Portfolio of construction technology

NOSHAD AHMED
1. Introduction to Construction Technology
What is construction technology?
Construction technology involves study on methods of construction to successfully
achieve the structural design with recommended specifications. It also includes study of
construction equipment’s and temporary works required to facilitate the construction
process.
Construction technology deals with the different process and construction systems of
preparing for and forming buildings and buildings system. It starts with planning,
designing, financing and continues until the structure is ready for occupancy. The study
boundaries of this subject ranges from foundation to interior and exterior finishing work.
The main objective of construction technologies is towards constructing lighter and taller
buildings and to provide less economical and more affordable ideas, which is always a
big challenge in an era of financial crunch. To achieve these challenges successfully there
is a need of sophisticated equipment’s employed in the construction process.
2. Importance of Construction Technology
The art of building is not new for mankind. It has engaged human mind from pre-historic
ages to have shelter and protection from sun, rain, cold and other adverse effects of
weather. Thus, the construction technology had undergone revolutionary changes at the
hands of concerned authorities and skilled persons till 19th
century. With the
advancements of civilizations and engineering technologies during 20th
century, men
have built many buildings and architectural works based on different patterns and
construction systems successfully.
Now-a-days, many construction technologies are available which are chosen according to
the duration of project, budget of project, nature of land, building design, requirements of
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contractor etc. These technologies include Pre-Cast Construction System, Pre-Fabricated
Construction System, In-Situ Construction System, RCC or Non-RCC structures etc.
In this modern era, a modern building should not only built to get shelter and protection
from effects of different weathering agencies, but it should also have sufficient
accommodation, physical comforts, good appearance, etc. These reasons has necessitated
the development of construction technologies in order to make selection of a proper site,
good orientation, planning, and designing of buildings so that their construction work can
be done systematically, safely, and economically.
The project of an important modern building involves many factors to be considered for
its completion in a satisfactory manner. The building project may, therefore be divided
into three parts as discussed below:
a. Architectural Work: The art of planning and designing of a building so as to
suite its purposes, giving due consideration to the site, orientation, ventilation,
appearance etc. of the building is known as Architectural Work. This work is
done by a special person known as an Architect.
b. Design Work: The art of designing the different parts or elements of a building
so as to suite their purposes, safely and economically is known as Design Work.
This work is done by a special person known as Design Manager.
c. Execution Work: The art of doing the construction of the building systematically
according to its planning and design is known as Execution Work. This work is
done by a special person like Civil Engineer, Builder, Contractor, etc.
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3. BUILDING
The word Building is both a noun and a verb. As a verb it means the structure itself and
acts of making it, and as a noun it means a structure that has a roof, walls, and stands on
more of less permanently in one place. But in technical sense, building can be defined as
“Any structure constructed of what so ever material and used for any purpose, such as:
House, School, Factory, etc.” It is a relatively permanent enclosed construction over a
plot of land, having a roof, windows, doors, and often more than one level, used for any
of a wide variety of activities as living, entertaining, or manufacturing.
Buildings are built in a variety of shapes, sizes, function, and have been adapted
throughout history for a wide number of factors from buildings materials available, to
weather conditions, to land prices, ground condition, specific uses, and aesthetic reasons.
It serves several needs of society primarily as shelter from weather, security and living
space, privacy to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work.
A sustainable building should be located at good building site, it should be properly
planned and designed to provide adequate provision for different activities, it should be
properly oriented and the rooms should be properly places, it should provide privacy to
the inmates, it should be equipped with basic infrastructure with a good architectural
appearance.
3.1 Purposes of a Building
A building is constructed to achieve the following objectives:
• The primary object of a building is to provide shelter to the residents.
• To provide sufficient accommodation for the purpose for which it is to be
constructed.
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• To provide protection to the residents from the heat and glare of the sun.
• To protect the residents from the storm, lightning, rain and snowfall.
• To provide protection to the residents against thieves and house breakers.
To achieve the above mentioned objects, the following provisions are suggested in a
building:
• The outer walls should be made either sufficiently thick or constructed as cavity
walls to protect inmates from dampness.
• All the other openings of a building such as Doors, Windows, and Verandahs etc.
should be provided with sun shades to have protection from glare of the sun.
• All the outer windows should be made sufficiently strong and provided with grills
so as to provide protection to the residents from thieves and house breakers.
• The roof covering should be properly and firmly fixed to the roofing structure in
case of a sloped roof so as to have protection against strong wind blowing due to
storm.
• The roof should be leak proof and a proper arrangement for draining off rain
water should be provided so as to prevent leakage of the roof.
• The roof of a building in hilly area should be provided with sufficient outward
slope, so that the snow may slide down in order to achieve stability of the
building.
• The roofs should be provided with an artificial ceiling so as to have protection
against heat.
• The top of a high building should be provided with a copper lightening conductor
so as to protect the inmates from the effect of lightning.
3.2 Basic Parts of a Building
A building has two basic parts which are described below:
i. Sub-Structure/Foundation: It is the lower portion of the building, usually
located below the ground level, which transmits the load of the super-structure to
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the supporting soil. It is that part of a building which is in direct contact with
the ground to which the loads are transmitted.
ii. Super-Structure: It is that part of structure which is above Ground Level and
which serves the purpose of intended use. A part of the super-structure which is
located between ground level and the surface immediately above the ground is
called Plinth, and the built-up covered area measured at the ground floor is termed
as Plinth area.
3.3 Types of Building
Buildings are divided into nine groups ranging from Group-A to Group-I. They are as
under:
i. Group-A: Residential Buildings
ii. Group-B: Educational Buildings
iii. Group-C: Institutional Buildings
iv. Group-D: Assembly Buildings
v. Group-E: Business Buildings
vi. Group-F: Mercantile Buildings
vii. Group-G: Industrial Buildings
viii. Group-H: Storage Buildings
ix. Group-I: Hazardous Buildings
4. MATERIALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Cement
The word Cement comes from the Roman word Opus Caementicium. It was invented by a
British stone-mason Joseph Aspdin in 1824. Cement is a substance which is used as a binder
to harden or bind other materials together. It is a mixture of Calcareous, Siliceous,
Argillaceous, and other substances.
Cement is a material that exhibit characteristic properties of setting and hardening when
mixed to a paste with water. This makes them join rigid masses into coherent structures. It is
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a powdery bonding material having adhesive and cohesive properties. The chemical
composition of cement includes 63% Lime, 22% Silica, 06% Alumina, 03% Iron Oxide, and
01% to 04% Gypsum. Its most important use is in the production of Mortar and Concrete
that is durable in the phase of normal environmental effects.
4.1.1 Characteristics
• It possesses high strength that’s why it is used in majority of buildings,
bridges, tunnels, etc.
• It is highly durable and not affected by moisture, mold or pests.
• As compare to other building materials it is highly affordable.
• It is fire-resistant and a highly effective barrier to fire spread.
• It slows the passage of heat moving in the structures and reduces its
temperature.
4.1.2 Types
There are many types of cement used for different purposes but the main
classification is composed of two types:
i. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): It is the most common type of cement
in general use around the world. It is the variety of artificial cement. It is
called Portland cement because on hardening (setting) its color resembles to
rock near Portland, England. It is consists of Lime, Silica, Alumina, Gypsum,
and some auxiliary constituents. It is used in general construction works like
in walls and plastering. All other varieties of cement are derived from this
cement. It has two types: White Cement, and Colored Cement.
ii. Sulfate Resisting Cement (SRC): It is theoretically ideal cement which is
prepared by maintaining the percentage of tri-calcium aluminate below 6%
which increases power against sulfates. It is costly because of stringent
composition requirements. It is used in construction exposed to severe sulfate
action by water and soil in places like Canals, Linings, Culverts, Retaining
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Walls, Siphons, etc. it is also use in underground and basement structures,
piles, foundations, water and sewage treatment plants etc.
