 50-200
methanol membrane
Phosphoric Phosphoric 160-210
acid acid
Molten Lithium and 600-800
carbonate potassium carbonate
Solid oxide Ceramic compose 500-1000
of calcium
Fig. 9: Fuel cell hybrid configuration


less high power lines are required, not only reducing emissions, the plant can be located close to the
costs but assisting health by reducing magnetic areas where the power is required cutting down on
fields that people are so worried about, Global the need for expensive high power lines. Excess
warming is addressed d by direct action by providing energy produced can be connected to the grid under
power that does not release any emissions or power purchase arrangement.
discharges of any kind. The technology associated
with the design, manufacture and operation of The system can be built in independent
marine equipment is changing rapidly. The power configuration and user will be free from
traditional manner in which regulatory requirements supply cut out. In a typical off-grid scenario a large
for marine electrical power supply systems have battery bank is required to store energy. Solar
developed, based largely on incidents and failures, hydrogen hybrid energy is stored in the form of
is no longer acceptable. Fig. 10 show a typical hybrid hydrogen gas. When it is dark out, instead of
power arrangement for solar hydrogen and drawing energy from a battery bank, hydrogen gas
conventional power. Fifure 11,12 and 13 can be is converted into electricity through a fuel-cell.
hybrid to the same sstem to provide integrated Likewise, during the day when there is plenty of
alternative energy power energy from the sun, water is converted into
hydrogen gas through the use of a hydrogen
Current international requirements for generator. Most electrical power systems are a
marine electrical power supply equipment and combination of small units of power group to provide
machinery such as engines, turbines and batteries the larger output.
have evolved over decades and their applicability to
new technologies and operating regimes is now being Hybrid system design should begin with
questioned by organizations responsible for the problem definition of providing a port with power,
regulation of safety and reliability of ships7, 11. follow by refining the design so that each individual
units power output could be combined to provide
Various technologies have been the input for a larger unit and ensure efficient, effect
employed towards the use of alternative free energy operation, maintenance. The hybrid system should
of the sun since the first discovery in the 18th
century. Improvement and and development has
been made towards making it available for use like
existing reigning source of energy. Major equipment
and hardware for the hybrid configuration are:
i. Semiconductor solar with high efficient
storage capability designed
ii. Hybrid backup power design based on
integrative capability to other alternative
power source like wind and hydrogen
iii. Controller design for power synchronization
will be designed and prototyped
iv. Inverter and other power conversion units
will be selected based on power needs
v. Solar collector or receiver with high efficiency
collection capacity designed
vi. Software development and simulation
vii. Steam used as energy transfer medium

The power plants can be built in small
units combined, which allow greater control over
the output and maintains full operational output
100% of the time. The plant produces fewer Fig. 10: Hybrid configuration


be able to provide more power that can keep the The hybrid system can provide means to
stress and strain of operation to a minimum and by- pass and overcome limitation posed by past
reduces the failure of the component parts. The work in generating replaceable natural energy of
system should be designed with built in redundancy the sun and other renewable energy source that
to compensate for failure of a component. The can be designed in hybrid system. Reliable
system has advantage of maintenance that can be deployment of hybrid system developments of
carries out while keeping the system delivering the mathematical model follow by prototyping,
full capacity as well as alternation of delivery experimentation and simulation of the system are
devices to extend their operational life. Fig. 11. key to the design and its implementation. The main
advantages of hybrid configurations are:
One of the unique features of hybrid Redundancy and modularity, high reliability of
system is the sustainable, clean energy system that hybrid circuitry embedded control system, improve
uses a hydrogen storage system as opposed to emergency energy switching and transfer, low
traditional battery. Its design construction and operating cost through integrated design, low
functionality are inspired by the theme of environmental impacts due to nature of the energy
regeneration and the philosophy of reuse. High source. System optimization with combined heat
efficiency solar panels works with an electrolyser and alternative power production technologies:
to generate the hydrogen for fuel cell. The system i. The Production and Storage of Heat
can universal solar energy for marine application ii. Space Heating Storage Heaters
and other energy application as needed in equal iii. Hot Water Storage
capacity to existing fossil power plants.

