Program DesignFor learning to occur, training programs require m.docx

Program Design
For learning to occur, training programs require meaningful
material, clear objectives, and opportunities for practice and
feedback. However, even if a training program contains all
these conditions, it still may not result in learning for several
reasons. Proper equipment and materials may not be available
during the session, trainers may be rushed to present content
and fail to allow adequate time for practice, or the actual
activities that occur in the training session may not relate to the
learning objectives. Program design refers to the organization
and coordination of the training program. A training program
may include one or several courses. Each course may contain
one or more lessons. Program design includes considering the
purpose of the program as well as designing specific lessons
within the program. Effective program design includes a design
document template, a course or lesson plan, and a course or
lesson plan overview.72
Keep in mind that although the responsibility for designing the
training program may belong to the instructional designer,
human resource professional, or manager, the "clients" of the
program should also be involved in program design. As already
discussed in Chapter 3, managers and employees should be
involved in the needs assessment process. In addition, their role
may include reviewing prototypes of the program, providing
examples and program content, and participating in the program
as instructors.73
The following explanations of each feature of effective program
design are accompanied by an example that is based on a
training program developed by a company to increase its
managers' effectiveness in conducting performance appraisal
feedback interviews. Performance appraisal feedback sessions
are meetings between managers and subordinates during which
the strengths and weaknesses of an employee's performance are
discussed and improvement goals are usually agreed upon.

Based on a needs assessment, this company discovered that its
managers were uncomfortable conducting performance appraisal
feedback sessions. These managers often were very
authoritarian in the sessions. That is, they tended to tell
employees what aspects of their job performance needed to be
improved rather than allowing the employees to participate in
the session or working with them to identify and solve
performance problems.
Design Document
A design document can be used to guide the development of
training and to explain the training to managers, subject matter
experts, reviewers, or other trainers. Table 4.15 shows a design
document template.74 Information for the design document is
based on the information obtained from the needs assessment
discussed in Chapter 3.
The level of detail in the design document can vary. Scope of
project includes the goals, outcomes, or what trainees are
expected to achieve; a description of the trainees; a description
of how long it will take to develop the course and the
checkpoints or tasks that need to be completed as the course is
developed; and the length of the course. The length of a course
is determined by considering trainees' abilities and their
availability for training, the resources needed for training,
whether the course is part of a larger curriculum or is a
standalone course, and the need to develop modules in order to
provide an opportunity for trainees to practice concepts and
skills to avoid being overwhelmed. Delivery includes what the
course will cover, how it will be delivered (e.g., face-to-face,
online), an estimate of the training time, and the identification
of any special conditions or issues that may affect the course
(e.g., problems getting equipment to video role-plays
and.provide feedback).
TABLE 4.1
Design
Document

Template
Source: Based on G. Piskurich, Rap Instructional Des (San
Francisco: F fer, 2006).
Chapter 4 Learning: Theories and Program Design 173
1 Part 2 Designing Training 172
TABLE 4.15
Design Document Template
Source: Based on G. Piskurich, Rapid Instructional Design (San
Francisco: Pfeif-fer, 2006).
Scope of Project
· Goal
· Audience
· Design time and checkpoints
· Length of the course
Delivery
· Content
· Method
· Training time
· Problems and opportunities
Objectives Resources Who Is Involved Topical Outline
Administration and Evaluation Links to Other Programs
Objectives refers to the course objectives. It is important to
realize that within a training program there are usually different

types of objectives that vary in specificity and detail. Program
objectives refer to broader summary statements of the purpose
of the program. They are usually included on the design
template. Course objectives or lesson objectives refer to the
goals of the course or the lesson. These objectives are more
specific in terms of expected behaviors, content, conditions, and
standards.
Resources refers to the materials—cases, DVDs, videos,
models, process maps, pod-casts, lesson plans, or guides for use
by the facilitator or participants—that need to be purchased or
developed for the course. Who is involved includes trainers,
program designers, and individuals who will be involved in the
design, delivery, and evaluation of the program. The topical
outline includes a brief outline of the topics that will be covered
in the program. Administration and evaluation refers to who
will be in charge of course scheduling, how trainees will enroll,
how the course will be evaluated, and who will review and
update the course. Links to other programs refers to any other
needs, such as a train-the-trainer program or manager
introduction or kick-off for the program. Table 4.16 shows a
simple design document for the performance appraisal feedback
course.
Course or Lesson Plan
Lesson plans are typically more detailed than the design
document. They include the specific steps involved in the
lesson, instructor and trainee activities, and the time allocated
to each topic included in the lesson.
Lesson plans can be designed for programs lasting a day, a
week, or several hours. If training takes place over several days,
a separate lesson plan is prepared for each day.
The detailed lesson plan translates the content and sequence of
training activities into a guide that is used by the trainer to help
deliver the training. That is, lesson plans include the sequence
of activities that will be conducted in the training session and
identify the