4.2 Sand
Sand is naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rocks and
mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand
can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type, i.e. a soil containing more than 85%
of small-sized particles.
Sand is an extremely needful material for the construction. But this most important
material must be purchased with all care and vigilance. Sand which is used as a
construction material must be clean, free from stones, waste, and impurities.
4.2.1 Classification
Sand is classified into three categories:
i. River Sand: The river sand is procured from river streams and banks. It is
fine in quality unlike pit sand. This type of sand has rounded grains generally
in white-grey color. River sand has many uses in the construction purpose
such as plastering.
ii. Pit Sand: It is also known as coarse sand. This type of sand is procured from
deep pits of abundant supply and it is generally in Red-Orange color. The
course grain is sharp, angular, and certainly free from Salts etc. It is mostly
supplied in Concreting.
iii. Hill Sand: Hill sand is found in mountainous regions. It is formed by
decomposition of organic matter from forests. It is rich in humus and poor in
potash and lime.
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4.3 Limestone
Limestone is sedimentary rock composed principally of Calcium Carbonate (Calcite) or the
double carbonate of Calcium and Magnesium (Dolomite). It is commonly composed of tiny
fossils, shell fragments, and other fossilized debris. Some limestone’s have an extremely fine
grain.
Limestone is usually Grey, but it may also be White, Yellow, or Brown. It is a soft rock and
is easily starched. It will effervesce readily in any common acid.
4.3.1 Usage in Building and Construction
Depending on the quality of deposit, limestone can be quarried to service the needs
of the building and construction industries. It is used as a building stone. In road
construction, limestone aggregate direct from the quarry can be used as a base
material. Lower-grade limestone can be used in the production of cement, which is a
key ingredient of concrete.
4.4 Steel
Steel is a hard, grey or bluish-grey alloy of iron with carbon and usually other elements. It is
used as a structural and fabricating material. Steel is used in the building for the construction
of variety of purposes including storage, work spaces, and living accommodation. They are
classified into specific types depending on how they are used. Steel first gained popularity in
the early 20th
century. Their use became more widespread during World War II and
significantly expanded after the war. Steel have been widely accepted in part due to cost
efficiency. Steel allows for improved quality of construction and less maintenance, while
offering improved safety and resistance. Steel is one of the most sustainable construction
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material, its strength and durability coupled with its ability to be recycled, again and again,
without ever losing quality make it truly compatible with long term sustainable development.
Steel has properly of long life durability that’s why it is used widely in any construction
project.
4.5 Building Block
The building blocks include Concrete blocks, Cement blocks, Besser blocks, Breeze
blocks, and Cinder blocks. A building block or we can say concrete block are regular in
shape and large in size with dimensions of most commonly 16x8x8in. Building blocks
are made from cast concrete, such as, Portland cement, and aggregates (Sand, Gravel) for
high-density blocks. For lower-density industrial waste are being used as an aggregate.
Light weight blocks can also be produced using aerated concrete. The building blocks
may be solid or hollow with two or three cores for such stretcher blocks, a variety of
shapes are also available except these.
4.5.1 Merits
• They are inexpensive.
• They are light-weight.
• They are highly durable.
• They are easy to install.
• They are fire proof.
• They require low maintenance cost and can be ornamented.
4.5.2 Uses
Building blocks are used in foundation walls, basement walls, exterior walls, and for
cavity wall construction.
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4.6 Brick
Bricks are one of the oldest building material back to 7000BC. Brick is a basic building
unit which is in the form of rectangular block in which length to breadth ratio is 2 but
height can be different. The standard size of brick is 9x 4 x 3in.
Bricks are one of the popular construction materials because of being cheap, durable, and
easy to handle, and work with. In primitive ages sun-dried clay bricks were used, but
now-a-days, with modern machinery bricks are prepared by heating the clay products to
about 1000ºC, its constituents fuse and because of the affected chemical changes, the
product become hard, brittle, strong and stable. Bricks are generally used for building-up
exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers, footings, and other load bearing structure.
A brick is regular in shape and of size that can be conveniently handled with one hand.
Bricks may be made from the mixture of burnt clay, mixture of sand and lime, fly-ash
lime and sand, and Portland cement concrete. Clay bricks are commonly used since they
are economical and easily available.
i. First Class Bricks (A-type): These are thoroughly burnt bricks and are of deep
red, cherry, or copper color. The surface of these bricks is smooth and
rectangular, with sharp and straight edges and square corners. A metallic or
ringing sound comes when two bricks are struck against each other. Their water
absorption power is about 12%-15% of its dry weight. It is used for pointing,
exposed face work in masonry structures, flooring and reinforcement brick work.
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ii. Second Class Bricks (B-type): They are supposed to have some requirements as
the first class except that there may be some small cracks and distortions, or they
have more absorption power of about 16%-20%. They are used in important or
unimportant hidden masonry works, and centering of reinforced brick structures.
iii. Third Class Bricks (C-type): Third class bricks are under-burnt bricks. They are
soft and light colored producing a dull sound when struck against each other.
Their water absorption power is about 25% of dry weight. They are used in
building temporary structures.
iv. Fourth Class Bricks (D-type): Fourth class bricks are over-burnt and badly
distorted in shape and size and are brittle in nature. They are used in filling of
foundation and floors.
5. CONCRETE
Concrete is a construction material which is a mixture of Portland cement, water, aggregates,
and in some cases, admixtures. Often, additives and reinforcements (such as rebar) are
included in the mixture to achieve the desired physical properties of the finished material.
The cement and water forms a paste that hardens and bonds the aggregates together.
Concrete is a man-made rock which is a very versatile construction material, adaptable to a
wide variety of agricultural and residential uses. It can be placed or molded into virtually any
shape and reproduce any surface texture. It is very strong, durable, versatile, and economical
construction material that’s why it is widely sued in every construction.
5.1 Composition
Concrete is composed of four main ingredients:
i. Water: Good water is very essential for quality concrete. The amount and purity
of water determines how easily the concrete flow, the final strength of concrete,
and other properties. The strength and other properties of concrete are highly
dependent on the amount of water and water-cement ratio.
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ii. Portland Cement: Cement hardens when mixed with water, which binds all of
the ingredients together; it is the most common cement used and is composed of
Alumina, Silica, Lime, and Gypsum. It is used in the fabrication of mortar.
iii. Aggregates: The majority of a concrete mixture is made up of both coarse and
fine aggregates which occupy 60 to 80% of the volume of concrete. It increase the
strength of the concrete beyond that cement can provide on its own. Sand, Gravel,
and Crushed Lime are the primary aggregates that used in concrete.
iv. Admixtures: Admixtures accomplish a variety of goals. This can be as simple as
adding a pigment to color the concrete. Other admixtures are used for faster
curing times in cold weather, creating extremely high-strength concrete, of for
increasing the flow able nature of concrete without compromising the strength.
But it is mostly avoided for use.
5.2 Properties
• Concrete has relatively high compressive strength.
• It is a corrosion resistant material and atmospheric agent has no effect on it.
• It is more economical than steel.
• It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion.