Fig. 11: Biogas hybrid

Fig. 12: Fuel cell hybrid


iv. Instantaneous Space and Water Heaters early stages of development but the shipping
v. Uses for Excess Electricity industry need to be prepared for the impacts of its
vi. Electricity Storage Devices breakthrough because shipping will eventually be
required at the centre of this supply and demand
Time has gone when maritime industry logistics chain. System integration hybridization of
could not afford nitty gritty in adopting new old and new system offers advantage for require
technology, other industry are already on a fast track change. Fig. 15 and show the regional projection
preparing themselves technically for evitable for biofuel usage and demand for the US and
changes driven by environmental problem, global Europe which are the current main user in future.
energy demands and political debate that add
pressures to find alternative energy especially bio Potential impacts to marine system
energy. The implication is that shipping could be Impact to marine system
caught ill prepared for any rapid change in demand The use of biofuels as a fuel has increased
or supply of biofuel. Thus this technology is in the in most transportation sectors. Adopting this

Fig. 13: Typical hybrid system (USMMA, 2008)

technology in marine industry is still slow despite
flexibility offered by use of energy on ship compare
to mass requirement for land based industry and
ambient temperature performance for aviation
industry. Cost remain one of the main driver, slow
speed diesel engines can run on lower quality fuels,
they can replace distillate marine oils associated
technical difficult. Calorific energy value for main
propulsion could also result in a reduced service
speed, range or larger bunker tanks. Major benefit
of using environmental friendly engine is illustrated
in Fig. 16. Fig. 14: Typical solar collector control system


Potential for port coastal and port infrastructure Micro-biomass power generation is a more
A variety of methods could turn an age- advantageous and cost-effective means of
old natural resource into a new and efficient means providing power than centralised biomass power
of generating electricity. Biomass in large amounts generation. Especially in area where there is a need
is available in many areas, and is being considered for both power and heating. Domestic hot water,
as a fuel source for future generation of electricity. space heat and absorption chilling are attractive
Biomass is bulky, widely distributed and electricity for cogeneration configurations of microbiofuel
from conventional, centralized power plants plant. Biomass can be generated using single or
requires an extensive distribution network. ganged free-piston Stirling engines gensets. They
Traditionally power is generated through can be placed at the end-user location taking
centralized, conventional power plant, where advantage of local fuel prices and do not require a
biomass is transported to the central plant. Typically distribution grid. They can directly provide electrical
a steam or gas turbine power plant and the electricity output with integral linear alternators, or where
is then distributed through the grid to the end users. power requirements are larger they can be
Costs include fuel transportation, power plant connected in series and parallel to drive a
construction, maintenance operation, and
distribution of the electric power, including losses
in transmission. This is system is ideal for coastal
and port infrastructure marine system powering.
Table 4 shows efficiency comparison between coal
and biomass.

Potential for ship and offshore system
Micro-biomass power generators seem to
offer a path for new solution for energy at end user
disposal. Recent development towards use of
micro biomass can offer best practice adaptation
for marine unitized biomass power. Such biomass
can be used near the site of end-use, with heat
from external combustion converted directly to
electricity by a biomass fired free-piston genset.
Costs of installation include fuel acquisition and Fig. 16: Benefit of using
maintenance of the genset and burner. Since the environmental friendly engine
electricity is used on site, both transmission losses
and distribution costs are minimal. Thus, in areas conventional rotary turbine. They are hermetically
without existing infrastructure to transmit power, sealed and offer long lives through their non-contact
there are no additional costs. It is also possible to operation12,13.
cogenerate using the rejected heat for space or hot
water heating, or absorption cooling. This is ideal Emissions offsets and waste reduction
for ship and offshore system. Fig. 17 shows typical could help enhance the appeal of biomass to
prime mover arrangement for ship utilities. An important consideration for the future
use of biomass-fired power plants is the treatment
of biomass flue gases. Biomass combustion flue
gases have high moisture content. When the flue
gas is cooled to a temperature below the dew point,
water vapor starts to condense. By using flue-gas
condensation, sensible and latent heat can be
recovered for district heating or other heat
consuming processes. This increases the heat
Fig. 15: Bio energy usage projection [DOE, 2008] generation from a cogeneration plant by more than


30 percent. Fuel-gas condensation not only steam engines, with low efficiency and limited life,
recovers heat but also captures dust and hazardous can offer the end user economic electric power.
pollutants from flue gases at the same time. Most Free-piston Stirling micro biomass engine are an
dioxins, chlorine, mercury, and dust are removed, economic alternative. Stirling offers the following
and sulfur oxides are separated out to some extent. advantages over significantly larger systems:
i. Stirling machines have reasonable overall
Table 4: Efficiency comparison [EIA] efficiencies at moderate heater head
temperatures (~600ƒC)
Electrical efficiency Capacity ii. cogeneration is simple
iii. large amounts of capital do not have to be
Biomass thermal efficiency-40 % $2,000 per raised to build a single evaluation plant with
kilowatt its associated technical and economic risks
Coal 45 % $1,500 per iv. A large fraction of the value of the engine
kilowatt, alternator can be reused at the end of its life
v. Stirling systems can be ganged with multiple
units operating in parallel.
Another feature of flue gas condensation is water
recovery, which helps solve the problem of water Biodiesel machinery design, installation,
consumption in evaporative gas turbines. operation and maontaonace requirements are:

Biomass is a substantial opportunity to Fuel management
generate micro-biomass electric power, at power Fuel management is complex in this new
levels from fractions of kilowatts through to tens or era because fuel aging and oxidation can lead to
hundreds of kilowatts, at the point of end use. high acid number, high viscosity, the formation of
Neither small internal combustion engines, which gums and sediments. Supply chain supply of biofuel
cannot use biomass directly, nor reciprocating to ship can be done through pre-mixed to the

Fig. 17: Typical prime mover arrangement on board ship


required blend. Here the biofuel and diesel are Lubrication
supplied separately to the ship, and then mixed on Biofuel lubricant may have impact on
board. This gives the operator the chance to dictate engine crankcase cleanliness and the potential
the exact blend of biofuels depending on conditions. consequences of fuel dilution. The droplet
But that would require retrofitting or new technology characteristics and lower volatility of biodiesel
to be installed on board together with additional compared with conventional diesel, together with
complexity for the crew. It is also important to monitor spray pattern and wall impingement in the modern
the fuel acid number value to ensure that no rancid, diesel engines, can help noncombusted biodiesel
acidic fuel is introduced to the injection system. A past the piston rings. And also to make contact with
typical layout should involve separators to ensure the cylinder liner and be scrapped down into the oil
that water is removed from the fuel, as well as sump. The unburnt biodiesel tends to remain in the
heaters at various stages to ensure the fuel is at the sump and the level of contamination may
correct temperature before they enter engine. progressively build up over time. This can result in
reduced lubricant viscosity and higher risk of
Temperature monitoring system component wear. A serious concern is the possibility
Technical problem that need to be further that the unburnt biodiesel entering the oil sump
mitigated is the CFPP indication of low temperature may be oxidised, thus promoting oil thickening and
operability of range between 0°C and 15°C for requiring greater oil changes.
different types of biodiesels. This can cause
problems with filter clogging, this can only be Impact to shipping
overcome by carefully monitoring of the fuel tank It is clear that biomass will fuel freight
temperatures. This can affect ships operating in cold increase as well asspecialized new design of
climates, where additional tank heating coils and chemical tankers. Biodiesel is an IMO 2 cargo, its
heating may be required to avoid this from vegetable oil feedstocks are IMO cargoes with
happening. double hull IMO 3 vessel configuration required.
Ethanol typically transports in chemical tankers
Corrosion control due to its cargo requirement but technological
Biodiesels are hygroscopic and require change break through could bring potential
to be maintained at 1200-1500 ppm water, which regulatory design change. Flexibility for ship
can cause significant corrosion damage to fuel conversion and retrofitting system could upset initial
injection systems. Mitigation can be exercise cost problem.
through appropriate fuel conditioning prior to
injection. Biodiesels. Injector fouling especially Port, Inland waterways and coastal vessel
the blend type produces deposits due to There is potential for us of biodiesels for
presence of fatty acid and water in the fuel. This small craft that operate within inland water because
can result to increased corrosion of the injector of air and water pollution sensitivity associated with
system. Also viscous glycerides can contribute inland water transportation. The port facilities in
to further injector coking. Biodiesel due to its Malaysia and Indonesia are already being
chemical properties degrades, softens or seeps
through some gaskets and seals with prolonged
exposure. Biodiesels are knows to be good Table 5: Regional impact [EIA]
solvents and therefore cause coating complexity.
Reports of aggressiveness of biodiesel and Biofuel Demand
bioethanol on tank coatings have been reported.
In its pure form biodiesel, as a methyl ester, is North Ethanol 33 million
less aggressive to epoxy coatings than ethanol. America tons
Therefore ethanol should be carried in tanks Europe ethanol and 30 million
coated with dedicated tank coatings such a biodiesel.: 50:50 tons
phenolic epoxy or zinc silicate tank coatings. Asia ethanol and 18 million
biodiesel.: 50:50 tons


