Certificate OF ORIGINALITY
We, hereby declare that the project entitled “SUAS Network Suite” submitted to School of Computer
Science and Information Technology, Symbiosis University of Applied Sciences, Indore (M.P.) in B-Tech III
semester, session November 2017 is an authentic record of our own work carried out under the guidance
of Dr. Deepti Chauhan and that the project has been developed by us and not previously formed the basis
for the award of any other degree.
Signature of Student:
Aarushi Bhansali (2016AB001001)
Abhishek Dwivedi (2016AB001003)
Aditya Jain (2016AB001005)
Muskan Jain (2016AB001042)
Rachit Sachdev (2016AB001057)
This is to certify that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of my knowledge.
Signature of Director Signature of Guide
Dr. Kailash Bandhu Dr. Deepti Chauhan
Signature of External Examiner Signature of Internal Examiner
Name of External Examiner Name of Internal Examiner
Date: 29th
November 2017
Place: SUAS, Indore

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We take this opportunity to express our deepest and sincere gratitude to our project guide Dr. Deepti Chauhan,
Computer Science and Information Technology Department, Symbiosis University of Applied Sciences, Indore
for her insightful advice, suggestions, invaluable guidance, help and support in successful completion of the
project.
We would also like to thank Prof. Dr. Kailash Bandhu, Director, School of Computer Science and Information
Technology, Symbiosis University of Applied Sciences, Indore for his support and help provided during the
tenure of project.
Finally, yet more importantly, we would like to express our deep appreciation to our grandparents, parents,
sister and brother for their perpetual support and encouragement throughout the Bachelor’s degree period.

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this Computer Network-Project is to implement a complex intra-networking system. The system
consists of various devices and modules working on different protocols providing various services like DNS,
DHCP, HTTP, FTP, and SMTP highlighting the server-client operations. Information is routed among various
client on the network with the use of protocols like RIP, IMAP and OSPF. Project comprises of techniques like
sub-netting, LAN switching and VLAN to manage the number of hosts present in the network communicating
with least network collision and congestion. Network is compatible with both IPv4 and IPv6 addressing.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content
CHAPTER 1 – SUAS Network Suite
1. Introduction
2. Project Organization
3. Project Management Plan
4. Project Scheduling
CHAPTER 2 - SERVERS
1. DHCP
2. DNS
3. FTP
4. SMTP
CHAPTER 3- ROUTING PROTOCOLS
1. Introduction to Routing
2. RIP
3. OSPF
CHAPTER 4 – NETWORK CLASSIFICATION
1. VLAN
2. Subnetting
3. LAN switching
CHAPTER 5 – NETWORK ADDRESSING
1. Ipv4 Addressing
2. Ipv6 Addressing
3. Dual-Stack Systems

CHAPTER 1 – SUAS Network Suite
1. Introduction
1.1 Project Overview
Project highlights the interconnectivity of networking devices communicating among themselves and
connecting the hosts among themselves. It describes and shows the real time stimulation of server-
client communication. It manages the hosts by various techniques like sub-netting and VLAN avoiding
network collisions and congestions.
1.2 Project Deliverables
Project deliver the following functionalities:
 Sub-netting
 VLAN
 Routing – RIP and OSPF
 Network Topologies
 HTTP, FTP, DNS, DHCP, SMTP services.
 LAN Switching
 IPv4 and IPv6 addressing
 Dual-Stack translation
2. Project Organization
2.1. Software Process Model
In this project we will be using Iterative Model of software development. The iterative model is a
particular implementation of a software development life cycle (SDLC) that focuses on an initial,
simplified implementation, which then progressively gains more complexity and a broader feature set
until the final system is complete.
The iterative model is best thought of as a cyclical process, with each completion of the cycle
incrementally improving and iterating on the software. Enhancements can quickly be recognized and
implemented throughout each iteration, allowing the next iteration to be at least marginally better than
the last.
 Planning & Requirements: As with most any development project, the first step is go through an
initial planning stage to map out the specification documents, establish software or
hardware requirements, and generally prepare for the upcoming stages of the cycle.

 Analysis & Design: Once planning is complete, an analysis is performed to nail down the
appropriate business logic, database models, and the like that will be required at this stage in the
project. The design stage also occurs here, establishing any technical requirements that will be
utilized in order to meet the needs of the analysis stage.
 Implementation: With the planning and analysis out of the way, the actual implementation and
coding process can now begin. All planning, specification, and design docs up to this point are coded
and implemented into this initial iteration of the project.
 Testing: Once this current build iteration has been coded and implemented, the next step is to go
through a series of testing procedures to identify and locate any potential bugs or issues that have
cropped up.
 Evaluation: Once all prior stages have been completed, it is time for a thorough evaluation of
development up to this stage. This allows the entire team, as well as clients or other outside parties,
to examine where the project is at, where it needs to be, what can or should change, and so on.
This is the crux of the entire iterative model, whereby the most recently built iteration of the software,
as well as all feedback from the evaluation process, is brought back to the planning &
development stage at the top of the list, and the process repeats itself all over again.
2.2 Tools and Techniques
The tools and techniques used are mentioned as:
Tools used:
 Cisco Packet Tracer
Techniques used:
 Router-Server configuration
 RIP Configuration
 OSPF configuration
 Subnetting
 Serial-Cable Configuration
 Terminal Configuration
 Interface Configuration
3. Project Management Plan
3.1 Tasks
The major tasks are:
 Analysis of major deliverables.
 Documentation and modelling.
 Creating Individual Modules.
 Testing the project.
3.2 Information Gathering
Collection of the hardware modules and software functionalities of various switches, routers, Hubs,
Gateways and servers.