• Concrete walls and floors slow the passage of heat moving through, and reduce
temperature swings.
• Being naturally fire resistant, concrete forms a highly effective barrier to fire-
spread.
6. TIMBER
The term timber is used to denote the wood which is suitable for buildings or carpentry and
for various engineering purposes. It is the oldest material used by humans for constructional
purposes, after stone. Despite its complex chemical nature, it has excellent properties which
lend themselves to human use. It is readily and economically available, easily machinable,
and amenable to fabrication into an infinite variety of sizes and shapes using simple on-site
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building techniques. It is exceptionally strong relative to its weight. It is a good heat and
electrical insulator. And of increasing importance, it is a renewable and biodegradable
resource.
6.1 Characteristics of good timber
• The surface of timber should be hard and shiny.
• The color should be preferably dark.
• It should be free from all serious defects.
• It should be durable and capable of resisting the action of fungi, insects, chemicals,
physical and mechanical agencies.
• It should not be deteriorate easily.
• It gives a ringing sound when struck.
• It should be sufficiently strong for working as a structural member.
7. REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)
Concrete is good in resisting compressive stress but it is very weak in resisting tensile stress.
Hence, reinforcement is provided in the concrete wherever tensile stress is expected. The
best reinforcing material is Steel. Since its tensile strength is high and bond between steel
and concrete is good. Since elastic modules of steel are quite high as compare to concrete,
the force developed in steel is very high. A cage of reinforcement is prepared as per the
design requirements kept in the form work and then concrete mixture is poured. After the
concrete hardens, the form work is removed. The composite material of steel and concrete
called RCC acts as a structural member and can resist tensile as well as compressive forces
efficiently.
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Reinforcement is one of the most widely used modern building materials. RCC is concrete
that contains embedded steel bars, plates, or fibers that strengthen the material; the capability
to carry loads by these materials is magnified, and because of this RCC is used extensively in
all constructions. In fact, it has become the most commonly utilized construction material.
Reinforced materials are embedded in the concrete in such a way that the two materials resist
the applied force together. The compressive strength of concrete and the tensile strength of
steel form a strong bond to resist these stresses over a long span.
7.1 Uses
• RCC is used as a structural member wherever bending of the member is required;
like in Footings, Columns, Beams, Lintels, Stairs, etc.
8. FOUNDATION
The lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load of the structure to the
soil lying underneath is called foundation. The foundation of a structure is always
constructed below ground level so as to increase the lateral stability of the structure. It is a
base which provides a firm and level surface for transmitting the load of the structure on a
large area of the soil lying underneath.
8.1 Purpose
Foundation is provided to distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so
that the surface would bear load at a uniform rate to avoid unequal settlements.
Foundation is provided to prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material and to
increase the stability of the structure as a whole.
8.2 Types
Foundations can be broadly classified intro the following two categories:
1. Shallow Foundation: The foundation provided immediately beneath the lowest
part of the structure, near to the ground level is known as shallow foundation.
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Such foundations are mostly placed on the first hard and firm strata available
below the ground level. These foundations have their depth less than their width.
The object of this foundation is to distribute the structural load over a
considerable large area at the foundation bed. Shallow foundations are further
classified into five types:
a. Spread Foundation: The foundation constructed by increasing the area at
the base of a structure is called shallow foundation.
b. Grillage Foundation: The foundation which consists of one or two piers
of wooden or rolled steel sections with space filled up with concrete is
known as grillage foundation.
c. Raft Foundation: The foundation consisting of thick RCC slab covering
the whole are in the form of a mat is known as raft of mat foundation.
d. Stepped Foundation: The foundation having its bed in the form of steps
of concrete is known as stepped foundation.
e. Inverted Arch Foundation: The foundation consisting of inverted arches
constructed between the piers is known as inverted arch foundation.
2. Deep Foundation: The foundation constructed sufficiently below ground level
with some artificial arrangements such as Piles, Walls, etc. at their base are
known as deep foundation. These foundations have their depth greater than their
width. They are further classified into three types:
a. Pile Foundation: A foundation consisting of spread footing, grillage or
mat supported on piles is called pile foundation.
b. Well Foundation: It is a type of foundation formed by sinking monoliths
to a firm stratum, plugging the open wells at the bottom with concrete and
filled with granular material. It is preferable when foundation has to resist
large lateral areas.
c. Caisson Foundation: Caisson foundation is a water tight foundation
made of wood, steel, and RCC constructed with excavation for the
foundation of bridges, piers in rivers, dock structures, etc.
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9. DOORS
9.1 Definition
A door is defined as an open-able barrier secured in a wall opening. It is provided to give
access to the inside of a room or a building. It is connection portion between two buildings or
a room. Doors normally consist of a panel that hinges or spins inside of a space.
9.2 Location for Doors
Following factors should be considered while deciding the location of doors in a
building:
• The number of doors should be kept minimum.
• The location of doors should meet the functional requirement of the room.
• The door should not be kept in the center of the wall.
• The door should preferably be located in the opposite walls in case the room is to
be provided more than one door so as to have good ventilation in the room.
• The door should preferably be located at a distance of 200mm from the corner of
the room.
• If in a room, more than two doors are there, they shall be located facing each
other.
9.3 Function of Doors
The various functions of doors are as follows:
• Doors admit ventilation and light.
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• Doors control the physical atmosphere within a space by enclosing it, excluding
air drafts, so that interiors may be more effectively heated or cooled.
• Doors act as barrier to noise.
• Doors are used to screen areas of a building for aesthetic purposes, keeping
formal and utility areas separate.
9.4 Classification of Doors
Basically doors are classified into 4 categories:
1. Classification on the basis of arrangement of components
a. Ledge and Battened Doors: These are the simplest type of doors. They
consist of battens which are screwed to three horizontal members called
Ledges. The middle and bottom ledges are under the top ledge. They are
suitable for narrow openings.
b. Ledge, Battened, and Braced Doors: These doors are the modification
of battened and ledge doors. In these doors some additional diagonal
members are attached to the doors which are known as braces. These
braces acts like struts between the ledges and increase the strength and
rigidity of the door.
c. Ledge, Battened, and Framed Doors: This type of door is improved
form of battened and ledged door. In this door, the framework for shutter
is provided in form of two verticals known as style.
2. Classification on the basis of method or manner of construction
a. Framed and Paneled Doors: These are the most common type of doors
used in all type of buildings. This door consists of a framework of vertical
member called style and horizontal member called rails. Panels are made
from timber, plywood, and block board.
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b. Paneled and Glazed Doors: The construction of this type of door is
similar to a framed and paneled door but in this door, glass panels are
fixed. They are used in residential as well as public places.
c. Flushed Doors: These doors are made with plywood and consists of a
frame which has styles, top and bottom rails, and narrow intermediate
rails. They are solid or semi-solid and mostly used in rural buildings.
d. Louvered Doors: These doors are same like glazed and paneled doors but
in these doors, the spaces between the rails and styles are filled with series
of horizontal members called louvers.
e. Wire-Gauged Doors: Wire-gauged or fly-proof door shutters are fixed to
provide free air circulation and prevent mosquitoes, flies, insects, etc.
from entering into the building. They are made up of with a wooden or
aluminum frame with thin layer of steel net in place of panels.
