Principles in materials design
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The document discusses several principles of materials design according to different authors such as Nunan, Tomlinson, Hutchinson and Waters. Key principles discussed include ensuring materials are clearly linked to curriculum goals and objectives, include authentic texts and tasks, stimulate interaction, allow focus on language forms, and encourage applying skills outside the classroom. Frameworks for materials design incorporate elements like input, content focus, language focus, and communicative tasks. There is no single agreed set of principles but areas of agreement include making materials relevant and requiring learner self-investment.
Principles in materials design
- 1. Republic of the Philippines Laguna State PolytechnicUniversity SINILOAN (HOST) CAMPUS College of Teacher Education PRINCIPLES IN MATERIALS DESIGN DR. MERCEDITA ALBERTO M10 Professor RONALYN MERCADO DAPHNE LYN DELFIN CHRISTINE JANE MARAÑA LEVYMAR VILLAPAÑA REANNIE AREVALO BSED III-A
- 2. PRINCIPLES IN MATERIALS DESIGN “Materials are anything which is used by teachers or learners to facilitate the learning of a language.” (Tomlinson, 2012) I. INTRODUCTION How do writers write materials? According to Tomlinson: 1. Replication and adaptation of previously successful materials played a large part in the process of the writers he surveyed. In other instances, writers benefit from inspiration. If none of this is very helpful to the aspiring materials writer, we can take comfort from Tomlinson’s statement of preference for a principled approach to materials writing – one which ‘is driven by a set of agreed principles, both universal principles applicable to any learning context and local criteria specific to the target learning context’. 2. As well as being of more use to the novice, who likely would not have a large repertoire of materials of their own design to which they might make modifications, the process of defining or agreeing upon the principles could be expected to result in more student-centered, needs-focused materials. Some material writers rely on their repertoire and inspiration, whereas others establish the principles first before they start designing the materials (Tomlinson, 2011) Tomlinson (2012) suggests material designers should follow “a set of agreed principles”; in other words, a principled framework which should be based on both universal principles and local criteria in the designing process. By ‘universal principles’, Tomlinson is referring to second language acquisition (SLA) theories in language
- 3. learning which may be universally applicable to any learning context, while ‘local criteria’ covers more exclusive factors such as culture, geographical location, and context. So what are these principles? Are they all created equally? How do writers decide which ones apply to them? II. DISCUSSION A. David Nunan (1988) identified the Six Principles of Materials Design 1. Materials should be clearly linked to the curriculum they serve. Materials should be chosen on the basis of their relevance to the objective and goals of the curriculum. 2. Materials should be authentic in terms of text and task. Text refers to the authenticity of the input data which are used as point f departure in materials development. Task authenticity refers to what learners actually o in relation to input data learners asked to undertake tasks which replicate or rehearse their communicative behaviors. 3. Materials should stimulate interaction. Materials should stir interaction among learners. Materials must cause the conversation among interlocutors for them to negotiate meaning, interprets signs and symbols or understand dialogs. 4. Materials should allow learners to focus on formal aspects of the language There is evidence that learners can benefit from form-focused activities that require them to solve problems, form and perform
- 4. hypothesis, come to conclusions and construct their own rules form instances and examples of language use. 5. Materials should encourage learners to develop learning skills, and skills in learning. Learning skills refer to 4C’s: Critical thinking, creative thinking, communication and collaborating. While, skills in learning are those Research on learning styles and work in learner-centered curriculum development has led to the trend of incorporating into materials activities that teach students about learning as it is impossible to teach everything students need to know in class. Hence, it is necessary to provide learners with efficient learning strategies, develop skills in self- evaluation, assist them to set their own objectives and develop skills needed to negotiate the curriculum. 6. Materials should encourage learners to apply their developing skills to the world beyond the classroom. That a good language learner who always looks for opportunities to do must be made a part of the materials. Many learners fail to make connections between the language work done in class and the language they encounter outside. Tasks designed to get learners to apply their skills needed to be elaborated. AUTHENTIC VERSUS CREATED MATERIALS Authentic materials: Nunan (1988) defines authentic materials as the materials "which have been produced for purposes other than to teach language".
- 5. Nunan (1999) defines authentic materials as spoken or written language data that has been produced in the course of genuine communication, and not specifically written for purposes of language teaching. Other Definition of Authentic Material from the point of view of the following writers: According to Herod (2002) authentic learning 'materials and activities' are designed to imitate the real world situations. Herrington and Oliver (2000) suggested a new pedagogical term, called "authentic learning". This term is directly related to the students' real life and prepares them to face and deal with real world situations. Jacobson et al (2003, p. 1) sees authentic materials as printed materials, which are used in classrooms in the same way they would be used in real life. In other words, Stubbs (1996) defines authentic texts as "actual, attested, and such that they have real authentic instances of use." According to Carter & Nunan (2001, p. 68) authentic materials are "ordinary texts not produced specifically for language teaching purposes." Types of Authentic Materials: Teaching materials are a very essential part of teaching and learning a foreign language. These days, the resources for teaching materials are available for everybody. The internet is regarded as a very important and rich source for authentic materials. Genhard (1996) classified authentic materials into three categories as follows: 1. Authentic listening materials Radio news, cartoons, songs, etc. 2. Authentic visual materials, such as street signs, magazines and newspapers pictures, post cards, etc. 3. Authentic printed materials, such as sports reports, newspapers, restaurant menus, train tickets, etc.