TABLE 4.16
Design Document
Purpose: To prepare managers to conduct effective performance
feedback sessions with their direct reports
Goals: Managers will be able to conduct a performance
feedback session using the problem-solving approach
Target audience: Managers
Training time: 1 day
Method: Lecture, video, role plays
Number of participants per session: 20-25
Locations: Various
Prerequisites: None
Problems and opportunities: New Performance appraisal system
introduced; manager dislikes conducting feedback sessions
Instructor: Caroline O'Connell and facilitators
administrative details. Table 4.17 shows a lesson plan. The
lesson plan provides a table of contents for the training activity.
This helps to ensure that training activities are consistent
regardless of the trainer. Lesson plans also help to ensure that
both the trainee and the trainer are aware of the course and
program objectives. Most training departments have written
lesson plans that are stored in notebooks or in electronic
databases. Because lesson plans are documented, they can be
shared with trainees and customers of the training department
(i.e., managers who pay for training services) to provide them
with detailed information regarding program activities and
objectives.
Table 4.18 shows the features of an effective lesson plan. The
lesson plan includes the learning objectives, topics to be
covered, target audience, time of session, lesson outline, the
activity involved, any required preparation or prerequisites, how

learning will be evaluated, and steps to insure transfer of
training.75
In developing the lesson outline, trainers need to consider the
proper sequencing of topics. Trainers must answer questions
such as, "What knowledge and skills need to be learned first?"
"In what order should the knowledge, skills, and behavior be
taught?" "What order will make sense to the trainees?" It is also
important to consider the target audience. Any information
about their training and experience, their motivation for taking
the course, and their interests, learning styles, and background
(e.g., education, work experience) will be useful for choosing
meaningful examples, determining program content, deciding on
support materials, and building the credibility of the training.
Information about the target audience should be available from
the person analysis of the needs assessment (see Chapter 3).
Additional information can be collected by talking to the
"clients" (e.g., managers) who requested the training program
and to past program participants, if available. Support materials
include any equipment needed for delivery of instruction, such
as computers, overhead projectors, or DVD, CD, or video
players. Trainers should arrange for the purchase of any
whiteboards, flip charts, or markers that may be used in
instruction. Any exercises needed for trainees' practice or
preparation, such as readings, role-play exercises, assessments,
or pretests, need to be ordered or reproduced (after copyright
permission is obtained). In considering instructor and trainee
activity, the focus should be on ensuring that the lesson has
(
Course title:
Conducting an Effective Performance Feedback Session
Lesson title:
Using the problem-solving style in the feedback interview
Lesson length:
Full day

Learning objectives:
1
. Describe the eight key behaviors used in the problem-solving
style of giving appraisal feedback without
error
2.
Demonstrate the eight key behaviors in an appraisal feedback
role play without error
Target audience:
Managers
Prerequisites:
Trainee:
None
Instructor:
Familiarity with the tell-and-sell, tell-and-listen, and problem-
solving approaches used in
performance appraisal feedback interviews
Room arrangement:
Fan-type
Materials and equipment needed:
VCR, overhead projector, pens, transparencies, VCR tape titled
"Performance Appraisal Interviews,'
' role-play exercises
Evaluation and assignments:
Role-play; read article titled, "Conducting Effective Appraisal
Interviews"
Comment:
Article needs to
be distributed two weeks prior to session
Lesson Outline
Instructor Activity
Trainee Activity
Time
Introduction
Presentation
Listening

8-8:50
a.m.
View videos of three styles
Watching
8:50-1 0
a.m.
Break
10-10:20
a.m.
Discussion of strengths and
weaknesses of each style
Facilitator
Participation
10:20-11:30
a.m.
Lunch
11:30
a.m
.-1
p.m.
Presentation and video of eight key
behaviors of problem-solving style
Presentation
Listening
1-2
p.m.
Role plays
Watch exercise
Practice using key behaviors
2-3
p.m.
Wrap-up
Answer questions
Ask questions
3-3:15
p.m.