3. Classification on the basis of working
a. Revolving Doors: Revolving doors have four shutters arranged
diagonally to the center shaft and rotate one way about a vertical axis
within a round enclosure. They are mostly used in public buildings such as
offices, banks, restaurants, hotels, theaters, etc. where there is continuous
traffic of people.
b. Sliding Doors: A sliding door is a type of door which opens horizontally
by sliding along the tracks with the help of runners and rails. It is being
placed to those spaces where there is no space to swing the door, mostly in
commercial and residential structures.
c. Swing Doors: A Door that swings on a double hinge and opens in both
directions is called swing door.
d. Collapsible Doors: These doors are consists of a framework of rolled
steel sections and are provided with rollers at bottom which roll on rails. Is
acts like a steel curtain; such doors are used in garages, banks, railway
stations, sheds, workshops, and public buildings, etc. to provide safety and
protection to property.
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e. Rolling Shutter Doors: It is a type of door which is made up of thin
corrugated steel plates (or sheets) which roll upon a roller or drum. On
large doors, the action may be motorized. They are used in shops, stores
etc. to provide protection against wind and rain.
10. LINTELS
A lintel is a building structural member which is used above and across the top of the frame
of window or door for instance. It supports the weight of the structure above the openings by
transferring the weight to the side supports (usually part of the wall). Lintels permit the
installation of windows, doors, and such without concern about those items having to support
any weight which might cause them to flax, warp, or become inoperative. Lintels may be
wooden beams, steel beams, or a combination of wood and steel plate bolted through so as to
provide both strength and a nailing medium for finishing the wall.
10.1 Classification
According to the materials used in the construction of lintels, it is classified into five
types:
1. Wooden Lintels: The lintel in the form of a long rectangular wooden member is
called a wooden or timber lintel. Wooden lintels are easy in construction but are
liable to decay and also lack in fire resisting qualities. It is relatively costly in
areas except hilly or forest areas. They are rarely used nowadays except in rural
buildings. It is kept as 100mm thick and is taken 80mm per meter span.
2. Stone Lintels: The lintel in the form of a long rectangular block of stone is called
stone lintels. They are commonly used in hilly areas where stones are easily
available. It may be used in the form of either one piece or more than one piece
along the width of the wall. Their use is not recommended in plains as they
involve heavy dressings and transportation charges.
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3. Concrete Lintels: The lintels consisting of concrete, whether plain or reinforced
are called concrete lintels. They are most commonly used because of its strength
and durability. For smaller spans the precast concrete lintels are used. Concrete
lintels are economical than all other lintels and it can be used for any span and
any load. It is of two types:
a. Plain Concrete Lintel
b. Reinforced Concrete Lintel
4. Reinforced Brick Lintels: The lintel consisting of reinforced brickwork is
known as reinforced brick lintel. They are always constructed at the site. They are
designed on the same principle as observed for RCC lintels. In their case, well
burnt and sound bricks were used instead of concrete. These lintels are used in
common residential buildings.
5. Steel Lintels: The lintel consisting of a rolled steel section is known as steel
lintel. They are provided where the openings are large and where the super
imposed loads are also heavy. They are either used singly or in combination of
two or three units joint with bolts. The rolled steel sections are generally
embedded in concrete to protect them from rusting and to make them fire-
resistant.
11. ARCHES
The structure constructed of wedge shaped block of stones or bricks joined together with
mortar and provided across the opening to carry the weight of the structure above the
opening is called an arch.
Arches are used mostly in temples, gurudwaras, mosques, churches, etc. to provide good
aesthetic appearance and more height. But now-a-days, they are not commonly used.
11.1 Classification
Arches are classified into three categories:
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1. Classification according to material used
a. Brick Arches: The arches constructed of bricks, laid in any suitable
mortar are called brick arches.
b. Stone Arches: The arches constructed of dressed stones lay in cement or
lime mortar is called stone arches.
c. Concrete Arches: The arches constructed of pre-cast blocks of concrete
or reinforced concrete at site of work is called concrete arches.
d. Timber Arches: The arches fabricated with wooden members are called
timber arches. They are not common in use.
e. Metal Arches: The arches fabricated with steel members are called metal
arches.
2. Classification according to function
a. Relieving Arches: The arches provided over weak lintels or flat arches,
just to relieve them from taking any load of masonry work provided above
their level are called relieving arches. They are segmental in shape.
b. Inverted Arches: The arches constructed with two curvatures downwards
are called inverted arches. They are purely RCC structures.
c. Trimmer Arches: The arch constructed over a trimmer, just to carry fire
place in the upper timber floor is called trimmer arch.
d. Jack Arches: The arches constructed over rooms to support a roof or
floor over them are called jack arches.
3. Classification according to geometrical shape
a. Circular Arch: An arch in the form of a circular masonry ring more than
a semi-circle is called circular arch or bull’s eye arch.
b. Horse Shoe Arch: An arch in the form of a circular masonry ring more
than a semi-circle is called horse shoe arch.
c. Semi-Circular Arch: An arch in the form of half of circle is called semi-
circular arch.
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d. Stilted Arch: An arch in the form of semi-circular ring provided with
vertical support so that its center lies above its springing line is called
stilted arch.
e. Segmental Arch: An arch in the form of a circular masonry ring less than
a semi-circle is called segmental arch.
f. Flat Arch: An arch having its intrados horizontal and bed joints radiating
towards a common center is called flat arch.
g. Parabolic Arch: An arch confirming to the shape of parabola is called
parabolic arch.
h. Elliptical Arch: An arch confirming to the shape of an ellipse is called
elliptical arch.
i. Gothic Arch: Arches in the form of masonry rings struck from two
centers lying on their springing line is called Gothic arch.
j. Two Cupsed Arch: Arches in the form of masonry rings struck from four
centers lying on their springing line are called two cupsed arches.
k. Ogee Arch: Arches in the form of masonry rings struck from more than
four centers lying on their springing line are called ogee arch.
12. WINDOWS
Window is thought to have originated from “wind-eye”. A window is a vented barrier
secured in a wall opening. It is an opening in the wall or roof of a building or vehicle fitted
with glass or some other material in a frame for the purpose of admitting light or air. They
also enable the inmates to have vision outside the building.
Windows have changed from open holes in earliest buildings to an intricate sophisticated
mechanism with many layers of controls. They are usually made of timber, plywood, wire-
gauge, framework of steel, etc. Initially they were only provided for its basic purpose but
now-a-days with the evolution of modern architecture, they are provided with different styles
and patterns to provide ventilation and also an aesthetic view to the building.
12.1 Location of windows
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Following factors should be considered while deciding the location of windows in a building:
• Windows should be opposite to each other or opposite to door.
• The sill of window is provided at a height of 4ft above the ground level.
• Windows should be located in such a way that they should fulfill the requirements of
distribution of light, control of ventilation, and privacy etc.
12.2 Types
Windows are generally classified into following main types:
i. Panel or casement window: A window having shutters which open like a door is
called a panel or casement window. It consists of a frame and shutter that is
composed of vertical and horizontal sash bars, styles, top and bottom rails.its frame is
fixed in wall in the same manner as the door frame. They are provided for admission
of light and air in a room.
ii. Casement window with fan light: The integral part of a door or a window at its top,
meant for more light and ventilation of the room is known as fan light. It is provided
to the places where headroom is restricted and a separate ventilator cannot be
provided. It is semi-circular or semi-elliptical in shape.
iii. Corner windows: The window provided at the corner of a building is called a corner
window. This is an ordinary window provided for entrance of more light and air in a
room.
iv. Bay windows: The window which projects outside the room of a building is called a
bay window. This type of window is provides an increased space for admitting more
light and air into the room and increases the architectural appearance of building.
