Power generation using speed breakers and efficient use of energy created by it.

POWER GENERATIONS USING SPEED BREAKERS
MAJOR PROJECT REPORT
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirements the award of Degree
Of
Bachelor of Technology
In
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
By
Amandeep Singh Rahul Rathi Avinash Jowel Aman Bharti Lasan
05596204912 06296204912 11715604912 11815604912 13515604912
Guided by
Mr Shawet Mittal
Asstt. Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
NORTHERN INDIA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
FC-26, SASTRI PARK, DELHI—110053, (INDIA)
APRIL 2017

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
It is hereby certified that the work which is being presented in the B. Tech Minor Project
Report entitled "SPEED GENERATION DURING SPEED BREAKERS" in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology
and submitted in the Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering of Northern
India Engineering College, New Delhi is an authentic record of our own work carried
out during a period from January 2017 to April 2017 under the guidance of Mr Shawet
Mittal.
The matter presented in the thesis has not been submitted by me for the award of any
other degree of this or any other Institute.
Amandeep Rahul Rathi Avinash Jowel Aman Bharti Lasan Ahmed
05596204912 06296204912 11715604912 11815604912 13515604912
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of
my knowledge. He/She/They are permitted to appear in the external Minor Project
examination
Mrs Shawet Mittal Mr. Ajit Kumar Sharma Prof. (Dr.) G. P. Govil
Asst. Professor Head, EEED Director
The B.Tech Major Project Viva-Voce Examination of Amandeep Singh(05596204912),
Aman Bharti (11815604912), Avinash Jowel (11715604912), Lasan Ahmed
(13515604912), Rahul Rathi (06296204912), has been held on 26/04/2017.
Mr. Kumar Gaurav Dr. Pratul Arvind (Signature of External Examiner)
Project Coordinator Project Coordinator

ABSTRACT
In the present scenario power becomes major need for human life. Due to day-to-day
increase in population and lessen of the conventional sources, it becomes necessary that
we must depend on non-conventional sources for power generation. While moving, the
vehicles posses some kinetic energy and it is being wasted. This kinetic energy can be
utilized to produce power by using a special arrangement called Power Hump.
The Kinetic energy of moving vehicles can be converted into mechanical energy of the
shaft through rack and pinion mechanism. This shaft is connected to the electric dynamo
and it produces electrical energy proportional to traffic density. This generated power
can be regulated by using Zener diode for continuous supply.
All this mechanism can be housed under the dome like speed breaker, which is called
hump.
The generated power can be used for general purpose like streetlights, traffic signals.
The electrical output can be improved by arranging these power humps in series this
generated power can be amplified and stored by using different electric devices. The
maintenance cost of hump is almost nullified. By adopting this arrangement, we can
satisfy the future demands to some extent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my deep gratitude to Mrs Shawet Mittal, Asst.Professor, Department of
Electrical & Electronics Engineering for his valuable guidance through my project work.
I am thankful to Mr. Kumar Gaurav, and Dr. Pratul Arvind, Project Coordinators for
their valuable guidance.
I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Head of the Department, Mr. Ajit Kumar
Sharma for his time to time suggestions to complete my project work. I am also
thankful to Prof. (Dr.) G. P. Govil, Director for providing me the facilities to carry out
my project work.
Amandeep Singh Rahul Rathi Avinash Jowel Aman Bharti Lasan
05596204912 06296204912 11715604912 11815604912 13515604912

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CANDIDATE DECLARATION iii
ABSTRACT iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vi
LIST OF FIGURES vii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1 - 10
1.1 Alternate Method Network
Chapter 2: Overview 11-24
2.1 Working Principle
2.1.1 Mechanical to Electrical
Energy
2.2 Construction and
Operation
2.3 Material Required
Chapter 3: Construction Details
3.1 Dyanamo
3.2 Faraday’s Principle
3.3
3.4
3.5 Capacitor
3.5.1 Ceramic Capacitor
3.5.2 Electrolytic Capacitor
3.6 Integrated Circuit
Chapter 4: Future Scope 38-43
4.1 Stepper Motor
4.2 Two-phase Motor
4.2.1 Unipolar Motor
Chapter 5: Conclusion 44

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.1 Roller Mechanism during electricity
generation from speed breakers
Fig 1.2 Rack and pinion mechanism for electricity
generation from speed breaker
Fig 2.1 Construction
Fig 2.2 Rechargeable Battery
Fig 2.3 Monostable Timer
Fig 3.1 Portable Generator side view show
gasoline engine
Fig 3.2 Jedlik’s Dynamo
Fig 3.3 Equivalent Circuit generator and load
Fig 3.4 Roller
Fig 3.5 Microcontroller
Fig 3.6 Photodiode
Fig 3.7 LED
Fig 3.8 P-N-P Transistor
Fig 3.9 Tabular and disc type capacitor
Fig 3.10 Electrolytic and Tandalum capacitor
Fig 3.11 Integrated Circuit

INTRODUCTION
In this model we show that how we can generate a voltage from the busy traffic.
Conversion of the mechanical energy into electrical energy is widely used concept. It’s a
mechanism to generate power by converting the potential energy generated by a vehicle
going up on a speed breaker into rotational energy. We have used that simple concept to
the project. We connect one mechanical rod with the dynamo and fit this rod on the
surface of the road. When any vehicle moves from this roller then due to friction, vehicle
Rotate the rod or roller and roller then move the dynamo. When dynamo move then it
generates a voltage and this voltage now connects to the bulbs. In actual practice with
the help of this voltage we will charge the battery and then we use this voltage to light
the small bulb. If we install this unit to the any small flyover then with the help of this
voltage we generate a small voltage, and with the help of this voltage we light the bulb.
The second part of that project is an efficient use of energy by using simple electronics.
We always see that road light continuously glow whether vehicle on path or not. We
have introduced a concept to avoid a waste of light. We have used two sensors between
some distances. When vehicle pass through first sensor it sends the signal to the
microcontroller that the vehicle is passing along that particular distance then light will
glow for that particular time and when vehicle goes out from the second sensor then the
second sensor sends a signal to a microcontroller that vehicle has been passed through
that particular path then light gets off automatically. Different types of basic electronics
components has been used to get the desired output like capacitor, resister etc. We have
also used a light diode resistance(LDR) when LDR senses a light around it all the road
lights gets off and when LDR senses there is a dark around it then LDR sends a signal to
microcontroller then all the road lights gets on.