 Various protocols for logical routing like RIP, OSPF and IRGF and Djkastras and Bellman.
 Services like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DHCP, and DNS.
3.3 Dependencies and Constraints
The Project is only compatible with Cisco packet tracer. It cannot be executed at any other platform.
3.4 Risks and Contingencies
Network connections could easily be hindered by mistake of hand. The project must be used with care.
4. Project Scheduling
4.1 Gantt Chart
October 2017 November 2017
(First Week)
November 2017
(Second Week)
Planning
Research
Designing
Implementation
Testing

CHAPTER 2 - SERVICES
1. DHCP – Domain Host Configuration Protocol
1.1 Introduction
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a client/server protocol that automatically provides an
Internet Protocol (IP) host with its IP address and other related configuration information such as the
subnet mask and default gateway. RFC’s 2131 and 2132 define DHCP as an Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) standard based on Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP), a protocol with which DHCP shares many
implementation details. DHCP allows hosts to obtain necessary TCP/IP configuration information from a
DHCP server. The Microsoft Windows Server 2003 operating system includes a DHCP Server service,
which is an optional networking component. All Windows-based clients include the DHCP client as part
of TCP/IP, including Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows XP, Windows 2000, Windows NT 4.0,
Windows Millennium Edition (Windows Me), and Windows 98.
1.2 Benefits of DHCP
1. Reliable IP address configuration: DHCP minimizes configuration errors caused by manual IP address
configuration, such as typographical errors, or address conflicts caused by the assignment of an IP
address to more than one computer at the same time.
2. Reduced network administration: DHCP includes the following features to reduce network
administration.
3. Centralized and automated TCP/IP configuration.
4. The ability to define TCP/IP configurations from a central location.
5. The ability to assign a full range of additional TCP/IP configuration values by means of DHCP options.
6. The efficient handling of IP address changes for clients that must be updated frequently, such as
those for portable computers that move to different locations on a wireless network.
7. The forwarding of initial DHCP messages by using a DHCP relay agent, thus eliminating the need to
have a DHCP server on every subnet.
1.3 Why use DHCP
1. Every device on a TCP/IP-based network must have a unique unicast IP address to access the
network and its resources. Without DHCP, IP addresses must be configured manually for new
computers or computers that are moved from one subnet to another, and manually reclaimed for
computers that are removed from the network.
2. DHCP enables this entire process to be automated and managed centrally. The DHCP server
maintains a pool of IP addresses and leases an address to any DHCP-enabled client when it starts up
on the network. Because the IP addresses are dynamic (leased) rather than static (permanently
assigned), addresses no longer in use are automatically returned to the pool for reallocation.
3. The network administrator establishes DHCP servers that maintain TCP/IP configuration information
and provide address configuration to DHCP-enabled clients in the form of a lease offer. The DHCP
server stores the configuration information in a database, which includes:
 Valid TCP/IP configuration parameters for all clients on the network.
 Valid IP addresses, maintained in a pool for assignment to clients, as well as excluded addresses.

 Reserved IP addresses associated with particular DHCP clients. This allows consistent assignment
of a single IP address to a single DHCP client.
 The lease duration, or the length of time for which the IP address can be used before a lease
renewal is required.
4. A DHCP-enabled client, upon accepting a lease offer, receives:
 A valid IP address for the subnet to which it is connecting.
 Requested DHCP options, which are additional parameters that a DHCP server is configured to
assign to clients. Some examples of DHCP options are Router (default gateway), DNS Servers, and
DNS Domain Name.
2. DNS - Domain Name Server
2.1 Introduction
The domain name system (DNS) is the way that internet domain names are located and translated into
internet protocol (IP) addresses. The domain name system maps the name people use to locate a
website to the IP address that a computer uses to locate a website. For example, if someone types
TechTarget.com into a web browser, a server behind the scenes will map that name to the IP address
206.19.49.149.
Web browsing and most other internet activity rely on DNS to quickly provide the information
necessary to connect users to remote hosts. DNS mapping is distributed throughout the internet in a
hierarchy of authority. Access providers and enterprises, as well as governments, universities and other
organizations, typically have their own assigned ranges of IP addresses and an assigned domain name;
they also typically run DNS servers to manage the mapping of those names to those addresses. Most
URLs are built around the domain name of the web server that takes client requests.
2.2 How does DNS work?
DNS servers answer questions from both inside and outside their own domains. When a server receives
a request from outside the domain for information about a name or address inside the domain, it
provides the authoritative answer. When a server receives a request from inside its own domain for
information about a name or address outside that domain, it passes the request out to another server --
usually one managed by its internet service provider. If that server does not know the answer or the
authoritative source for the answer, it will reach out to the DNS servers for the top-level domain -- e.g.,
for all of .com or .edu. Then, it will pass the request down to the authoritative server for the specific
domain -- e.g., techtarget.com or stkate.edu; the answer flows back along the same path.
2.3 How does DNS increase web performance?
To promote efficiency, servers can cache the answers they receive for a set amount of time. This allows
them to respond more quickly the next time a request for the same lookup comes in. For example, if
everyone in an office needs to access the same training video on a particular website on the same day,
the local DNS server will ordinarily only have to resolve the name once, and then it can serve all the
other requests out of its cache. The length of time the record is held -- the time to live -- is configurable;
longer values decrease the load on servers, shorter values ensure the most accurate responses.
2.4 Configuration of DHCP and DNS on Cisco Packet Tracer
Now we configure servers in Cisco packet tracer by using a lab in it.