TABLE 4.17
Sample of a Detailed Lesson Plan
)as many features of a positive learning process as possible,
including communication of objectives, feedback, opportunities
for practice, opportunities for trainees to share experiences and
ask questions, and modeling or demonstration. Transfer and
retention strategies might include chat rooms, follow-up
meetings with the manager, and action planning. Transfer and
retention strategies are discussed in Chapter 5.
The two learning objectives for the course, "Conducting an
Effective Performance Feedback Session," are shown in Table
4.17. The eight key behaviors referred to in the learning
objectives section are as follows: (1) explain the purpose of the
meeting; (2) ask the employee to describe what he has done to
deserve recognition; (3) ask the employee to describe what he
should stop doing, start doing, or do differently; (4) ask the
employee for areas in which you can provide assistance; (5)
give the employee your opinion of his performance; (6) ask for
and listen to the employee's concerns about your evaluation; (7)
agree on steps/actions to be taken by each of you; and (8) agree
to a follow-up date.76
174 Part 2 Designing Training
TABLE 4.18 Features of an Effective Lesson Plan
Feature
Learning Objectives or Outcomes Target Audience
Prerequisites (trainees and instructor)
Time
Lesson Outline Activity
Support Materials
Physical Environment Preparation

Lesson Topic Evaluation
Transfer and Retention
What is the lesson designed to accomplish?
What is the standard for successful learning?
Who is in the lesson? What are the characteristics of the
audience?
What will trainees need to be able to do before they can benefit
from the course? Who is qualified to be in the program? Who is
qualified to be an instructor?
How much time is devoted to each part of the lesson?
What topics will be covered? In what sequence?
What will trainees' and instructor's role be during each topic
covered?
What materials and/or equipment is needed for delivery of
instruction or to facilitate instruction?
Is a certain size or arrangement of room necessary?
Do the trainees have homework that needs to be completed
before the lesson?
What does the instructor need to do?
What topic is the lesson going to cover?
How will learning be evaluated (e.g., tests, role plays)?
What will be done to ensure that training content is used
on the job?
Source: Based on R. Vaughn, The Professional Trainer (Euclid,
OH: Williams Custom Publishing, 2000); R. F. Mager, Making
Instruction Work, 2d ed. (Atlanta, GA: Center for Effective
Performance, 1997); L. Nadler and Z. Nadler, Designing
Training Programs, 2d ed. (Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing,
1992); Big Dog's Human Resource Development page,
www.nwlink.com/donclark/hrd.html.
The prerequisites include (1) arrangement of the training site,

equipment, and materials needed; (2) instructor preparation; and
(3) trainee prerequisites. In the example, the trainer needs a
VCR to show a video of performance appraisal feedback styles.
The trainer also needs an overhead projector to record points
made by the trainees during the planned discussion of the
strengths and weaknesses of the appraisal styles presented on
the video. The room needs to be fan-shaped so trainees can see
the trainer and each other. Also, the fan arrangement is good for
role-play exercises that involve trainees working in groups of
two or three.
Trainee prerequisites refer to any preparation, basic skills, or
knowledge that the trainee needs prior to participating in the
program. Trainee prerequisites may include basic math and
reading skills, completion of prior training sessions, or
successful completion of tests or certificate or degree programs.
Instructor prerequisites indicate what the instructor needs to do
to prepare for the session (e.g., rent equipment, review previous
day's training session) and any educational qualifications the
instructor needs. Lesson plans also may cover how the lesson
will be evaluated and any assignments that the trainees need to
complete. In the example, trainees are required to read an
article on effective performance appraisal feedback interviews.
The instructor needs to be familiar with the eight key behaviors
for conducting problem-solving appraisal feedback interviews.
(
8-8:50
a.m.
Introduction
8:50-10
a.m.
Watch videos of three styles of appraisal feedback
10-10:20
a.m.
Break
10:20-11:30