They may be triangular or polygonal in shape.
v. Dormer windows: It is a vertical window provided on the sloping roof. This type of
window provides ventilation and lightening to the enclosed space below the roof. It
may be gable type or shed type.
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vi. Lantern windows: The window provided in the flat roof of a room in which natural
light from ordinary windows cannot be achieved is called a lantern window. These
windows are projected above the normal surface of the roof and admit light and air to
the passages or inner rooms of a building.
vii. Clerestory window and ventilators: The ventilators provided in a wall under the
roof but above the adjoining verandah of a room are called clerestory window or C-
window.
viii. Sky light: The window provided in the sloped roof with its top parallel to the roof
surface is called a sky light. It is provided for ventilation and admitting light from a
pitched or sloped roof.
13.FLOORS
A Floor can be defined as a walking surface of vehicle or a room. OR it can be defined as a
surface provided for accommodation to its users to live at different levels in any building.
Floors typically consist of a subfloor for support and a floor covering used to give a good
walking surface. Floors are built to divide the space enclosed by the external walls and roof
horizontally. In modern buildings the subfloor often has electrical wiring, plumbing, and
other services built in. floors are also used to name a building in respect of its number of
floors it possesses, e.g. a building with only ground floor is called single story, building with
ground floor and first floor is called double story and so on.
13.1 Requirements of a good floor
• Floors must withstand loads that will be imposed on them.
• Floors must prevent the growth of vegetable matter inside the building.
• Floors must prevent damp penetrating inside the building.
• Floors must provide thermal insulation.
• Floors must provide an acceptable surface furnish which will meet the needs of
inmates.
• Floors must provide adequate sound insulation.
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13.2 Components of floor
A floor essentially consists of the following two components:
i. Sub-floor: the lower portion of a floor structure consisting of beams, slabs, rammed
earth, etc. prepared to provide necessary support to the floor covering is called sub-
floor.
ii. Floor covering or paving: the upper portion of floor structure consisting of base,
under layer and topping is called floor covering or paving.
13.3 Types of floor finishes
Floor finishes are mainly classified into the following types:
i. Murum of mud flooring: The finish of a ground floor having its topping consisting of
murum of mud is called a murum or mud flooring. They are generally used for
unimportant buildings in rural areas.
ii. Brick flooring: The flooring having its topping consisting of bricks is called brick
flooring. It is suitable for warehouses, stores, etc.
iii. Tile flooring: The flooring having its topping consisting of tiles is called tile flooring.
They are used for paving courtyards of buildings.
iv. Flag stone flooring: The floor provided with its topping consisting of stone slabs is
known as flag stone bricks. They are suitable for sheds, stores, etc.
v. Concrete flooring: The floor topping consisting of cement concrete is called cement
concrete flooring. They are mostly used in residential, office, or other similar buildings.
vi. Terrazzo flooring: The flooring having their topping consisting of terrazzo finish are
known as terrazzo flooring. They are suitable for most modern residential, office, and
religious buildings, where attractive and durable flooring is required.
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vii. Mosaic flooring: The flooring having its topping consisting of mosaic tiles or small
regular shaped marble cubes, square, or hexagonal, embedded into a cementing mixture
is known as mosaic flooring. They are provided to give an aesthetic look to a building.
viii. Timber flooring: The flooring having its topping consisting of wooden members (strips
plank or blocks) is known as timber flooring. They are used for buildings at hill stations,
auditoriums, ball-rooms, etc.
ix. Linoleum flooring: The flooring having its topping consisting of linoleum of plain or
printed variety is known as linoleum flooring. It is suitable for hospitals, canteens,
residential, office, and industrial buildings, etc.
x. Rubber flooring: The flooring having its topping consisting of rubber sheets is known as
rubber flooring. They are used in those places where noiseless floors are required like in
libraries.
xi. Cork flooring: The flooring having its topping consisting of cork carpets of cork tiles is
known as cork flooring. It is suitable for places where noiseless floors are required.
xii. Asphalt flooring: The flooring consisting of asphalt mastic is known as asphalt flooring.
It is suitable for schools, offices, buildings etc.
xiii. Glass flooring: The flooring consisting of structural glasses fixed in a frame work is
known as glass flooring. It is used in only special situations and important places like
restaurants, hotels, pathways in banquets etc.
xiv. Jack arch floor: The floors having their topping supported on jack arches resting on the
bottom flanges of steel joints are known as jack arch floors. It is not used now-a-days.
xv. Precast concrete floor: The floors constructed of RCC in the form of units are known as
precast concrete floor.
14. INSULATION
Insulation, in general, refers to a material or substance that is used to stop heat, electricity, or
sound from going into or out of something. While in the sense of construction, insulation
refers broadly to any object in a building used as insulation for any purposes whether
acoustic, fire, thermal or impact.
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Mostly the term insulation is used for thermal insulation in buildings. It is totally based on
the principle of law of heat transfer. In buildings heat transfer takes place from the hotter
area to cooler zones in the form of conduction and convention through windows, doors,
walls, floors and roofs which makes the environment tempered and suffocated and vice versa
in winters. So insulations are provided to the buildings to maintain their temperature and heat
flow. For this purpose different insulating materials are used. These materials have high
degree of thermal resistance, and provision of air space that they easily resist the heat flow
and maintain the inside temperature of buildings.
14.1 Advantages
• Insulation is the retention of temperature with in the buildings irrespective of the
change in temperature outside the building.
• It maintains the comfort conditions during summer and winter season.
• This results in fuel saving and maintenance cost.
• It reduces the risk of water freezing in case of pipes and heat loss of hot water system.
14.2 Types
i. Spray polyurethane foam: Spray polyurethane foam is made by mixing and reacting
chemicals to create foam. This foam insulates air seals and provides a moisture
barrier.
ii. Rigid Panel Insulation: They are fibrous materials. They are sometimes sold in
section designed to fir tightly in standard wall cavities.
iii. Insulated Concrete Foam: They are the concrete blocks filled with insulating foam.
They provide the best living environment because of its strength and durability.
iv. Structural insulated Panels: They are the panels in which a layer of foam is bond to
stiff outer skins which creates a web-and-flange structural strength across the length
and breadth of the panel.
v. Oriented strand board: Oriented strand board is a widely used, versatile structural
wood panel manufactured from waterproof heat-cured adhesives and rectangular
shaped wood strands that are arranged in cross-oriented layers.
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vi. Blanket insulation: The insulating material in the form of a wide roll used in
warehouses, stores, and large commercial buildings is called blanket insulation.
15. FIRE PROTECTION
Fire can be defined as a rapid, persistent chemical change that releases heat and light and is
accompanied by flame, especially the exothermic oxidation of a combustible substance. Fire in
buildings can be caused by irresponsive behavior of family members, faulty wiring, short
circuits, candles, flammable liquids etc. So safety measures are taken to prevent fire from
becoming destructive, this process is known as fire protection. This process involves the
implementation of safety planning practices, and includes education on fire, research,
investigation, safety planning, and building construction.