Step 1: – First of all we go to the DHCP server and click on it to open it. Then a screen will be open in
it, we will click on the desktop option and then click on IP configuration to provide IP address
statically to the DHCP server and also give the IP address of the DNS server in the column of DNS
server. The figure shown below:
Step 2: – After that now choose the service option in it to make that server as a DHCP server and it is
able to provide an IP address automatically to the other systems. In it, we fill all entries on this server
and choose ON option in it as given below to turn on DHCP server.

Now your DHCP server is configured successfully. The work on DHCP server will be done completely.
Now this machine is able to provide IP addresses to other systems which is connected to that network.
Step 3: – Now we configure DNS server by clicking on it. After clicking on the DNS server we click on the
desktop option and then click on IP configuration option to provide IP address to the DNS server. In IP
configuration option we change it from static to DHCP. Now it has taken IP address automatically from
the DHCP server. The figure given below:

Step 4: – Now before make this machine a DNS server, we go to HTTP server and provide IP address to it
by using DHCP server similarly as DNS server and then after that click on services option to make this
machine as an HTTP server. In services we choose HTTP from the left sidebar and now there create a
page or edit a page which you want to see in your web browser.
Step 4: – After that we again, click on DNS server and then select DNS option from the right sidebar in it
and click on it to configure this machine as a DNS server. In it, we give the name and IP address of the
HTTP server and then click on add option in it to provide a name to IP address of the HTTP server which
helps us to open that web page by name instead of IP address of the HTTP server and generally name
will be easy to memorize by us. After that we choose ON option to start DNS server. The figure shown
below:
Now all servers are configured by us and now we move on PCs to provide IP address to them by using a
DHCP server. All set now.
After that we will go to any PC on that network and then go to the web browser and we type name of
our page google.com in it which is given in the DNS server by us to open it in our system browser. The
figure shown below:

And now outcome will be appeared in the form of our page which is made by us in HTTP server. It
indicates that all servers are working properly because the messages go to DNS server where it directs it
to the http server and the webpage google.com loads from HTTP server to our computer screen.

3. FTP
3.1 Introduction
FTP is an acronym for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is the language that computers on a TCP/IP network
(such as the internet) use to transfer files to and from each other. FTP can be used to exchange files
between computer accounts, transfer files between an account and a desktop computer, or access
online software archives etc. An FTP server needs a TCP/IP network for functioning and is dependent on
usage of dedicated servers with one or more FTP clients. In order to ensure that connections can be
established at all times from the clients, an FTP server is usually switched on. An FTP server is an
important component in FTP architecture and helps in exchanging of files over internet. An FTP server is
also known as an FTP site.
3.2 Features of an FTP server:
1. In order for the client to establish connection to the FTP server, the username and password are sent
over using USER and PASS commands. Once accepted by the FTP server, an acknowledgement is sent
across to the client and the session can start.
2. In the case of an FTP connection, it is possible to resume the download if it was not successfully
completed earlier. In other words, checkpoint restart support is provided.
3. The FTP server allows the downloading and uploading files. There could be access restrictions as
determined by the FTP server administrator for downloading different files and from different
folders residing in the FTP server.
4. The FTP server can provide connection to users without need of login credentials; however, the FTP
server can authorize these to have only limited access.
5. Files residing in FTP servers can be retrieved by common web browsers, but they may not be
supporting protocol extensions like FTPS.
6. FTP servers can provide anonymous access. This access allows users to download files from the
servers anonymously, but prohibits uploading files to FTP servers.
7. All file transfer protocol site addresses begin with ftp: //.
3.3 How to setup FTP server in packet tracer:
1. First of all, assign IP Addresses in the network and establish a working network connection.

2. Select the server, and go to services then select the ftp option, turn it on by selecting the
checkbox. Provide a username and a password and select appropriate checkboxes displayed in
the dialog box and then press "Add".
3. Make a text file from any device in that network and save it.

4. Now go to the command prompt of the same device in which you made the text file.
type "dir" to check the directory
5. Type the following syntax-
ftp<IP Address of the ftp server>
Enter username and password when prompted
put<filename.txt>
 ftp 10.0.0.2
 username=rachit
 password=1234
 put rachit.txt
The file now has been successfully uploaded on the ftp server. Type "dir" in command prompt of the
device from where ftp server is being accessed currently, to check if the file has been successfully
uploaded.

6. Now to access the file from any given device in the network (the device can be of different IP class
but should be in the network), open command prompt in that device and type the following syntax-
ftp <IP Address of the ftp server>
Enter username and password when prompted
get <filename.txt>
 ftp 10.0.0.2
 username=rachit
 password=1234
 get rachit.txt
7. Also, one can check if the file was successfully obtained from the ftp server by typing the command
"dir" in the command prompt of the device where the above commands have been applied.
8. The file <filename.txt> can now be accessed on any device in the network with the help of ftp server.