- 6. Created materials: Created materials refer to textbook and other specially developed instructional materials. (Nunan, 1988) Materials expressly created for the foreign language learner (Gallien, Hotho & Staines, 2000; Kmiecik & Barkhuizen, 2006). Those that are specifically designed for the language learners. They are either adapted or simplified or written keeping in mind the language proficiency of the learners in question. (Awasthi, 2006) B. Principles In Materials Design Presented By Hutchinson And Waters (1987) 1. Good materials provide stimulus to learning and encourage students to learn. They should contain interesting texts, enjoyable activities, opportunities for learners to us their existing knowledge and skills, and content that is suitable for the teacher and the learners. 2. Good materials should help the teaching-learning process. They should provide a clear and coherent unit structure which will guide teacher ad learner through various activities in such a way as to maximize the chances of learning. The materials must clear and systematic, but flexible enough to allow for creativity an variety. 3. Materials embody a view of the nature of the language learning. They reflect the writer’s thinking and feeling about the learning process.
- 7. 4. Materials reflect the nature of the learning task. Language learning is a complex process involving different kinds and level of knowledge. The materials should create “a balanced outlook” which reflects the complexity of the task and make it appear manageable. 5. Materials function to broaden the basis of teacher training by introducing teachers to new techniques 6. Materials provide correct models of appropriate language use. C. Principles in Materials Design Set by Tomlinson Tomlinson set 16 principles based on second language in general and is not context-specific, which suggests that they are universally transferable and applicable to all material design. How they are applied, however, is another issue i.e. to each individual activity in a course book, to each chapter or the holistic approach to the whole course book. In any case, the principles suggested by Tomlinson are all encouraging and having a course material that reflects and adheres to these principles is surely a good framework for producing pedagogically successful materials. Tomlinson’s 16 principles of material design are: 1. Materials should achieve impact. Impact is achieved when materials have a noticeable effect on learners, that is when the learners curiosity, interest, and attention are attracted. If this is achieved there is a better chance that some of the language in the materials will be taken for processing . Further, it is said
- 8. that materials can achieve impact when they are new, varied, presented attractively, and appealing content. 2. Materials should help learners to feel at ease. Materials can help learners to feel at ease in many ways, for example, texts and illustrations rather than just texts, texts that the learners can relate with their own culture than those that are culturally bound, materials that include examples rather than without, and many others. 3. Materials should help learners to develop confidence. Quoting Dulay, Burt, and Krashen 1982, Tomlinson (1998:9) said that Relaxed and selfconfident learners learn faster .Many learners feel relaxed and self-confident if they think that the materials they learn are not too difficult but just one step further or more difficult than they master. 4. What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful. In ESP, teachers of English can easily select materials that are relevant to the specific choice of topics and tasks that the learners are also learning in their field of study, therefore, the materials they learn must be relevant and useful. 5. Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment. Materials that enable the learners to be interested in them, that can draw their attention, and that can attract them to learn the materials will facilitate them to learn the materials by themselves. 6. Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught. To acquire the points being taught, the materials learned should be i + 1 in which i represents what has already been learned and 1 represents
- 9. what is available for learning. According to Krashen (1985), each learner will only learn from the new input what he or she is ready to learn. 7. Materials should expose the learners to language in authentic use. A lot of teaching/learning materials can provide exposure to authentic input through the instructions, advice they give for the activities and the spoken and the written texts included in the materials. The learners attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input. These linguistic features should not become the main focus in the materials but the learners should be made aware that linguistic features are needed to locate and to make a generalization about the function of the linguistic features in the main materials. 8. The learners’ attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input. These linguistic features should not become the main focus in the materials but the learners should be made aware that linguistic features are needed to locate and to make a generalization about the function of the linguistic features in the main materials. 9. Materials should provide learners with opportunities to use the target language to achieve communicative purposes. After learning the materials, learners should be given opportunities to practice the language they have learned for communication in real life situation not just practicing it in the classroom controlled by the teacher. 10. Materials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually delayed. As it can be observed in our daily teaching, learners learning a language is not an instantaneous process but a gradual one. In order to facilitate the gradual process of learning or acquiring a language, it is
- 10. important to give frequent and ample exposure to the instructed language features in communicative use. 11. Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning styles. Not all learners have the same learning styles. Language learning styles include visual, auditory, kinaesthetic (e.g. the learner prefers to do something physical, such as following instructions), studial (e.g. the learner likes to pay conscious attention to the linguistic features of the language and wants to be correct), experiential, analytic, global, dependent and independent. 12. Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective attitudes. Learners attitudes vary in types and times. Ideal learners will need strong and consistent motivation, positive feelings towards the target language, their teachers, their fellow learners, and the materials they are learning. Realizing this fact, materials should provide choices of different types of texts and types of activities. 13.Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction. The silent period is used to facilitate the development of an effective internalized grammar and other language elements which can help learners to achieve proficiency. The other possible extension of the principle of permitting silence is to introduce most new language points through activities which initially require comprehension before production.. 14. Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic and emotional involvement, which stimulates both right – and left-brain activities.