1.1 ALTERNATIVE METHOD:
In power generation using speed breaker we can use different mechanism to convert the
mechanical energy into the electrical energy from the speed breaker. The generation of
electricity using the vehicle weight can considers as an input. The possible three
different mechanisms are given below:
 Crank-shaft mechanism
 Roller mechanism
 Rack and pinion mechanism
In that project we have introduced a roller mechanism to convert the mechanical energy
into the electrical energy. We have connected a roller to the shaft of a dynamo when
roller moves it rotates the shaft of the dynamo by that process electricity is generated. In
a roller mechanism the maintenance is required of the high level. Material selection is
also a important task for the roller type mechanism. The below figure 1.1 shows the
basic mechanism of roller type. In that one roller is linked with chain to the shaft of a
dynamo, when vehicle moves over a speed breaker then potential energy is converted
into a rotational energy which rotates the shaft of a dynamo due to that electricity is
generated.

Fig 1.1 Roller mechanism during electricity generation from speed breaker
By using a crank shaft mechanism we can also generate an electrical power from
mechanical power. But the problem of vibration often occurs. Crank shaft are required to
be mounted on bearings which creates a balancing problems in that mechanism which
leads a problem of mechanical vibration which in turn can damage a bearings. The third
and last mechanism is a rack and pinion mechanism. This mechanism is most efficient
mechanism in comparison of the other two. Rack and pinion gives good mounting
convenience. Maximum gear losses which occur in that mechanism can lie between
three to five percent and efficiency of that mechanism can lie between ninety to ninety
five percent. Fig 1.2 shows the basic concept of rack and pinion mechanism.
Fig 1.2
Rack and pinion mechanism for electricity generation from speed breaker

2.0 OVERVIEW
2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE:
2.1.1 MECHANICAL TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY:
One rod with the dynamo is placed like a speed breaker. Dynamo means a generator that
produces direct current with the use of a commutator. The dynamo uses rotating coils of
wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct electric
current through Faraday's law. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure,
called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings
called the armature which turn within that field. Movement of vehicle just rotates the
dynamo shaft and electricity is generated. This voltage is to be stored in the chargeable
battery. In the night lights are automatic on with the help of photovoltaic switch logic.
But all lights are not on, only half light are on. Other half lights switch on automatically
when any vehicle move on the bridge, when there is no vehicle on the bridge then lights
are off automatically. We use two infrared sensors’ to check the movement of vehicle.
When first infra red sensor is on then lights are on and when second sensor is
interrupting then lights are off. A Street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or
lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road, which is turned on or lit at
a certain time every night. Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells to turn
them on at dusk, off at dawn, or activate automatically in dark weather. In older lighting
this function would have been performed with the aid of a solar dial. Here we used some
electronics for that purpose. It is not uncommon for street lights to be on posts which
have wires strung between them, such as on telephone poles or utility poles.
Major advantages of street lighting includes: prevention of accidents and increase in
safety. Studies have shown that darkness results in a large number of crashes and
fatalities, especially those involving pedestrians; pedestrian fatalities are 3 to 6.75 times
more vulnerable in the dark than in daylight. Street lighting has been found to reduce
pedestrian crashes by approximately half percent.

2.2 CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION:
Fig 2.1
In this model we show that how we generate a voltage from the busy road traffic. In all
the city’s traffic is very much high and on some road, traffic move like a tortoise. If we
employ a speed breaker type generator on the road then we utilize the friction of vehicle
into mechanical energy and then this mechanical energy is further converted into
electrical energy with the help of the powerful dynamo. So we install a one powerful
dynamo on the road.
Output of the dynamo is connected to the L.E.D. in this project. When we move the
shaft of the dynamo then dynamo generate a voltage and this voltage is sufficient to
drive the L.E.D. In actual practice we use this dynamo to generate a voltage and after
generating a voltage we charge the battery. When battery is fully charged then we use
this battery as a storage device. We use this storage device to run the lights of the road.
A rechargeable battery (also known as a storage battery) is a group of one or more
electrochemical cells. They are known as secondary cells because their electrochemical
reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many different sizes
and use different combinations of chemicals; common types include: lead acid, nickel
cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion
polymer (Li-ion polymer).

Fig 2.3
In this project we show that how we use IC 555 as a automatic street light function. Here
in this project IC 555 work as a monostable timer. Pin no 4 and 8 of the IC is connected
to the positive supply. Pin no 1 of the IC is connected to the ground pin. Pin no 3 is the
output pin. On this pin we connect a output L.E.D. LDR is connected to the pin no 2 of
the IC via 100 ohm resistor. When light fall on the LDR then LDR offers a low
resistance. When LDR is in dark then LDR offers a high resistance. When we convert
the LDR by hand then LDR resistance become high and so pin no 2 become more
negative. When pin no 2 become negative then IC 555 triggers itself and output is on.
This is the function of the monostable timer.