4. SMTP
4.1 Introduction
Email is emerging as the one of the most valuable service in internet today. Most of the internet systems
use SMTP as a method to transfer mail from one user to another. SMTP is a push protocol and is used to
send the mail whereas POP (post office protocol) or IMAP (internet message access protocol) are used to
retrieve those mails at the receiver’s side.
4.2 What is SMTP?
It is Stands for "Simple Mail Transfer Protocol." This is the protocol used for sending e-mail over the
Internet. Your e-mail client (such as Outlook, Eudora, or Mac OS X Mail) uses SMTP to send a message to
the mail server, and the mail server uses SMTP to relay that message to the correct receiving mail server.
Basically, SMTP is a set of commands that authenticate and direct the transfer of electronic mail. When
configuring the settings for your e-mail program, you usually need to set the SMTP server to your local
Internet Service Provider's SMTP settings (i.e. "smtp.yourisp.com"). However, the incoming mail server
(IMAP or POP3) should be set to your mail account's server (i.e. hotmail.com), which may be different
than the SMTP server. SMTP uses port 25.
4.3 SMTP FUNDAMENTALS:
SMTP is an application layer protocol. The client who wants to send the mail opens a TCP connection to
the SMTP server and then sends the mail across the connection. The SMTP server is always on listening
mode. As soon as it listens for a TCP connection from any client, the SMTP process initiates a connection
on that port (25). After successfully establishing the TCP connection the client process sends the mail
instantly
4.4 SMTP PROTOCOL
The SMTP model is of two type:
1. End-to- end method
2. Store-and- forward method
The end to end model is used to communicate between different organizations whereas the store and
forward method is used within an organization. A SMTP client who wants to send the mail will contact
the destination’s host SMTP directly in order to send the mail to the destination. The SMTP server will
keep the mail to itself until it is successfully copied to the receiver’s SMTP.
The client SMTP is the one which initiates the session let us call it as client- SMTP and the server SMTP is
the one which responds to the session request and let us call it as receiver-SMTP. The client- SMTP will
start the session and the receiver-SMTP will respond to the request.
4.5 Model of SMTP system
In the SMTP model user deals with the user agent (UA) for example Microsoft outlook, netscape, Mozilla
etc. In order to exchange the mail using TCP, MTA is used. The users sending the mail do not have to deal
with the MTA it is the responsibility of the system admin to set up the local MTA. The MTA maintains a
small queue of mails so that it can schedule repeat delivery of mail in case the receiver is not available.
The MTA delivers the mail to the mailboxes and the information can later be downloaded by the user
agents.

4.6 Both the SMTP-client and MSTP-server should have 2 components:
1. User agent (UA)
2. Local MTA
4.7 Communication between receiver and sender:
The senders, user agent prepare the message and send it to the MTA . The MTA functioning is to transfer
the mail across the network to the receivers MTA.
SENDING EMAIL:
Mail is send by a series of request and response messages between the client and a server. The message
which is send across consists of a header and the body. A null line is used to terminate the mail header.
Everything which is after the null line is considered as body of the message which is a sequence of ASCII
characters. The message body contains the actual information read by the receipt.
RECEIVING EMAIL:
The user agent at the server side checks the mailboxes at a particular time of intervals. If any information
is received it informs the user about the mail. When user tries to read the mail it displays a list of mails
with a short description of each mail in the mailbox. By selecting any of the mail user can view its
contents on the terminal.
4.8 SMTP IN CISCO PACKET TRACER:

Step 1: Take two PC, one switch (2950-24), one router (1841) and one PT-server.
Step 2: Go to the server services then click the Email button and configure the Email Settings in Pt-
server.
Step 3: Then go to config give the IP address to server.

Step 4: Give the IP address to router and both the PC.
Step 5: Go to PC and configure the email setting in PC.

CHAPTER 3 – Routing Protocols
1. Introduction to Routing
2. RIP
2.1 Introduction
RIP stands for Routing Information Protocol
1. RIP is an Intradomain routing protocol
2. Based on distance vector routing.
3. RIP implements distance vector routing directly with some considerations:
• In an autonomous system, we are dealing with routers and networks (links). The routers have
routing tables; networks do not.
• The destination in a routing table is a network, which means the first column defines a network
address.
• The metric used by RIP is very simple; the distance is defined as the number of links (networks)
to reach the destination. For this reason, the metric in RIP is called a hop count.
• Infinity is defined as 16, which means that any route in an autonomous system using RIP cannot
have more than 15 hops.
• The next-node column defines the address of the router to which the packet is to be sent to
reach its destination.
• RIP updates its routing table after every 30 sec in the network or on triggered update.
2.2 Advantages:
• Very easy to understand and configure.
• Almost guaranteed to be supported by all routers
• Supports load balancing
• Generally loop free
2.3 Disadvantages:
• Inefficient(bandwidth intensive)
• Slow convergence in larger network
 Supports only equal cost load balancing
 Limited scalability