a.m.
Discussion of strengths and weaknesses of each style
11:30
a.m
.-1
p.m.
Lunch
1-2
p.m.
Presentation and video of eight key behaviors of problem-
solving approach
2-3
p.m.
Role plays
3-3:15
p.m.
Wrap-up (questions and answers)
TABLE 4.19
Sample Lesson Overview
)
Lesson Plan Overview
The lesson plan overview matches major activities of the
training program and specific times or time intervals.77 Table
4.19 provides an example of a lesson plan overview for the
performance appraisal feedback training.
Completing a lesson plan overview helps the trainer determine

the amount of time that' needs to be allocated for each topic
covered in the program. The lesson plan overview is also useful
in determining when trainers are needed during a program; time
demands on trainees; program breaks for snacks, lunch, and
dinner; and opportunities for practice and feedback. For the
performance appraisal feedback training, the lesson plan shows
that approximately half of the training time is devoted to active
learning by the trainees (discussion, role plays, question-and-
answer session).
The experience of Health Partners, which administers Medicaid
and Medicare coverage for patients in and around Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, illustrates the importance of lesson planning and
program design.78 The company installed a major upgrade to its
data processing system, but the program was unfamiliar to most
employees. To conduct the training, Health Partners identified
employees who were familiar with the program and asked them
to be part-time instructors. Instead of providing day-long
classes that would likely be boring and overwhelming, the
company's training staff broke the training into a series of 45-
minute sessions that employees could easily fit into their work
schedules. The curriculum was organized by department rather
than by tasks, and staff from other departments were invited to
attend the program so they could understand how the entire
company used the system. Portions of the training time were
devoted to discussing with employees the stress of change in the
workplace and the benefits of the new system. The management
teams also met periodically with the instructors to keep them
up-to-date on the types of problems that employees faced in
working with the new system so those issues could be
incorporated into the training.
Summary Learning must occur for training to be effective. This
chapter began by defining learning and identifying the
capabilities that can be learned: verbal information, intellectual
skills, motor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies. To
explain how these capabilities can be learned, the chapter
discussed several theories of learning: reinforcement theory,

social learning theory, goal setting theory, need theories,
expectancy theory, adult learning theory, and information
processing theory. Next, the chapter investigated the learning
process
An interesting example that illustrates many of the features of
good instruction that have just been explained can be found in
the training programs of the Culinary Institute of America
(CIA), located in the rolling hills of the Hudson River Valley, a
90-minute drive from New York City. The CIA, the world's
finest training facility for chefs, has approximately 2,000 lull-
time students in its degree programs. CIA graduates are chefs in
some of the best restaurants in the world and in prestigious
private dining rooms (such as the White House), and they direct
food service operations for large hotel chains such as the
Marriott, Hyatt, Radisson, and Hilton. Besides offering degree
programs, the CIA also hosts more than 6,000 trainees from a
wide variety of companies that have food service operations.
Whether an instructor is teaching meat-cutting or sauteing
techniques, the programs' learning environments are basically
the same. A lecture is followed by demonstration and several
hours of guided hands-on practice. The trainee then receives
feedback from the instructor. The trainer moves from a show-
and-tell approach to become a coach over the course of the
training session. Videos are produced for every class that a
student will take. They can be viewed from residence halls or
can be seen at the video learning center where students can
review the tapes at their own pace; the students control what
they see.

CIA programs deal not only with cognitive learning but also
with physical and emotional learning. In addition to cooking
and baking courses, students are required to study psychology,
Total Quality Management, languages, marketing,
communications, restaurant management, and team supervision.
Physical fitness and stress management are required parts of the
curriculum. Why? Running a commercial kitchen involves long
hours and high levels of stress—it is very physically
demanding. Thanks to the learning environment created at CIA,
the institute is recognized as the world leader in gastronomic
training as it provides a foundation of basic knowledge for
chefs from around the world.56
INSTRUCTIONAL EMPHASIS FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES
The discussion of the implications of the learning process for
instruction provide general principles regarding how to
facilitate learning. However, you should understand the
relationship between these general principles and the learning
process. Different internal and external conditions are necessary
for learning each outcome. Internal conditions refer to processes
within the learner that must be present for learning to occur.
These processes include how information is registered, stored in
memory, and recalled. External conditions refer to processes in
the learning environment that facilitate learning. These
conditions include the physical learning environment as well as
opportunities to practice and receive feedback and
reinforcement. The external conditions should directly influence
the design or form of instruction. Table 4.11 shows what is