2.3 MATERIAL REQUIRED:
After the general layout of the speed breaker system has been made of successful
working it is necessary to select proper material for the system of refrigeration. This
involves the consideration of many facts about available material such as dynamo
weight, size shape of the component material cost, fabrication cost, overhead charges
and many other properties peculiar to the use of which to member is to be fitted.
The following four types of principle properties of material effect their selection.
1. Mechanical
2. Physical
3. Chemical
4. Form manufacturing point of view.
It is important that the material to be used in such a way as to take full advantage of their
natural characteristics following material is selected for the fabrication of speed breaker
by road. The roller which is extensively used in speed breaker to generate a electricity
are made from a materials like synthetic rubber, rumble strips etc for a low weight
vehicles and medium weight vehicles like bikes, scooters, bicycles, auto rickshaw, cabs
etc.

3.0 CONSTRCTION DETAILS
Power generation using speed breaker and efficient use of energy has been constructed
from different components, some of the important components details are given below:
3.1 DYANAMO:
The dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical
rotation into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's law. A dynamo machine
consists of a stationary structure, called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic
field, and a set of rotating windings called the armature which turn within that field. On
small machines the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent
magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more
electromagnets, which are usually called field current.
The commutator was needed to produce direct current. When a loop of wire rotates in a
magnetic field, the potential induced in it reverses with each half turn, generating an
alternating current. However, in the early days of electric experimentation, alternating
current generally had no known use. The few uses for electricity, such as electroplating,
used direct current provided by messy liquid batteries. Dynamos were invented as a
replacement for batteries. The commutator is a set of contacts mounted on the machine's
shaft, which reverses the connection of the windings to the externalcircuit when the
potential reverses, so instead of alternating current, a pulsing direct current is
produced.

3.2 FARADAY PRINCIPLE:
Fig 3.1 Portable generator side view showing gasoline engine.
In 1831-1832 Michael Faraday discovered that a potential difference is generated
between the ends of an electrical conductor that moves perpendicular to a magnetic field.
He also built the first electromagnetic generator called the 'Faraday disc', a type of
homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe
magnet. It produced a small DC voltage, and large amounts of current. The first dynamo
based on Faraday's principles was built in 1832 by Hippolyte Pixii, a French instrument
maker. It used a permanent magnet which was rotated by a crank. The spinning magnet
was positioned so that its north and south poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped with
wire. Pixii found that the spinning magnet produced a pulse of current in the wire each
time a pole passed the coil. Furthermore, the north and south poles of the magnet
induced currents in opposite directions. By adding a commutator, Pixii was able to
convert the alternating current to direct current.
Unlike the Faraday disc, many turns of wire connected in series can be used in the
moving windings of a dynamo. This allows the terminal voltage of the machine to be
higher than a disc can produce, so that electrical energy can be delivered at a convenient
voltage.
The relationship between mechanical rotation and electric current in a dynamo is
reversible; the principles of the electric motor were discovered when it was found that
one dynamo could cause a second interconnected dynamo to rotate if current was fed
through it.

3.3 JEDLIK’S DYMAMO:
Fig 3.2 Jedlik's dynamo
In 1827, Anyos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic rotating devices
which he called electromagnetic self-rotors. In the prototype of the single-pole electric
starter (finished between 1852 and 1854) both the stationary and the revolving parts
were electromagnetic. He formulated the concept of the dynamo at least 6 years before
Siemens and Wheatstone. In essence the concept is that instead of permanent magnets,
two electromagnets opposite to each other induce the magnetic field around the rotor.
3.4 GRAMME DYNAMO:
Both of these designs suffered from a similar problem: they induced "spikes" of current
followed by none at all. Antonio Pacinotti, an Italian scientist, fixed this by replacing the
spinning coil with a toroidal one, which he created by wrapping an iron ring. This meant
that some part of the coil was continually passing by the magnets, smoothing out the
current. Zénobe Gramme reinvented this design a few years later when designing the
first commercial power plants, which operated in Paris in the 1870s. His design is now
known as the Gramme dynamo. Various versions and improvements have been made
since then, but the basic concept of a spinning endless loop of wire remains at the heart
of all modern dynamos.
The generator moves an electric current, but does not create electric charge, which is
already present in the conductive wire of its windings. It is somewhat analogous to a

water pump, which creates a flow of water but does not create the water itself.
Other types of electrical generator exist, based on other electrical phenomena such as
piezoelectricity, and magneto hydro-dynamics. The construction of a dynamo is similar
to that of an electric motor, and all common types of dynamos could work as motors.
3.5 TERMINOLOGY:
The parts of a dynamo or related equipment can be expressed in either mechanical
terms or electrical terms. Although distinctly separate, these two sets of terminology
are frequently used interchangeably or in combinations that include one mechanical
term and one electrical term.
This causes great confusion when working with compound machines such as a
brushless alternator or when conversing with people who are used to working on a
machine that is configured differently than the machines that the speaker is used to.
• Mechanical
• Rotor: The rotating part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.
• Stator: The stationary part of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.
• Electrical
• Armature: The power-producing component of an alternator, generator, dynamo
or motor. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator.
• Field: The magnetic field component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor.
The field can be on either the rotor or the stator and can be either an electromagnet
or a permanent magnet.

•
3.6 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
Fig 3.3 Equivalent circuit of generator and load
G = generator
VG=generator open-circuit voltage
RG=generator internal resistance
VL=generator on-load voltage
RL=load resistance
• Before starting the generator, measure the resistance across its terminals using an
ohmmeter. This is its DC internal resistance RGDC.
• Start the generator. Before connecting the load RL, measure the
voltage across the generator's terminals. This is the open-circuit voltage VG.
• Connect the load as shown in the diagram, and measure the voltage across it with
the generator running. This is the on-load voltage VL.
• Measure the load resistance RL, if you don't already know it.