15.1 Instruments used for fire protection
• Fire extinguisher
• Fire proximity suits
• Fire retardants
• Alarm detection systems
• Fire safety hood
• Automatic modular fire extinguisher
• Water supply system
• Compressed air foam system
• Fire blanket
• Firefighting chemicals
• Fire control devices
15.2 Methods of fire protection
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i. Emergency escape: In order to protect the inmates from fire an emergency escape
should always be provided in every building. Modern building regulations go a long
way to ensuring adequate means of escape.
ii. Fire Extinguishers: The most common form of firefighting equipment is fire
extinguishers. They are easy to use and commonly available.
iii. Water: Sprinkling water is also a very good method of diffusing the fire. But it
should not be used on electric wires and short circuits.
iv. Foam: Different foams can be suitable for different classes of fires. They work like
fire extinguishers.
v. Smoke Alarm: Smoke alarms can be installed in different areas of a house or a
building to get aware from the spreading of fire. This will help in taking safety
measures against the spreading of fire.
16. ELECTRICITY, PLUMBING, & GAS POINTS
16.1 Electricity
Electricity is the rate of flow of electric charges in a circuit. It is one among the basic
requirements of any buildings or a house. In the modern world of technology it seems
impossible to live for a day without electricity because from a small house to a skyscraper
each building is equipped with several electrical appliances which require electricity to
perform their functions.
Electricity is provided to the houses by laying a network of wires throughout the houses
called electrical wiring. The whole network of wiring is then connected to main electricity
line and thus the electricity flows into the house. Electrical wirings can be open, closed, or it
can be concealed. It is used to provide power in buildings and structures. While providing
electrical wiring to a house or a building proper inspection should be carried out for the
installing equipment’s, joints should be properly covered, caution marks should be provided
to the main supply areas, and the connections should be properly provided to avoid the
chances of short circuits.
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16.2 Plumbing
The system of pipes and other apparatus for conveying water, liquid wastes, etc. as in a
building is called plumbing. It is the system of pipes, drains, fittings, valves, and fixtures
installed for the distribution of potable water for drinking, heating and washing, and
waterborne waste removal. The instruments used in plumbing are measuring tape, hack saw,
claw hammer, wrenches, screwdrivers, side cutters etc. Plumbing should be done as per the
design of floor plan, joints should be properly fixed, and after the completion of plumbing
process each joint should be properly checked so as to avoid the chances of leakages.
16.3 Gas Points
Gas points are the points in the houses from which gas service runs from street to home.
They are provided by using the areas mentioned in floor plan drawing to provide the points
according to the requirements. While installing the gas points keep them away from the other
utility lines to avoid the chances of fire. Use flexible pipes for complicated joints. After
installation spread a mixture of water and dish liquid on the joints to check the leakages and
then test the pressure of gas with the help of appliances to check that whether the work is
done correctly or not.
17. PRECAST CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM
The concept of precast construction includes those buildings where the majority of structural
components are standardized and produced in plants in a location away from the building,
and then transported to the site for assembly. It was first used in 1848 by Jean-Louis Monier.
These components are manufactured by industrial methods based on mass production in
order to build a large number of buildings in a short time at low cost. Precast panels are
available in different forms and shapes; each panel is used for specific purpose. Some
common examples of precast panels include beams, hollow core slabs, wall panels, and solid
slabs etc.
This type of construction requires a restructuring of the entire conventional construction
process to enable interaction between the design phase and production planning in order to
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improve and speed up the construction. One of the key premises for achieving that objective
is to design buildings with a regular configuration in plan and elevation.
Urban residential buildings of this type are usually five to ten stories high. Many countries
used various precast building systems during the second half of the 20th century to provide
low-income housing for the growing urban population. They were very popular after the
Second World War, especially in Eastern European countries and former Soviet Union
republics. In the former Soviet Union, different precast buildings systems are denoted as
“Seria,” whereas in Romania they are called “Secţiunea.”
17.1 Manufacturing process
The manufacturing process of precast construction system comprises of nine stages. In the
first stage reinforced cages or required shape are prepared. In the second stage, cages are
assembled in molds. In the third stage, concrete mixture is poured into cages. In the fourth
stage the cages are tightly packed to attain the accuracy in shape. In the fifth stage the
prepared panels are moved to storage area. In the sixth stage, panels are inspected by highly
qualified team. If the panels are well manufactured they are transported towards the site in
seventh stage. In the eighth stage, panels are erected at site. And in the ninth stage, building
is constructed.
17.2 Merits and Demerits
• Merits
o It provides good quality control
o It provides aesthetic versatility
o They are more durable
o They contain less maintenance cost and are less time consuming as well.
o It provides earthquake and seismic waves resistant structures.
• Demerits
o The design feasibility is very limited.
o Cranes are required to lift panels.
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o Skilled workmanship is required to carry out the whole construction
o Joints between panels are often expensive and complicated.
18. PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM
Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other
manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the
construction site where the structure is to be located. It is also known as pre-assembly,
modularization, system building, and industrialized construction system.
Prefabricated construction system is a topic of international interest and provides an
effective construction technique in terms of quality, time, cost, function, productivity, and
safety. It is adopted worldwide as the ideal means of producing an immense array of
elements from structural members, cladding units, and bathrooms to fully-finished modular
buildings. As many prefabrication technologies deliver a better product because building is
done in a quality controlled, sheltered environment, they are widely adopted not only in
public houses but also in private building projects. Prefabrication together with the
increasing use of standardization and mechanization has brought a substantial change in the
development of the construction industry worldwide over last few decades.
Besides the accompanying of the related advancements to the local construction industry
with the adoption of more mechanization, computer aided manufacturing, and intelligent
management systems, the extensive use of prefabrication also contributes to sustainable
development by using cleaner and more resources saving production process.
18.1 Merits and Demerits
• Merits
o It provides rapid construction.
o It is independent of adverse weather conditions during construction.
o It provides cost effective solutions
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o It reduces energy consumption and provides earthquake and seismic waves
resistant structures.
• Demerits
o Leaks can form at joints in prefabricated components.
o In some cases, transportation cost becomes higher than manufacturing cost.
o Large prefabricated sections require heavy duty cranes which cost too much.
19. FINISHING MATERIALS (PAINTS, WALLPAPERS, AND PLASTERS)
19.1 PAINTS
Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application to a substrate in a
thin layer, coverts to a solid film. Paints are used to protect metals, brickwork, and concrete
work from the corrosive effects of weather, heat, moisture, or gases etc. and to improve their
appearance. They provide easily cleanable surfaces that help keep the substrates clean and
tidy. They can alter the interior by the use of color, light or darkness, matt or reflective
surfaces and with textures as well.
Paints essentially contain a base which provides body, there is a carrier in which the base is
dissolved and helps the base to spread all over when applied. The pigments are also added to
give the desired colors. In addition to these, many other essential ingredients such as filters,
solvents and thinners are used to make the paint thinner and for rapid drying of paint.
i. Acrylic Paints: They are made of acrylic resin, binder, and pigment. They are used
for interior and exterior wall painting, newly plastered wall, newly constructed brick
walls, and metallic surfaces. They are water-proof and dry quickly.
ii. Emulsion Paints: Emulsion paints are made of alkyd resin binder, pigments,
extenders, water, and additives. They are used for the interior decoration with an
emphasis on painting walls and ceilings. It gives glossy finish.
iii. Enamel Paints: Enamel paints are composed of alkyd resin, pigment, and binder.
They are used in interior walls and outdoors. They are also used to coat furniture.
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iv. Oil Paints: They are made by mixing pigments containing the color with oil. They
are widely and commonly used for painting wooden and metallic surfaces in all kinds
of decorative works. It is long lasting but takes too much time to dry.