2.4 In Packet Tracer:
2.5 Router Configuration in Packet Tracer:
 To Enter into router configuration
 Router>Enable
 Router#Configure terminal
 Router(config)#
 To change name of device
 Router(config)#IHostname R1
 To do interface configuration
 Router(config)#Interface FastEtherne 0/0
 To set IP address of interface
 Router(config)# ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0 (For Static)
 Router(config)# ip address dhcp
 To open the port
 Router(config)#no shut
 To configure the RIP
 Router>enable
 Router#configure terminal
 Router(config)#router rip //To enter the router's RIP configuration
 Router(config-router)#network 1.0.0.0 //To add the network in the RIP
 Router(config-router)#no network 1.0.0.0 //To remove the network from the RIP

3. OSPF
3.1 Introduction
The OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) protocol is one of a family of IP Routing protocols, and is an Interior
Gateway Protocol (IGP) for the Internet, used to distribute IP routing information throughout a single
Autonomous System (AS) in an IP network.
The OSPF protocol is a link-state routing protocol, which means that the routers exchange topology
information with their nearest neighbors. The topology information is flooded throughout the AS, so
that every router within the AS has a complete picture of the topology of the AS. This picture is then
used to calculate end-to-end paths through the AS, normally using a variant of the Djkastras algorithm.
Therefore, in a link-state routing protocol, the next hop address to which data is forwarded is
determined by choosing the best end-to-end path to the eventual destination.
3.2 Advantages of OSPF:
 Changes in an OSPF network are propagated quickly.
 OSPF is hierarchical, using area 0 as the top as the hierarchy.
 OSPF is a Link State Algorithm.
 OSPF supports Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM).
 OSPF uses multicasting within areas.
 After initialization, OSPF only sends updates on routing table sections which have changed, it does
not send the entire routing table.
 Using areas, OSPF networks can be logically segmented to decrease the size of routing tables. Table
size can be further reduced by using route summarization.
 OSPF is an open standard, not related to any particular vendor.
3.3 Disadvantages of OSPF:
 OSPF is very processor intensive.
 OSPF maintains multiple copies of routing information, increasing the amount of memory needed.
 Using areas, OSPF can be logically segmented (this can be a good thing and a bad thing).
 OSPF is not as easy to learn as some other protocols.

3.4 Routing Table Prepared at Router 172.5.1.2

CHAPTER 4 – Network Classification
1. VLAN
1.1. Introduction
A VLAN can be defined as a virtual broadcast domain. Instead of segmenting the broadcast domain
with routers at Layer 3, you segment using switches at Layer 2. Each VLAN should be associated
with its own IP subnet.
1.2. Benefits of VLANs
The advantages of using VLANs are as:
 VLANs enable logical grouping of end-stations that are physically dispersed on a network:
When users on a VLAN move to a new physical location but continue to perform the same job
function, the end-stations of those users do not need to be reconfigured. Similarly, if users
change their job functions, they need not physically move: changing the VLAN membership of
the end-stations to that of the new team makes the users' end-stations local to the resources
of the new team.
 VLANs reduce the need to have routers deployed on a network to contain broadcast traffic:
Flooding of a packet is limited to the switch ports that belong to a VLAN.
 Confinement of broadcast domains on a network significantly reduces traffic: By confining
the broadcast domains, end-stations on a VLAN are prevented from listening to or receiving
broadcasts not intended for them. Moreover, if a router is not connected between the VLANs,
the end-stations of a VLAN cannot communicate with the end-stations of the other VLANs.

1.3. Steps for configuring VLAN in packet tracer:
1. Update VLAN database in Switch by creating your own VLAN number.
2. VLAN number should be between 1-1005.
3. Now in interface change the VLAN drop down to the created VLAN number.
4. Change Access to Trunk in interface in switch that is connected to router.
5. Update VLAN database in Router also.
6. In router CLI
A. Configure terminal
B. Router(config)# Interface FastEthernet0/0.1 (creation of sub - interface)
C. Router(config-subif)#Encapsulation dot1q <VLAN number> (It encapsulate the connection
of VLAN through truncation)
D. Router(config-subif)#Ip address <ip> <subnet> (gateway address of VLAN)
E. Exit