3.7 MAXMIMUM POWER:
The maximum power theorem applies to generators as it does to any source of electrical
energy. This theorem states that the maximum power can be obtained from the generator
by making the resistance of the load equal to that of the generator. However, under this
condition the power transfer efficiency is only 50%, which means that half the power
generated is wasted as heat and Lorentz force or back emf inside the generator. For this
reason, practical generators are not usually designed to operate at maximum power
output, but at a lower power output where efficiency is greater.
3.8 ROLLER:
Suited for where heavy loads must be moved in confined spaces without loss of
precision or rigidity, Tschudin and Heid linear roller cages and guides allows
displacement of moving parts in axial direction via use of parallel shafts and sleeves; no
radial movement is possible. Rollers offer line contact with guide, enabling low pre-load
at assembly to be maintained. Rollers are arranged within plastic or metallic cage in
spiral fashion, spread over entire surface area of shaft and sleeve.
Tschudin & Heid linear roller cages and guides are components for machine, instrument,
tool and fixture applications. The novel design of the rollers and cages allows the
displacement of moving parts in an axial direction through the use of parallel shafts and
sleeves. No radial movement is possible. This novel construction is particularly
appropriate in cases where heavy loads must be moved in confined spaces without loss
of precision or rigidity.The use of special "rollers" instead of balls results in line contact
with the guide rather than point contact as with ball-type guides.
Because of this line contact, pre-load at assembly can be kept low, which produces a low
surface pressure between the rollers and guides. In spite of this, the bearing is rigid,
accurate and can be heavily loaded. The rollers are arranged within a plastic or metallic
cage in spiral fashion, spread over the entire surface area of the shaft and sleeve, leading
to a longer service life of the guide unit.
This is also a low maintenance unit, requiring only a thin lubricating film for normal
operation. Complete cylinder linear guides, comprising shaft and sleeve with matched
roller cage can be supplied ready for fitting to customer's specifications.
Advanced Machine & Engineering Co., is a manufacturer located in Rockford, Ill.,

serving the Machine Tool Industry with precision components and accessories, including
spindle interface components, work holding devices, and, through our sister company,
Hennig, machine enclosures, chip removal and filtration systems. The Fluid Power -
Safety markets are served with cylinder rod locks and safety catcher devices; and the
Production Saw market with our Am Saw carbide saw machines and Speed cut blade
products. AME has manufacturing partners and customers around the world.
Fig 3.4 Roller
Henning, Inc. designs and produces custom machine protection and chip/coolant
management products for state-of-the-art machine tools. Henning products are designed
to protect against corrosion, debris and common workplace contaminants.
Manufacturing facilities are located in the U.S., Germany, Brazil, India, Japan, China
and South Korea. Repair centers are located in Machesney Park, IL; Chandler, OK;
Livonia, MI; Blue Ash, OH; Mexico City, Mexico; and Saltillo, Mexico.

3.9 MICROCONTROLLER:
Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the
microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications.
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as
automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, and toys.
By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor,
memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally
control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontrollers are common,
integrating analog components needed to control non-digital electronic systems. Some
microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as
4 kHz, for low power consumption (mill watts or microwatts). They will generally have
the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or
other interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off)
may be just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery
applications. Other microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they
may need to act more like a digital signal processor (DSP). Microcontrollers were
originally programmed only in assembly language, but various high-level programming
languages are now also in common use to target microcontrollers.
These languages are either designed especially for the purpose, or versions of general
purpose languages such as the C programming language. Compilers for general purpose
languages will typically have some restrictions as well as enhancements to better support
the unique characteristics of microcontrollers. Some microcontrollers have environments
to aid developing certain types of applications. Microcontroller vendors often make tools
freely available to make it easier to adopt their hardwareher clock speeds and power
consumption.

Fig 3.5 Microcontroller
Many microcontrollers are so quirky that they effectively require their own non-standard
dialects of C, such as SDCC for the 8051, which prevent using standard tools (such as
code libraries or static analysis tools) even for code unrelated to hardware features.
Interpreters are FORTH on the Zilog Z8 as well as some modern devices. Typically
these interpreters support interactive programming.
Simulators are available for some microcontrollers, such as in Microchip's MPLAB
environment. These allow a developer to analyze what the behavior of the
microcontroller and their program should be if they were using the actual part. A
simulator will show the internal processor state and also that of the outputs, as well as
allowing input signals to be generated. While on the one hand most simulators will be
limited from being unable to simulate much other hardware in a system, they can
exercise conditions that may otherwise be hard to reproduce at will in the physical
implementation, and can be the quickest way to debug and analyze problems.
Recent microcontrollers are often integrated with on-chip debug circuitry that when
accessed by an in-circuit emulator via JTAG, allow debugging of the firmware with a
debugger.

3.10 PHOTODIODE:
A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current
or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. Photodiodes are similar to regular
semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or
X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach
the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specifically as a
photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN junction.
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy
strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a mobile electron and a
positively charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion
region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction
by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and
electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.
When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the device
is restricted and a voltage builds up. The diode becomes forward biased and "dark
current" begins to flow across the junction in the direction opposite to the photocurrent.
This mode is responsible for the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cells—
in fact, a solar cell is just a large area photodiode.
Fig 3.6Photodiode

In this mode the diode is often reverse biased, dramatically reducing the response time at
the expense of increased noise. This increases the width of the depletion layer, which
decreases the junction's capacitance resulting in faster response times. The reverse bias
induces only a small amount of current (known as saturation or back current) along its
direction while the photocurrent remains virtually the same. The photocurrent is linearly
proportional to the luminance.
Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode tends to exhibit more electronic
noise. The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low (< 1nA) that the Johnson–
Nyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.
3.11 LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent narrow-
spectrum light when electrically biased in the forward direction of the P-n junction. This
effect is a form of electroluminescence. LEDs are small extended sources with extra
optics added to the chip, which emit a complex intensity spatial distribution. The color
of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semi conducting
material used, and can be infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet.
Fig 3.7 Light emitting diode
The kinetic energy of the wheel gets converted in to electrical energy by the help of
generator. This electrical energy is shown by LED.