19.2 WALLPAPERS
Wallpapers are decorative papers or vinyls that are applied to walls with glue or paste. They
are made up of different materials like fabric, silk, vinyl, and grass cloth etc. it contains a
vast variety of patterns including floral, geometric, stripes, abstract etc. It has a smooth or
textured effect. Wallpapers are basically used for the beautification of interior walls as well
as for the attractive look. They are available in rolls, each roll covers 36ft.They can copy any
surface such as brick, stone, wood, and leather, enhances any room, and can create any
desired style.
19.2.1 Types
i. Machine printed wallpaper
ii. Hand-printed wallpaper
iii. Sponge-able or washable wallpaper
iv. Anaglyptic wallpaper
v. Wood chips wallpaper
19.3 PLASTERS
Plastering is the process of covering rough walls and uneven surfaces in the construction of
houses and other structures with a material, called plaster or mortar.
The finished surfaces of walls, constructed in bricks or stones, are generally so rough that
they provide unsuitable finish for the internal walls of most of the buildings. These surfaces
are rendered smooth by the application of one or two coats of plaster. The ceilings are also
rendered smooth with plaster.
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19.3.1 Objects of Plastering
• To provide an even, smooth, regular, clean and durable finished surface.
• To protect the surface from the effects of weathering agencies.
• To conceal the defective workmanship.
• To cover inferior quality of materials used in masonry.
• To provide a smooth base for decorative surface finishes.
• To protect the surface against dust, dirt, and vermin nuisance in case of
internal plastering.
19.3.2 Classification of Plastering
On the basis of finishing, plastering is classified into following types:
i. Plain Plaster: Plain plaster is a basic type of plaster. It can be made from
various materials. They are provided to the places where the walls have to
cover with some wallpaper or color.
ii. Grit Finish: Grit finish is a textured wall covering plaster. It consists of two
materials i.e. Dry Material and Bonding Agent. It gives texture to the wall.
iii. Rough Coat: It is a type of plaster in which after a smooth coat a rough coat
for texturing is applied to wall. It is used for providing aesthetic view.
iv. Pebble Dashed: Pebbledash is a coarse plaster surface used on outside walls
that consists of lime and sometimes cement mixed with sand, small gravel,
and often pebbles or shells. The materials are mixed into a slurry and are then
thrown at the working surface with a trowel or scoop.
v. Concrete Cladding: The plastering which is done using concrete is called
concrete cladding.
vi. Stone Cladding: The plastering which is done by using stones for giving a
natural and traditional look is called stone cladding.
20. BRICKS WORK AND BONDING
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20.1 BRICKS WORK
An assemblage of bricks properly bounded together in mortar is called brick work or brick
masonry. It is a type of masonry, in which the bricks are arranged and bedded in mortat in
such a manner as to form a homogeneous mass of the structure. In such a structure, the point
or other loads and stresses are dispersed and distributed throughout the mass without tending
to disintegrate the structure.
The mortar that is used in bricks work may be may mortar, lime mortar, or cement mortar,
depending upon the class and strength of work desired. Bricks work are commonly used for
construction work of ordinary as well as important buildings and other structures in areas
where natural stone is not obtainable cheaply and abundantly but there is plenty of suitable
clay for the manufacture of bricks.
20.2 BONDING
The term bonding is originated from the word Bond. Bonding is the process of arranging
bricks in different courses in order to tie them together in unified mass of brickwork.
Bonding is done to ensure that vertical joints do not come over one another because having
continuous vertical joints will not act as a unified mass but will act as columns.
The purpose of bonding in brickwork is to develop longitudinal and transverse interlocking
for individual bricks so as to achieve a unified mass of the structure. If a wall is properly
bonded then the load will be distributed in a uniform way and the structure did not collapse.
For a good bonding, all the bricks should be of uniform size and shape, the arrangement of
laying bricks must be uniform, all the horizontal joints must be truly horizontal and vertical
joints must be truly vertical, the vertical joints or perpends should be vertically above each
other in the alternate courses, and the Centre of the header in each course should be in the
same vertical line as the Centre of the stretcher lying in the course immediately above or
below it.
20.2.1 Types
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i. English Bond: The bond having headers and stretchers laid in alternate courses is
called English bond. It is commonly adopted for brickwork of buildings where
strength is of prime importance.
ii. Flemish Bond: The bond having headers and stretchers laid alternately in the same
course is called Flemish bond. It is commonly used in the buildings where the
external appearance is of prime importance.
iii. Heading Bond: The bond having all the bricks laid as headers in every course of a
wall is called heading bond or header bond. It is commonly used for constructing
staining (brickwork) of wells, footings, corbels, cornices, etc.
iv. Stretching Bond: The bond having all the bricks laid as stretchers in every course is
called stretching bond. It is used for constructing 10cm, thick brick partition walls.
v. Garden Wall Bond: The bond used for constructing compound walls of a garden is
called garden wall bond. It is used for constructing thick garden walls, boundary
walls, compound walls, etc. it is also used for constructing cavity walls.
vi. Raking Bond: The bond having all the bricks laid at an angle to the facing and
backing of a wall is called raking bond. It is used for architectural finish and for the
footings of high walls.
vii. English Cross Bond: The bond having headers and stretchers laid in alternate
courses, and a header provided after the quoin stretcher, in every alternate stretching
course is called English cross bond. It is not used now-a-days.
viii. Hoop Iron Bond: The bond having reinforcement in the form of longitudinal ties
provided in different courses for additional strength of the wall is called hoop iron
bond. It is used for constructing 100mm thick partition walls or panel walls in framed
structures.
ix. Facing Bond: The bond having bricks of different thickness and qualities, used for
facing and backing of the wall, is called facing bond.
x. Dutch Bond: The bond having headers and stretchers laid in the alternate courses
and every stretching course started with ¾ brick-bat is known as Dutch bond. It is not
in common use.
xi. Monk Bond: The bond having two stretchers and one header laid alternately in each
course is called monk bond. It is used in the construction of boundary walls.
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xii. Zigzag Bond: The bond having bricks laid in zigzag fashion is called zigzag bond. It
is used for paving the brick floor.
xiii. Brick-on-edge Bond: This bond having all bricks laid on their edge is called brick-
on-edge bond. They are used for the construction of garden walls, compound walls,
partition walls, etc.
xiv. Silverlock’s Bond: The bond having bricks laid in alternate courses in such a way
that headers are laid on bed and the stretches are laid on edge, forming a continuous
cavity throughout the length of the wall is called silverlock’s bond. It is economical
but provides less strength to the wall.
21. INTRODUCTION TO SITE PREPARATION
Site preparation involves the demolition or wrecking of buildings and other structures,
clearing of building sites and sale of materials from demolished structures. Site preparation
also entails blasting, test drilling, landfill, leveling, earth-moving, excavating, land drainage
and other land preparation. Site preparation also includes fixing position of the site office, go
downs, the guard and the labor shed, the access and existing roads for trucks and carts etc.
It is one of the preliminary works to be done for starting construction works. The selected
construction site preparation needs to be completed properly before the starts of construction
process. For preparing a site for construction process various equipment’s and accessories
are used like fencing materials, sign boards, screws and screwdriver, shears, axes, shovels
etc. The following factors are considered for the construction site preparation:
• All the scrubs or jungle should be removed on the site for building construction.
• The whole area will be roughly leveled.
• The holes of the construction site will be filled with sands or rammed earth and
leveled off as required or redirected by the authority.
• The trees will be cut off and their roots are totally uprooted as directed by the
authority.
• Before starting the work, permanent bench marks must be established at a suitable
point in the construction site.