- 11. This principle means that materials which encourage the learners to learn the same lesson involving different cerebral processes and different states of consciousness in many different parts of the brain will maximize recall. 15.Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice. This principle is intended to state that it is still controversial to say that controlled practice activities are valuable. The statements which state that most spontaneous performance is attained by dint of practice (Sharwood-Smith, 1981) and automaticity is achieved through practice (Bialystok, 1988) have no evidence. However, many researchers agree with Ellis saying that controlled practice appears to have little long term effect on the accuracy with which new structures are performed (Ellis, 1990:192) and has little effect on fluency (Ellis and Rathbone, 1987). Yet, controlled grammar practice activities still feature significantly in popular coursebooks and are considered useful by many teachers and by many learners. 16.Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback. Feedback which is focused on the effectiveness of the outcome rather than just on the accuracy of the output can lead to output becoming a profitable source of input. Therefore, a learner who is successful to achieve a particular communicative purpose will gain positive feedback on the effectiveness of the use of the language for further language outcome. In relation to this, materials developer has to be sure that language production activities have intended outcomes other than just practicing language.
- 12. III. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Materials should be clearly linked to the curriculum they serve (Nunan, 1988). The curriculum cycle below illustrates the three phases of the curriculum development. IV. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Hutchinson and Waters (1987) present a model for writing materials. The model provides “a coherent framework of integration of various aspects of learning” and, at the same time, allows “creativity and variety” to develop. Curriculum Planning Identify learner needs Set goals and objectives Write materials Write tests. Curriculum Implementation Instruct learners Monitor and adapt instruction Write supplementary materials Curriculum Evaluation Test learners Evaluate curriculum Plan changes in the curriculum PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3
- 13. The model consists of four elements. They are: 1) Input It can be in the form of text, dialogue, video-recording, diagram or any piece of communication data. It depends on the needs the writer has defined in the analysis. The input provides: a) Stimulus materials for activities b) b) New language items 17 c) Correct models of language use d) Topic for communication e) Opportunities for learners to use their information processing skill f) Opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge of the language and the subject matter. 2) Content focus The content focus means that language is a means of conveying information and feelings about something. Therefore, it generates meaningful communication in the classroom. 3). Language focus It gives the learners the chance to take the language into pieces, study how it works and practice putting it back together again. 4) Task Materials should be designed to lead towards a ‘communicative task’ in which learners use the content and language knowledge they have built up through the unit.
- 14. A Material Design Model shows the relation between input, content focus, language focus and task. Figure 1: A Material Design Model (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987) Further, Hutchinson and Waters present the process of designing learning materials as follows: 1) Conducting needs analysis 2) Writing syllabus 3) Developing the materials 4) Developing teaching methodology 5) Trying out the materials 6) Evaluating the materials 7) Revising the materials
- 15. SUMMARY There is no published, universal set of principles for materials design and in fact commercial material writers claim to be whimsical in their approach and “follow their intuitions rather than an overt specification of objectives, principles and procedures” (Tomlinson, 2011) and “replicating previous materials, adapting activity types that have worked for them before and relying upon creative inspiration” (Tomlinson, 2012). There are some areas of clear agreement between these authors. For instance, the need for relevance was mentioned by most. Tomlinson makes the point that it is the perception of relevance on the part of the learners that is important; He values materials which require an investment from and devolve responsibility to the learners. Nunan focuses for materials that facilitate links between the learners’ developing skills and the wider world; He refers to developing ‘learning skills and skills in learning. He also extends authenticity of tasks as well as texts. Hutchinson & Waters require materials to be equal to the complexity of the task of learning a language and give the learners the necessary tools to succeed. The terminology used amongst authors and their phrasing could be seen as clues to their views on how languages are learned. For Tomlinson and Nunan, materials which promote noticing are to be valued – they speak of attention being drawn and allowing a focus on language patterns. For Hutchinson & Waters, the models provided are important but also the way these models are delivered – ‘not simply … statements of language use’.
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