3.12 IC 555 TIMER:
IC555 timer available in 8 pin DIP or To-99 Package is one of the most popular and
versatile sequential logic devices which can be used in monostable and a stable mode its
inputs and outputs are directly compatible both TT1 and CMOS logic circuit. The
functional diagram of 555 timer is shown in fig. On a negative going excursion of the
trigger input when the trigger input passes through the reference voltage VCC/3, the
output of the comparator 2 goes high and sets the flip-flip (-1). On a resistive going
excursion of the threshold input, the output of a comparator 1 goes high when the
threshold voltage passes through the reference voltage 2VCC/3. This reset the flip-flop (
= 1). The flip flop is cleared when the reset input is less than about 0.4V. When this
input is not required to be used it is normally return to Vcc.
An extend timing capacitor C is to be connected between the discharge terminal and
ground. When the flip flop is in the reset state, its  = 1. This drives T1 to situation
thereby discharging the timing capacitor. The timing cycles starts when the flip flop goes
to set state and therefore T1 is off. The timing capacitor charges with the time constant
T=RA. Where C is the timing capacitor and RA is an external resistor to be connected
between the discharge terminal and Vcc.
Fig 3.8.1 NE555 Timer Block Diagram

Fig 3.8.2 NE555 Timer Pin Description
The output is at logic 1 whenever the transistor T1s off and at logic 0 T1 is on. The load
can be connected either between the output terminal and Vcc or between the output and
ground terminals. The voltage corresponding to high output is approximately 0-5V
below Vcc and for low is approximately 0.1V.
3.13 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATER USING 555 TIMER:
A monostable multivibrator circuit using a 555 timer is shown in fig. If the trigger input
is held high, then order steady – state condition the transistor T1 is on the discharge and
output terminal are at low level it can be verified that T1 can not be off under steady state
condition. When negative pulse applied at trigger input across the voltage Vcc/3 the
output of comparator 2 goes high which sets the flip flop and consequently. T1 turn off
and output goes high. The capacitor C starts getting charged to Vcc with timer constant
(T = RA.C).
3.14 DEFINITION OF PIN FUNCTION:
Pin 1 (Ground): The ground (or common) pin is the most-negative supply potential of
the device, which is normally connected to circuit common (ground) when operated
from positive supply voltages.
Pin 2 (Trigger): This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set the
latch, which in turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the timing
sequence in monostable operation. Triggering is accomplished by taking the pin from
above to below a voltage level of 1/3 V+ (or, in general, one-half the voltage appearing

at pin 5). The action of the trigger input is level-sensitive, allowing slow rate-of-change
waveforms, as well as pulses, to be used as trigger sources. The trigger pulse must be of
shorter duration than the time interval determined by the external R and C. If this pin is
held low longer than that, the output will remain high until the trigger input is driven
high again. One precaution that should be observed with the trigger input signal is that it
must not remain lower than 1/3 V+ for a period of time longer than the timing cycle. If
this is allowed to happen, the timer will re-trigger itself upon termination of the first
output pulse. Thus, when the timer is driven in the monostable mode with input pulses
longer than the desired output pulse width, the input trigger should effectively be
shortened by differentiation. The minimum-allowable pulse width for triggering is
somewhat dependent upon pulse level, but in general if it is greater than the 1uS (micro-
Second), triggering will be reliable. A second precaution with respect to the trigger input
concerns storage time in the lower comparator. This portion of the circuit can exhibit
normal turn-off delays of several microseconds after triggering; that is, the latch can still
have a trigger input for this period of time after the trigger pulse. In practice, this means
the minimum monostable output pulse width should be in the order of 10uS to prevent
possible double triggering due to this effect. The voltage range that can safely be applied
to the trigger pin is between V+ and ground. A dc current, termed the trigger current,
must also flow from this terminal into the external circuit. This current is typically
500nA (nano-amp) and will define the upper limit of resistance allowable from pin 2 to
ground. For an actable configuration operating at V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 3
Mega-ohm; it can be greater for higher V+ levels.
Pin 3 (Output): The output of the 555 comes from a high-current totem-pole stage made
up of transistors Q20 - Q24. Transistors Q21 and Q22 provide drive for source-type
loads, and their Darlington connection provides a high-state output voltage about 1.7
volts less than the V+ supply level used. Transistor Q24 provides current-sinking
capability for low-state loads referred to V+ (such as typical TTL inputs). Transistor
Q24 has a low saturation voltage, which allows it to interface directly, with good noise
margin, when driving current-sinking logic. Exact output saturation levels vary markedly
with supply voltage, however, for both high and low states. At a V+ of 5 volts, for
instance, the low state Vce(sat) is typically 0.25 volts at 5 mA. Operating at 15 volts,
however, it can sink 200mA if an output-low voltage level of 2 volts is allowable (power
dissipation should be considered in such a case, of course). High-state level is typically
3.3 volts at V+ = 5 volts; 13.3 volts at V+ = 15 volts. Both the rise and fall times of the