2. SUBNETTING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Subnetting is the strategy used to partition a single physical network into more than one smaller logical
sub-networks (subnets). An IP address includes a network segment and a host segment. Subnets are
designed by accepting bits from the IP address's host part and using these bits to assign a number of
smaller sub-networks inside the original network. Subnetting allows an organization to add sub-
networks without the need to acquire a new network number via Internet service provider (ISP).
Subnetting helps to reduce the network traffic and conceals network complexity. Subnetting is essential
when a single network number has to be allocated over numerous segments of a local area network
(LAN).
Subnets were initially designed for solving the shortage of IP addresses over the Internet.
2.2 WHAT IS SUBNETTING
The process of Subnetting involves dividing a network up into smaller networks called subnets or sub
networks. Each of these subnets has its own specific address. To create these additional networks, we
use a subnet mask. The subnet mask simply determines which portion of the IP address belongs to the
host. The subnet address is created by dividing the host address into network address and host address.
The network address specifies the type of sub network in the network and the host address specifies
the host of that subnet. Subnets are under local administration. As such, the outside world sees an
organization as a single network and has no detailed knowledge of the organization's internal structure.
Subnetting provides the network administrator with several benefits, including extra flexibility, more
efficient use of network address and the capability to contain broadcast traffic. A given network address
can be broken up into may sub networks. For example, 172.16.1.0, 172.16.2.0, 172.16.3.0 and
172.16.4.0 are all subnets within network 171.16.0.0.
A subnet address is created by borrowing bits from the host field and designating them as subnet field.
The number of bits borrowed varies and is specified by the subnet mask.
2.3 HOW TO DO SUBNETTING
Each IP address consists of a subnet mask. All the class types, such as Class A, Class B and Class C include
the subnet mask known as the default subnet mask. The subnet mask is intended for determining the
type and number of IP addresses required for a given local network. The firewall or router is called the
default gateway. The default subnet mask is as follows:
 Class A: 255.0.0.0
 Class B: 255.255.0.0
 Class C: 255.255.255.0
The Subnetting process allows the administrator to divide a single Class A, Class B, or Class C network
number into smaller portions. The subnets can be subnetted again into sub-subnets.
2.4 WHY USE SUBNETTING
Conservation of IP addresses: Imagine having a network of 20 hosts. Using a Class C network will waste
a lot of IP addresses (254-20=234). Breaking up large networks into smaller parts would be more
efficient and would conserve a great amount of addresses.
Reduced network traffic: The smaller networks created the smaller broadcast domains are formed
hence less broadcast traffic on network boundaries.

Simplification: Breaking large networks into smaller ones could simplify fault troubleshooting by
isolating network problems down to their specific existence.
2.5 HOW TO MAKE SUBNETS ON PACKET TRACER
Part 1: Design an IP Addressing Scheme.
Part 2: Assign IP Addresses to Network Devices and Verify Connectivity.
PART 1: DESIGN AN IP ADDRESSING SCHEME
 Step 1: Subnet the 176.124.24.0/24 network into the appropriate number of subnets. In this
case we are creating four subnets of this network.
 Step 2: Create the subnets
SUBNET TABLE:
Subnet
Number Subnet Address
First Usable Host
Address
Last Usable Host
Address Broadcast Address
0 176.124.24.0/26 176.124.24.1/26 176.124.24.62/26 176.124.24.63/26
1 176.124.24.64/26 176.124.24.65/26 176.124.24.126/26 176.124.24.127/26
2 176.124.24.128/26 174.124.24.129/26 174.124.24.190/26 174.124.24.191/26
3 176.124.24.192/26 176.124.24.193/26 176.124.24.254/26 176.124.24.255/26
 Step 3: Assign the subnets to the network shown in the topology.
 Assign Subnet 0 to the LAN connected to the FastEthernet 0/0 interface of R1: 176.124.24.0/26
 Assign Subnet 1 to the LAN connected to the Ethernet0/0/0 interface of R1: 176.124.24.64/26
 Assign Subnet 2 to the LAN connected to the Ethernet0/0/0 interface of R2: 176.124.24.128/26
 Assign Subnet 3 to the LAN connected to the FastEthernet 0/0 interface of R2: 176.124.24.192/26
Part 2: Assign IP Addresses to Network Devices and Verify Connectivity
Most of the IP addressing is already configured on this network. Implement the following steps to
complete the addressing configuration.
 Step 1: Configure IP addressing on R1 LAN interfaces.
 Step 2: Configure IP addressing on S3, including the default gateway.
 Step 3: Configure IP addressing on PC4, including the default gateway.
 Step 4: Verify connectivity.

3. LAN switching
3.1 Introduction
LAN switching is a form of packet switching in which the data packets are transferred from one
computer to another over a network. Ethernet switches receive Ethernet frames in one port and
then forward (switch) the frames out to one (or more) port. This first major section focuses on how
switches make these switching decisions.
3.2 IEEE standards for LANs:
3.3 LAN Design Considerations:
 Secure the use of voice, video, data which is transmitted over networks is crucial.
 Following points kept in mind while designing:
• Network segmentation and broadcast traffic management.
• Security.
• Easy configuration and management of the switches.
• Redundancy.
3.4 LAN Switching Hierarchical model
1. Access layer: This is the layer that connects to end user devices such as PCs, printers, IP phones
among others.
2. Distribution layer: This layer is meant to aggregate the data from the access layer. This layer
controls the traffic in the lower levels and prioritizes traffic based on organizational policies that

have been implemented during configuration of the switches. Typically, this level should be
redundant and made up of faster switches than the access layer.
3. Core layer: This layer is responsible for high-speed switching in the network. Typically, this layer
should consist of the fastest switches in the network and offer the highest bandwidth since
communication to other networks from the lower levels is forwarded through these switches.
3.5 On Packet Tracer:

CHAPTER 5 – Network Addressing
1. IPv4 Addressing
1.1 Introduction
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol (IP). It is one of the
core protocols of standards-based internetworking methods in the Internet, and was the first
version deployed for production in the ARPANET in 1983. It still routes most Internet traffic today,
despite the ongoing deployment of a successor protocol, IPv6. IPv4 is described in IETF publication
RFC 791 (September 1981), replacing an earlier definition (RFC 760, January 1980).
IPv4 is a connectionless protocol for use on packet-switched networks. It operates on a best effort
delivery model, in that it does not guarantee delivery, nor does it assure proper sequencing or
avoidance of duplicate delivery. These aspects, including data integrity, are addressed by an upper
layer transport protocol, such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
1.2 Addressing of Ipv4:
IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses which limits the address space to 4294967296(232
) addresses. IPv4
reserves special address blocks for private networks (~18 million addresses) and multicast
addresses (~270 million addresses).
1.3 IPv4 is divided into five classes:
1.4 Allocation of ipv4 Address:
In the original design of IPv4, an IP address was divided into two parts: the network identifier was the
most significant (highest order) octet of the address, and the host identifier was the rest of the address.
The latter was also called the rest field. This structure permitted a maximum of 256 network identifiers,
which was quickly found to be inadequate.
To overcome this limit, the most-significant address octet was redefined in 1981 to create network
classes, in a system which later became known as classful networking. The revised system defined five
classes. Classes A, B, and C had different bit lengths for network identification. The rest of the address
was used as previously to identify a host within a network, which meant that each network class had a
different capacity for addressing hosts. Class D was defined for multicast addressing and Class E was
reserved for future applications.
Starting around 1985, methods were devised to subdivide IP networks. One method that has proved
flexible is the use of the variable-length subnet mask (VLSM).[2][3]
Based on the IETF standard RFC 1517

published in 1993, this system of classes was officially replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR), which expressed the number of bits (from the most significant) as, for instance, /24, and the
class-based scheme was dubbed classful, by contrast. CIDR was designed to permit repartitioning of any
address space so that smaller or larger blocks of addresses could be allocated to users. The hierarchical
structure created by CIDR is managed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and the
regional Internet registries (RIRs). Each RIR maintains a publicly searchable WHOIS database that
provides information about IP address assignments.
1.5 Special-use addresses
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
have restricted from general use various reserved IP addresses for special purposes. Some are used
for maintenance of routing tables, for multicast traffic, operation under failure modes, or to
provide addressing space for public, unrestricted uses on private networks.
1.6 Static configuration of IPv4 Address
1.7 Dynamic configuration of IPv4 Address

2. IPV6(Internet Protocol Version 6)
2.1 Introduction
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol (IP), the
communications protocol that provides an identification and location system for computers on
networks and routes traffic across the Internet. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) to deal with the long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6 is intended to
replace IPv4.
Every device on the Internet is assigned a unique IP address for identification and location definition.
With the rapid growth of the Internet after commercialization in the 1990s, it became evident that far
more addresses would be needed to connect devices than the IPv4 address space had available. By
1998, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) had formalized the successor protocol. IPv6 uses a 128-
bit address, theoretically allowing 2128
, or approximately 3.4×1038
addresses. The actual number is
slightly smaller, as multiple ranges are reserved for special use or completely excluded from use. The
total number of possible IPv6 addresses is more than 7.9×1028
times as many as IPv4, which uses 32-bit
addresses and provides approximately 4.3 billion addresses. The two protocols are not designed to be
interoperable, complicating the transition to IPv6. However, several IPv6 transition mechanisms have
been devised to permit communication between IPv4 and IPv6 hosts.
IPv6 provides other technical benefits in addition to a larger addressing space. In particular, it permits
hierarchical address allocation methods that facilitate route aggregation across the Internet, and thus
limit the expansion of routing tables. The use of multicast addressing is expanded and simplified, and
provides additional optimization for the delivery of services. Device mobility, security, and configuration
aspects have been considered in the design of the protocol.
IPv6 addresses are represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits with the groups being
separated by colons, for example 2001:0db8:0000:0042:0000:8a2e:0370:7334, but methods to
abbreviate this full notation exist.
2.2 Motivation and Origin:
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) was the first publicly used version of the Internet Protocol. IPv4 was
developed as a research project by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), a United
States Department of Defense agency, before becoming the foundation for the Internet and the World
Wide Web. It is currently described by IETF publication RFC 791 (September 1981), which replaced an
earlier definition (RFC 760, January 1980). IPv4 included an addressing system that used numerical
identifiers consisting of 32 bits. These addresses are typically displayed in quad-dotted notation as
decimal values of four octets, each in the range 0 to 255, or 8 bits per number. Thus, IPv4 provides an
addressing capability of 232
or approximately 4.3 billion addresses. Address exhaustion was not initially a
concern in IPv4 as this version was originally presumed to be a test of DARPA's networking concepts.[5]
During the first decade of operation of the Internet, it became apparent that methods had to be
developed to conserve address space. In the early 1990s, even after the redesign of the addressing
system using a classless network model, it became clear that this would not suffice to prevent IPv4
address exhaustion, and that further changes to the Internet infrastructure were needed.
The last unassigned top-level address blocks of 16 million IPv4 addresses were allocated in February
2011 by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to the five regional Internet registries (RIRs).
However, each RIR still has available address pools and is expected to continue with standard address
allocation policies until one /8 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) block remains. After that, only