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• The orientation and trench lines of the building should be correctly laid out in the
construction site and the location for the storage and stacking of the materials should
be definitely set on the ground in the site.
• During site preparation, boundary line pillars are also to be fixed on the ground. All
of these will help to prepare a site for starting the construction process.
22. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS
Construction systems are the ways in which materials are combined to construct the elements
of a building. They are the ways of carrying out the whole process of construction in a
hierarchical manner. It encompasses of several methods that are selected by keeping in mind
the sustainability, thermal performance, and environmental impacts.
22.1 Choosing a Construction System
Important factors influencing the selection of residential construction systems are:
• Role in improving thermal performance
• Durability compared to intended life span
• Life cycle cost effectiveness
• Life cycle energy consumption
• Source and environmental impact of all component materials and processes
• Availability of skills and materials
• Maintenance requirements
• Adaptability and reuse or recycling potential
• Distances and transport modes required for components and system (road, rail or ship).
22.2 Different Construction Systems
i. Heavyweight Construction System: Heavyweight Construction Systems are generally
having higher embodied energy. It can offset their embodied energy by reducing heating
and cooling energy use over the life span of the home. It is most appropriate in climates
with high diurnal (day–night) temperature ranges. It is liable in tropical climates where
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energy is used only for cooling. It requires heavy lifting equipment on site that’s why it is
not used on remote sites where materials have to be transported for long distances.
ii. Lightweight Construction System: Lightweight construction systems generally have
lower embodied energy. It can yield lower total life cycle energy use, particularly where
the diurnal range is low. It can respond rapidly to external temperature changes or
heating and cooling input. It can provide significant benefits in temperate and hot
climates by cooling rapidly at night and are often preferable on remote sites with high
materials transport cost. It can have lower production impact if sustainably sourced.
23. DISASTER MANAGEMENT MEASURES
Disaster can be define as any occurrence that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of
human life, deterioration of health services on a scale, sufficient to warrant an extraordinary
response from outside the affected community or area. It is a natural or manmade event which
results in widespread human loss, loss of livelihood, property and life. To prevent from the
effects of disasters, safety measures are taken. These measures when combined in a systemic
way are termed as disaster management measures.
Disaster Management is a strategic process, and not a tactical process. It deals with the
organization and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian
aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the
impact of disasters.
It is a discipline that involves preparing, supporting, and rebuilding society when natural or
human-made disasters occur. In general, any disaster management is the continuous process by
which all individuals, groups, and communities manage hazards in an effort to avoid or
ameliorate the impact of disasters resulting from the hazards. Actions taken depend in part on
perceptions of risk of those exposed. Effective disaster management relies on thorough
integration of emergency plans at all levels of government and non-government involvement.
Activities at each level (individual, group, community) affect the other levels.
23.1 Phases of Disaster Management
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The phases of disaster management are described below:
i. Disaster Preparedness: disaster preparedness is a continuous cycle of planning,
managing, training, and improving activities to ensure effective coordination between
concerned organizations to prevent and protect against the disasters. It involves
measures to ensure that communities and services are capable of coping with the
effect of disaster.
ii. Disaster Response: The response phase includes the mobilization of the necessary
emergency services and first responders in the disaster area during and immediately
after a disaster to ensure that the effects are minimized. This is likely to include a first
wave of core emergency services, such as firefighters, police and ambulance crews.
They may be supported by a number of secondary emergency services, such as
specialist rescue teams.
iii. Disaster Recovery: The aim of the recovery phase is to restore the affected area to
its previous state. It differs from the response phase in its focus; recovery efforts are
concerned with issues and decisions that must be made after immediate needs are
addressed. Recovery efforts are primarily concerned with actions that involve
rebuilding destroyed property, re-employment, and the repair of other essential
infrastructure.
iv. Preventation & Mitigation: It involves measures to eliminate or reduce the
incidence of severity of disasters. It deals with the measures that are taken to lessen
the likely effects of emergencies. It depends upon the disaster, protection of
vulnerable population and structure, such as, improving structural qualities of
schools, houses and such other buildings so that medical causalities can be minimized
or preventing habitation in risk zones.
24. DESIGN OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS
Earthquake is a natural phenomenon occurring with all uncertainties. It is sudden shift of
rock over the fracture of earth. During the earthquake, ground motions occur in a random
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fashion, both horizontally and vertically, in all directions radiating from epicenter. These
cause structures to vibrate and induce inertia forces on them.
It has been said that “Earthquakes do not kill people, improperly designed structures do”.
The improper designed structures are not capable to resist these waves and thus they
collapse. To protect the lives of residents resides in the buildings, the world of modern
architecture has introduces new technique of earthquake resistant buildings which would not
be affected by the earthquake and seismic waves radiation.
24.1 Methods of preventing Earthquakes
Earthquakes are very serious problems since they affect human life in various ways. The
Earthquakes are mainly prevented by two methods namely Base Isolation Methods and
Seismic Dampers. They are described below:
i. Base Isolation Method (BIM): Base isolation method, also known as seismic base
isolation or base isolation system, is one of the most popular means of protecting a
structure against earthquake forces. It is a collection of structural elements which should
substantially decouple a superstructure from its substructure resting on a shaking ground
thus protecting a building or non-building structure's integrity. Base isolation is one of
the most powerful tools of earthquake engineering pertaining to the passive structural
vibration control technologies. It is meant to enable a building or non-building structure
to survive a potentially devastating seismic impact through a proper initial design or
subsequent modifications.
In base isolation method, the buildings surface is separated from the surface of earth with
the help of rubber bearings, so that when the ground shakes, these rubber pads induces
the force and the building would not experience the earthquake directly. These rubber
pads are called base-isolators and the buildings which are protected by means of these
pads are called as base-isolated buildings. In base isolation method various base-isolators
are used which are chosen according to the design of structure.
ii. Seismic Dampers (SD): Seismic Damper is a device that is deadens, restrains, or
depresses. It is an additional system introduced in building structures that are provided or
fitted in such a manner that the building float on the systems of ball bearings, springs and
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padded cylinder. Seismic Dampers are used in place of structural elements, like diagonal
braces, for controlling seismic damage in structures. It partly absorbs the seismic energy
and damps the motion of buildings. Acting like shock absorbers in a car, these systems
allow the building to be decoupled from the shaking of the ground. They are of four types
namely, Viscous Dampers, Friction Dampers, Viscoelastic Dampers and Yielding
Dampers.
25. ENVIRONMENTAL & SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS & CHOICE OF
MATERIALS
The choice of materials for a project requires considerations of aesthetic appeal and initial and
ongoing costs, life cycle assessment considerations (such as material performance, availability
and impact on the environment) and the ability to reuse, recycle or dispose of the material at the
end of its life. Materials must be used sustainably – this means the present use will not
compromise future use by running out or harming the environment at any time. Few materials
fully meet these criteria. The aim when selecting materials should therefore be to use:
i. Materials from renewable or replaceable sources
ii. Recycled materials
iii. Materials that are in plentiful supply.
Life cycle assessment considerations include:
i. Extraction and manufacture
ii. Sourcing
iii. Construction/installation
iv. Performance
v. Waste disposal/recycling/reuse
Impact of extraction:
The environmental impact of extraction such as large-scale mining, on scarce, non-renewable
resources is obvious, but even the extraction of renewable resources will have some impact on
the environment. The effects of extraction may be:
• Noise
• Visual pollution
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• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Chemical emission
• Release of CO2
• Damage to ecosystems
• Water use
• Energy use.
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