output waveform are quite fast, typical switching times being 100nS. The state of the
output pin will always reflect the inverse of the logic state of the latch, and this fact may
be seen by examining Fig 3.8. Since the latch itself is not directly accessible, this
relationship may be best explained in terms of latch-input trigger conditions. To trigger
the output to a high condition, the trigger input is momentarily taken from a higher to a
lower level. [See "Pin 2 - Trigger"].
This causes the latch to be set and the output to go high. Actuation of the lower
comparator is the only manner in which the output can be placed in the high state. The
output can be returned to a low state by causing the threshold to go from a lower to a
higher level [see"Pin 6 - Threshold"], which resets the latch. The output can also be
made to go low by taking the reset to a low state near ground [see "Pin 4 - Reset"]. The
output voltage available at this pin is approximately equal to the Vcc applied to pin 8
minus 1.7V.
Pin 4 (Reset): This pin is also used to reset the latch and return the output to a low state.
The reset voltage threshold level is 0.7 volt, and a sink current of 0.1mA from this pin is
required to reset the device. These levels are relatively independent of operating V+
level; thus the reset input is TTL compatible for any supply voltage. The reset input is an
overriding function; that is, it will force the output to a low state regardless of the state
of either of the other inputs. It may thus be used to terminate an output pulse
prematurely, to gate oscillations from "on" to "off", etc. Delay time from reset to output
is typically on the order of 0.5 µS, and the minimum reset pulse width is 0.5 µS. Neither
of these figures is guaranteed, however, and may vary from one manufacturer to another.
In short, the reset pin is used to reset the flip-flop that controls the state of output pin 3.
The pin is activated when a voltage level anywhere between 0 and 0.4 volt is applied to
the pin. The reset pin will force the output to go low no matter what state the other
inputs to the flip-flop are in. When not used, it is recommended that the reset input be
tied to V+ to avoid any possibility of false resetting.
Pin 5 (Control Voltage): This pin allows direct access to the 2/3 V+ voltage-divider
point, the reference level for the upper comparator. It also allows indirect access to the
lower comparator, as there is a 2:1 divider
(R8- R9) from this point to the lower-comparator reference input, Q13.
Use of this terminal is the option of the user, but it does allow extreme flexibility by

permitting modification of the timing period, resetting of the comparator, etc. When the
555 timer is used in a voltage-controlled mode, its voltage-controlled operation ranges
from about 1 volt less than V+ down to within 2 volts of ground (although this is not
guaranteed). Voltages can be safely applied outside these limits, but they should be
confined within the limits of V+ and ground for reliability. By applying a voltage to this
pin, it is possible to vary the timing of the device independently of the RC network. The
control voltage may be varied from 45 to 90% of the Vcc in the monostable mode,
making it possible to control the width of the output pulse independently of RC. When it
is used in the astable mode, the control voltage can be varied from 1.7V to the full Vcc.
Varying the voltage in the astable mode will produce a frequency modulated (FM)
output. In the event the control-voltage pin is not used, it is recommended that it be
bypassed, to ground, with a capacitor of about 0.01uF (10nF) for immunity to noise,
since it is a comparator input. This fact is not obvious in many 555 circuits since I have
seen many circuits with 'no-pin-5' connected to anything, but this is the proper
procedure. The small ceramic cap may eliminate false triggering.
Pin 6 (Threshold): Pin 6 is one input to the upper comparator (the other being pin 5)
and is used to reset the latch, which causes the output to go low. Resetting via this
terminal is accomplished by taking the terminal from below to above a voltage level of
2/3 V+ (the normal voltage on pin 5). The action of the threshold pin is level sensitive,
allowing slow rate-of-change waveforms. The voltage range that can safely be applied to
the threshold pin is between V+ and ground. A dc current, termed the threshold current,
must also flow into this terminal from the external circuit. This current is typically
0.1µA, and will define the upper limit of total resistance allowable from pin 6 to V+. For
either timing configuration operating at V+ = 5 volts, this resistance is 16 Mega-ohm.
For 15 volt operation, the maximum value of resistance is 20 MegaOhms.
Pin 7 (Discharge): This pin is connected to the open collector of a npn transistor (Q14),
the emitter of which goes to ground, so that when the transistor is turned "on", pin 7 is
effectively shorted to ground. Usually the timing capacitor is connected between pin 7
and ground and is discharged when the transistor turns "on". The conduction state of this
transistor is identical in timing to that of the output stage. It is "on" (low resistance to
ground) when the output is low and "off" (high resistance to ground) when the output is
high. In both the monostable and astable time modes, this transistor switch is used to
clamp the appropriate nodes of the timing network to ground. Saturation voltage is

typically below 100mV (milli-Volt) for currents of 5 mA or less, and off-state leakage is
about 20nA (these parameters are not specified by all manufacturers, however).
Maximum collector current is internally limited by design, thereby removing restrictions
on capacitor size due to peak pulse-current discharge. In certain applications, this open
collector output can be used as an auxiliary output terminal, with current-sinking
capability similar to the output (pin 3).
Fig 3.9
Pin 8 (V +): The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage terminal
of the 555 timer IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 555 is +4.5 volts (minimum)
to +16 volts (maximum), and it is specified for operation between +5 volts and + 15
volts. The device will operate essentially the same over this range of voltages without
change in timing period. Actually, the most significant operational difference is the
output drive capability, which increases for both current and voltage range as the supply
voltage is increased. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change is low,
typically 0.1% per volt. There are special and military devices available that operate at
voltages as high as 18 V.
Try the simple 555 testing-circuit of Fig. 5. to get you going, and test all your 555 timer
IC's. I build several for friends and family. I bring my own tester to ham-fests and what
not to instantly do a check and see if they are oscillating. Or use as a trouble shooter in
555 based circuits.