blocks of 1024 addresses (/22) will be provided from the RIRs to a local Internet registry (LIR). As of
September 2015, all of Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), the Réseaux IP Européens
Network Coordination Centre , Latin America and Caribbean Network Information Centre (LACNIC), and
American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) have reached this stage. This leaves African Network
Information Center (AFRINIC) as the sole regional internet registry that is still using the normal protocol
for distributing IPv4 addresses.
2.3 Comparison with Ipv4:
On the Internet, data is transmitted in the form of network packets. IPv6 specifies a new packet format,
designed to minimize packet header processing by routers. Because the headers of IPv4 packets and
IPv6 packets are significantly different, the two protocols are not interoperable. However, in most
respects, IPv6 is an extension of IPv4. Most transport and application-layer protocols need little or no
change to operate over IPv6; exceptions are application protocols that embed Internet-layer addresses,
such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and Network Time Protocol (NTP), where the new address format
may cause conflicts with existing protocol syntax.
● Large Address Space
● Multicasting
● Stateless address Configuration
● Network Layer Security
● Simple Processing by Router
● Mobility
● Jumbograms
● Privacy
2.4 Packet Format of Ipv6
An IPv6 packet has two parts: a header and payload.
The header consists of a fixed portion with minimal functionality required for all packets and may be
followed by optional extensions to implement special features.
The fixed header occupies the first 40 octets (320 bits) of the IPv6 packet. It contains the source and
destination addresses, traffic classification options, a hop counter, and the type of the optional
extension or payload which follows the header. This Next Header field tells the receiver how to
interpret the data which follows the header. If the packet contains options, this field contains the option
type of the next option. The "Next Header" field of the last option, points to the upper-layer protocol
that is carried in the packet's payload.
Extension headers carry options that are used for special treatment of a packet in the network, e.g., for
routing, fragmentation, and for security using the IPsec framework.
Without special options, a payload must be less than 64KB. With a Jumbo Payload option (in a Hop-By-
Hop Options extension header), the payload must be less than 4 GB.
Unlike with IPv4, routers never fragment a packet. Hosts are expected to use Path MTU Discovery to
make their packets small enough to reach the destination without needing to be fragmented. See IPv6
packet fragmentation.

2.5 Addressing:
IPv6 addresses have 128 bits. The design of the IPv6 address space implements a very different design
philosophy than in IPv4, in which Subnetting was used to improve the efficiency of utilization of the
small address space. In IPv6, the address space is deemed large enough for the foreseeable future, and
a local area subnet always uses 64 bits for the host portion of the address, designated as the interface
identifier, while the most-significant 64 bits are used as the routing prefix. The identifier is only unique
within the subnet to which a host is connected. IPv6 has a mechanism for automatic address detection,
so that address auto configuration always produces unique assignments.
IPv6 Auto-Config addressing

3. DUAL STACK
3.1 Introduction
The Internet world is shifting to an entirely new IP address format because we've run completely out of
current IPv4-type addresses. The new IP address format is called IPv6. The IPv6 format creates an IP
address with a much longer number, which allows for a great many more IP addresses. One significant
problem is that the two IP address formats aren't compatible and total conversion to IPv6 is a way off.
3.2 What is Dual Stack Network?
A dual stack network is a network in which all of the nodes are both IPv4 and IPv6 enabled. This is
especially important at the router, as the router is typically the first node on a given network to receive
traffic from outside of the network. Dual stack networks are one of the many IPv4 to IPv6 migration
strategies that have been presented in recent years.
3.3 Dual Stack IP configuration.

OUR PROJECT IN CISCO PACKET TRACER

Appendix
Two remote application processes can communicate mainly in two different fashions:
• Peer-to-peer: Both remote processes are executing at same level and they exchange data using some
shared resource.
• Client-Server: One remote process acts as a Client and requests some resource from another application
process acting as Server.
In client-server model, any process can act as Server or Client. It is not the type of machine, size of the machine,
or its computing power which makes it server; it is the ability of serving request that makes a machine a server.
A system can act as Server and Client simultaneously. That is, one process is acting as Server and another is
acting as a client. This may also happen that both client and server processes reside on the same machine.
COMMUNICATION
Two processes in client-server model can interact in various ways:
• Sockets
• Remote Procedure Calls (RPC)
SOCKETS
In this paradigm, the process acting as Server opens a socket using a well-known (or known by client) port and
waits until some client request comes. The second process acting as a Client also opens a socket but instead of
waiting for an incoming request, the client processes ‘requests first’. When the request is reached to server, it is
served. It can either be an information sharing or resource request.

REMOTEPROCEDURECALL
This is a mechanism where one process interacts with another by means of procedure calls. One process (client)
calls the procedure lying on remote host. The process on remote host is said to be Server. Both processes are
allocated stubs. This communication happens in the following way:
• The client process calls the client stub. It passes all the parameters pertaining to program local to it.
• All parameters are then packed (marshalled) and a system call is made to send them to other side of the
network.
• Kernel sends the data over the network and the other end receives it.
• The remote host passes data to the server stub where it is unmarshalled.
• The parameters are passed to the procedure and the procedure is then executed.
• The result is sent back to the client in the same manner.

Bibliography
 http://ecomputernotes.com/software-engineering
 https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/rational/library/769.html
 https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_03.htm
 http://softwaretestingfundamentals.com/system-testing/
 http://softwaretestingfundamentals.com/test-case
 https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb726983.aspx
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/uml/

References
 https://airbrake.io/blog/sdlc/iterative-model
 http://www.lindsay-
sherwin.co.uk/project_framework/htm_2_planning_a_project/12b_ganntinword.htm
 https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newPPM_03.htm
 http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/client-server
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com

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