improved to handle Handysize and Panamax will be greatly affected by national, regional, global
tankers. There is also potential requirement for policy and political decision making. There is a
transshipment and supply vessel, supply chain for greater flexibility in the sourcing of biofuels than
short sea service. there is in hydrocarbon energy sources and this
may be attractive to particular governments. Once
Cargo the regulatory framework is clear, economics will
3rd generation biofuels wil required to be determine how the regulations will best be met and
processed from solid cargoes to liquid cargoes. Of seaborne trade will be at the centre of the outcome.
the wood currently harvested, 30% is waste. This is
not going to be a waste in the future and will be CONCLUSION
converted by a Fischer Tropsch biomass to liquid
processing plant. For coastal shipping to handle The main challenge to use of biomass for
this trade, there wil be need for new generation of power generation, therefore, is to develop more-
5,000 tonne deadweight dry cargo vessels. It is efficient, lower-cost systems. Advanced biomass-
expected that these voyages will be regulated under based systems for power generation require fuel
the new Dry Bulk Cargo Code (BC Code). This is upgrading, combustion cycle improvement, and
due to become mandatory in 2011. better flue-gas treatment. Future biomass based
power generation technologies need to provide
Shipping Routes and Economics Impacts superior environmental protection at lower cost by
The above trend analysis discussed combining sophisticated biomass preparation,
indicate potential capacity requirement from combustion, and conversion processes with post
shipping. so far North America, Europe and South combustion cleanup. Such systems include fluidized
East Asia are the key importing regions where this combustion, biomass integrated gasification, and
growth is concentrated. Latin American counties of biomass externally fired gas turbines. Ships life
Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay and cycle is around 20- 25, for ship owners to make the
Southeast Asia’s Indonesia and Malaysia will most of the upcoming markets, it is necessary to be
remain key suppliers for the palm oil, Philippines prepared for the new cargoes. Current ship designs
and Papua New Guinea have potentials for may not be suited for biofuel ships. Therefore there
vegetable oil and agricultural while Thailand has is potential for pressure on organizations to adopt
potential for sugarcane. new standards to accommodate the demand driven
by governmental legislation. This in itself has some
Regulatory framework impact risk involved, also the trade routes could create
In many parts of the world, environmental economy of large scale leading to larger ship
concerns are the leading political driver for biofuels. production and sub sequential requirement from
This driving force evolved regulation like Kyoto designer .Other evolving challenges to secure
protocoal, Marpol Annex VI and other environmental energy and environment are fuel cell technology,
regulation. The tonne mile demand for future tankers nuclear, natural gas and fuels made from waste.

REFERENCES

1. Sustainable Energy Ireland. “CO2 and Other Forum. Golden, CO, May 29-30, 2002. web
Environmental Emissions Data” Table 7D, site www.nrel.gov/ analysis/pdfs/
web site www.irish-energy.ie/publications/ m_mann.pdf.
index.html. 3. G. Wiltsee. “Lessons Learned from Existing
2. M. K. Mann and P. L. Spath, "A Comparison Biomass Power Plants.” NREL/SR-570-
of the Environmental Consequences of 26946 Golden, CO: National Renewable
Power from Biomass, Coal, and Natural Gas". Energy Laboratory, 2000. web site
Presentation at 3. the Energy Analysis www.nrel.gov/docs/fy00osti/26946.pdf.


4. Lane, N. W. and Beale, W.T. (1996a). “Stirling 8. H. Lund, P. A. Ostergaard. “Electric Grid and
Engines for Micro-Cogen and Cooling. Proc Heat Planning Scenarios with Centralised
Strategic Gas Forum”. Detroit M. June 19- and Distributed Sources of Conventional.
20, (1996). CHP and Wind generation”. Energy 25.
5. R.L. Graham, B.C. English, and C.E. Noon, 2000, pp 299-312.
“A Geographic Information System-based 9. D. McEvoy, D. C. Gibbs, J. W. S. Longhurst,
Modeling System for Evaluating the Cost of “City-regions and the Development of
Delivered Energy Crop Feedstocks” Sustainable Energy Supply Systems”. Int. J.
Biomass and Bioenergy, 18: 309-329 (2000). Energy Res., 24: 215-237 (2000).
6. M. J. Grubb. “The Integration of Renewable 10. G. C. Seeling-Hochmuth, “A combined
Electricity Sources”. Energy Policy. 19(7): optimisation concept for the design and
670-688 (1991). operation strategy of hybrid-PV energy
7. F. R. McLarnon, E. J. Cairns, "Energy systems”. Solar Energy. 61(2): 77-87 (1997).
Storage", Review of Energy, 14: 241-271.9. 11. R. Chedid, S. Rahman, “Unit sizing and
IMO, "Marine Environmental Protection control of hybrid wind-solar power systems”.
Committee". 44th session available at: http: IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion.
www.imo.org/meeting/44.html, (2000). 12(1): 79-85 (1997).

O sulaiman 1f

More Related Content

What's hot (15)

Viewers also liked (7)

Similar to O sulaiman 1f (20)

More from Oladokun Sulaiman (18)

Recently uploaded (20)

O sulaiman 1f