This tester will quickly tell you if the timer is functional or not. Although not foolproof,
it will tell if the 555 is shorted or oscillating. If both Led's are flashing the timer is most
likely in good working order. If one or both Led's are either off or on solid the timer is
defective.
3.15 TRANSISTOR:
A transistor is semi conductor device consisting of three regions separated by two P-N
junctions. The three regions are Base, Emitter & Collector.
The base may be of N- type or P- type. The emitter and collector have same impurities
but different from that of base. Thus if base is of N- type then emitter and collector are
of P- type then transistor is called P-N-P transistor and vice versa transistor is called N-
P-N transistor.
The base is made thin and number density of majority carriers is always less than emitter
and collector. The base provides junction for proper interaction between emitter and
collector.
Electrons are majority charge carriers in N- region and in P-region, holes are the
majority charge carriers. Thus two types of charge carriers are involved in current flow
through N-P-N or P-N-P transistor.
3.16 SYMBOLS FOR TRANSISTORS:
In schematic symbols, the emitter is always represented by an arrow indicating the
direction of conventional current in the device. In case of N-P-N transistor arrow points
away from base and in case of P-N-P transistor it points towards base. When transistor is
used in circuit, emitter-base junction is always forward biased while base - collector
junction is always reverse biased.

Fig 3.10 Structure and Symbol of P-N-P Transistor
3.17 BIASING OF TRANSISTOR:
The two junctions can be biased in four different ways:
• Both junctions may be forward biased. It causes large current to flow across
junctions. Transistor is to be operated in ―SATURATION REGION .‖
• Both junctions may be reversed biased. It causes very small current to flow
across junctions. Transistor is to be operated in ―CUT OFF REGION .‖
• E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased.
The transistor is said to be operated in ―ACTIVE REGION . Most of the‖
transistors work in this region.
• E-B junction is reversed biased and C-B junction is forward biased.
The transistor is said to be operated in ―INVERTED MODE .‖
Fig 3.11
P-N-P Transistor Biasing (b) N-P-N Transistor Biasing

3.18 CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS:
There are three possible ways in which a transistor can be connected in the
Circuit which are following:
• Common Base Configuration: Base is made common in this configuration.
• Common Emitter Configuration: Emitter is made common in this configuration.
• Common Collector Configuration: Collector is made common in this
configuration.
3.19 DIODE:
It is a P-type region and N-type region formed in the same crystal structure, and hence a
P-N junction is produced. Some of the conduction electrons near the junction diffuse in
to P-type semiconductor from the N-type semiconductor across the junction combing
with the holes. The loss of electrons makes the N-type semiconductor positively charged
and hence the neutralization of the holes on the other hand makes P-type semiconductor
negatively charged. This region where positive and negative charges develop is called
depletion region.
If a P-region is made positive with respect to the N-region by an external circuit then
junction is forward biased and junction has a very low resistance to the flow of current.
Holes in the positive P-type material are attracted across the junction to the negative side
and the free electrons in the N-type material are like wise attracted to the opposite side.
If a positive voltage is applied to N-zone with respect to the P-zone terminal, the P-N
junction is reverse biased.
Fig 3.12 Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a P-N Diode

3.20 TEMPRATURE DEPENDENCE OF V-I CHARTERISTIC:
The cut-in voltage decreases at the rate of 2.5 mV/°C. Also above 25°C, the reverse
saturation current I0 doubles for every 6°C (10°C) for Si (Ge) diodes. However, the
shape of overall characteristic does not alter with temperature.
3.21 RESISTANCE:
Resistance is the electronic component used to control the current passing through the
circuit. They are calibrated in ohms. In the other words resistance are circuit elements
having the function introducing electrical resistance into the circuit. There are three
basic types:
1. Fixed Resistance
2. Rheostat
3. Potentiometer
A fixed Resistance is a two terminal resistance whose electrical resistance is constant. A
rheostat is a resistance that can be changed in resistance value without opening the
circuit to make adjustment.
A potentiometer is an adjustable resistance with three terminals one each end of the
resistance element and third movable along length.
Fig 3.13 Resistance
3.22 CAPACITOR:
A capacitor is a device capable of storing an electric charge (static electricity). It consists
of two metal plates separated by dielectric material. Capacitors are available in values
ranging from less than one Pico farad to thousands of microfarad. While using a
capacitor its ratings must be carefully observed to make certain that the potential to be

applied across the capacitor is not greater than the rated value.
3.22.1 CERAMIC CAPACITOR:
In this project, 0.01 microfarad capacitor is a ceramic capacitor. The basis of the ceramic
material is mainly barium titanate or a similar material, but other ceramic substances
including hydrous silicate of magnesia or talc are also used. The electrodes are applied
in the form of silver which is either spread or plated on to the opposite faces of a thin
tube, wafer or disc made from the ceramic material. Connecting wires are then soldered
to this deposit and the whole capacitor dipped in for a suitable coating.
Fig 3.14 Tabular and Disc Type Ceramic Capacitors
3.22.2 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR:
In this project, 10f capacitor is an electrolytic capacitor. In this type of capacitors, the
dielectric consists of an extremely thin film of aluminum oxide formed on one of its
aluminum foil plates. Intimate contact with the other plate is achieved by impregnating
the paper between the foils with an electrolyte in the form of viscous substance, such as
ammonium borate. The sandwich is then rolled into a cylindrical element and housed in
either metallic cardboard, plastic or ceramic protective tube.

Fig 3.15 Electrolytic and Tantalum Capacitor
3.23 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT:
Fig 3.16 Integrated circuit
Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that
semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes, and by mid-20th-
century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration
of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement
over the manual assembly of circuits using electronic components.

The integrated circuits mass production capability, reliability, and building-block
approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of
designs using discrete transistors.
There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost
is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by
photolithography and not constructed as one transistor at a time. Furthermore, much less
material is used to construct a circuit as a packaged IC die than as a discrete circuit.
Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power
(compared to their discrete counterparts) because the components are small and close
together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square millimeters to around 350
mm2
, with up to 1 million transistors per mm2
.

4.0 FUTURE SCOPE
In a present scenario such kind of speed breaker are being used for a light vehicles in
various countries. Now in a future that technology can be used for heavy vehicles, thus
increasing input torque to various mechanism and ultimately output of the generator or
dynamo. To enhance the efficiency of that system, engineers have to find out more
compact, reliable and suitable mechanism to produce electricity.
Future goal of that system to enhance the efficiency, so there should be rapid rotation of
the dynamo shaft, to do the same we can employ a flywheel to the system in such a way
that it would be increase the rotation per minute of dynamo or a generator. Generally a
flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir which stores energy during the period
when supply energy more than the requirement and releases it during the period when
the requirement of energy more than the supply. Flywheel energy storage (FES) works
by accelerating a rotor (flywheel) to a very high speed and maintaining the energy in the
system as rotational energy. When energy is extracted from the system, the flywheel's
rotational speed is reduced as a consequence of the principle of conservation of energy;
adding energy to the system correspondingly results in an increase in the speed of the
flywheel i.e. increasing the rotational energy of the shaft. Advanced FES systems have
rotors made of high strength carbon filaments, suspended by magnetic bearings, and
spinning at speeds from 20,000 to over 50,000 rpm in a vacuum enclosure. Stepper
motor can be replaced by the dynamo in single way traffic system to produce electricity
from speed breakers. Stepper motors operate differently from normal DC motors, which
rotate when voltage is applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand,
effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central gear-
shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit. To
make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the
gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are
thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next
electromagnet. So when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off,
the gear rotates slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is
repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step." In that way, the motor can be
turned by a precise angle.

4.1 STEPPER MOTOR:
Stepper motors are constant-power devices (power = angular velocity x torque). As
motor speed increases, torque decreases. The torque curve may be extended by using
current limiting drivers and increasing the driving voltage. Steppers exhibit more
vibration than other motor types, as the discrete step tends to snap the rotor from one
position to another. This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and can cause
the motor to lose torque. The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the
problem speed range, physically damping the system, or using a micro-stepping driver.
Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit smoother operation than those with
fewer phases.
4.2 OPEN LOOP VERSUS CLOSED LOOP COMMUTATION:
Steppers are generally commutated open loop, i.e. the driver has no feedback on where
the rotor actually is. Stepper motor systems must thus generally be over engineered,
especially if the load inertia is high, or there is widely varying load, so that there is no
possibility that the motor will lose steps. This has often caused the system designer to
consider the trade-offs between a closely sized but expensive servomechanism system
and an oversized but relatively cheap stepper.
A new development in stepper control is to incorporate a rotor position feedback, so that
the commutation can be made optimal for torque generation according to actual rotor
position. This turns the stepper motor into a high pole count brushless servo motor, with
exceptional low speed torque and position resolution. An advance on this technique is to
normally run the motor in open loop mode, and only enter closed loop mode if the rotor
position error becomes too large -- this will allow the system to avoid hunting or
oscillating, a common servo problem.

4.3 TWO PHASE STEPPER MOTOR:
There are two basic winding arrangements for the electromagnetic coils in a two phase
stepper motor: bipolar and unipolar.
4.3.1 UNIPOLAR MOTORS:
A unipolar stepper motor has logically two windings per phase, one for each direction of
current. Since in this arrangement a magnetic pole can be reversed without switching the
direction of current, the commutation circuit can be made very simple (e.g. a single
transistor) for each winding. Typically, given a phase, one end of each winding is made
common: giving three leads per phase and six leads for a typical two phase motor. Often,
these two phase commons are internally joined, so the motor has only five leads.

5.0 CONCLUSION
It is an non conventional type of producing the energy. The existing source of energy
such as coal, oil etc may not be adequate to meet the ever increasing energy demands.
These conventional sources of energy are also depleting and may be exhausted at the end
of the century or beginning of the next century. Consequently sincere and untiring
efforts shall have to be made by engineers in exploring the possibilities of harnessing
energy from several non-conventional energy sources. This project is a one step to path
of that way. The overall goal was to design the speed breaker System while keeping the
engineering, producer and customer models in check. The reason why this feature was
used more than all of the other features are because the other features would not have as
much effect on the complete system. By changing the size and desirable price, weight
and capacity can be realized.
We used a survey to find out how the price, weight and capacity were
scaled. Much was learned on how to and not to conduct a survey. A preliminary survey
should have been conducted to determine a realistic value of variables. Also many of
choices were not close enough together to get a reasonable cut off value. Therefore the
data that was produced using conjoint analysis was most likely not as accurate as it
could have been.
Future work would consist of a redesign of this model to see exactly how much data we
may be missing with the assumption that we made with low price, weight and capacity.
Despite all the assumptions, we still have realized that this product can be very
marketable and that the demand is extremely large which means this is a viable design
that will yield a high return on an investment.

REFERENCES
1. Automobile Engineering : Kirpal Singh
2. Automobile Engineering : G.B.S. Narang
3. Automobile Engineering : S.M. Pandey & K.K. Shah
4. Basic Automobile Engineering : C.P. Nakra
5. A Text Book of Machine Design : R.S Khurmi & J.K. Gupta
6. Digital Systems Principles & : Ronald Ltocci.
Applications
7. Digital Design : Morris Manu.

Power generation using speed breakers and efficient use of energy created by it.

Power generation using speed breakers and efficient use of energy created by it.

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