needed during instruction at each step of the learning process.
For example, during the process of committing training content
to memory, verbal cues, verbal links to a meaningful context,
and diagrams and models are necessary. If training content is
not coded (or is incorrectly coded), learning will be inhibited.
Learning Outcome
Verbal Information
Labels, facts, and propositions
Internal Conditions
Previously learned knowledge and verbal information Strategies
for coding information into memory
TABLE 4.11 Internal and External Conditions Necessary for
Learning Outcomes
External Conditions
Intellectual Skills
Knowing how
Cognitive Strategies
Process of thinking and learning
Repeated practice Meaningful chunks Advance organizers
Recall cues
Recall of prerequisites, similar tasks, and strategies
Link between new and previously learned knowledge
Verbal description of strategy
Strategy demonstration
Practice with feedback
Variety of tasks that provide opportunity
Mastery of prerequisites Identification with model Cognitive
dissonance

to apply strategy
Attitudes
Choice of personal action
Motor Skills
Muscular actions
Recall of part skills Coordination program
Demonstration by a model Positive learning environment Strong
message from credible source Reinforcement
Practice Demonstration
Gradual decrease of external feedback
Source: Based on R. M Gagne and K. L. Medsker, 7Vie
Conditions of Learning (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt-Brace
College Publishers, 1996).
CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING EFFECTIVE TRAINING
PROGRAMS
This chapter has discussed implications of learning theory for
instruction. The importance of objectives, meaningful material,
properly coordinated and arranged training, and opportunities
for practice and feedback has been emphasized. How do trainers
ensure that these conditions are present in training programs?
This last section of the chapter discusses the practical steps
involved in designing effective training programs, courses, and
lessons. This includes selecting and preparing the training site,
selecting trainers, creating a positive learning environment and
program design.

Selecting and Preparing the Training Site
The training site refers to the room where training will be
conducted. A good training site offers the following features:57
1. It is comfortable and accessible.
2. It is quiet, private, and free from interruptions.
3.
3. It has sufficient space for trainees to move easily around in,
offers enough room for trainees to have adequate work space,
and has good visibility for trainees to see each other, the
trainer, and any visual displays or examples that will be used in
training (e.g., videos, product samples, charts, slides).
Details to Be Considered in the Training Room
Table 4.12 presents characteristics of the meeting room that a
trainer, program designer, or manager should use to evaluate a
training site. Keep in mind that many times trainers do not have
the luxury of choosing the "perfect" training site. Rather, they
use their evaluation of the training site to familiarize
themselves with the site's strengths and weaknesses in order to
adjust the training program and/or physical arrangements of the
site (e.g., rearrange the trainer's position so it is closer to
electrical outlets needed to run equipment).
Because of technology's impact on the delivery of training
programs, many training sites include instructor- and trainee-
controlled equipment. For example, at Microsoft's customer
briefing center in Chicago, Illinois, 16 different computer
platforms, ranging from laptops to mainframe systems, are
available to use for training. Two seminar rooms include
videoconferencing technology, which allows training sessions to
be transmitted from Microsoft's corporate headquarters in
Redmond, Washington, to Chicago. The Chicago site can link
up to any of 25 Microsoft locations or a combination of 11 sites
at once. Presenters have access to a VCR, CD player, cassette
decks, and document camera. The seminar

TABLE 4.12
Details to Consider When
Evaluating a Training Room
Source: Based on C. L. Finkel, "Meeting Facilities," in The
ASTD Training and Development Handbook, 3d ed., ed. R. L.
Craig (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996): 978-89.
Noise. Check for noise from heating and air conditioning
systems, from adjacent rooms and corridors, and from outside
the building.
Colors. Pastel hues such as oranges, greens, blues, and yellows
are warm colors. Variations of white are cold and sterile. Blacks
and brown shades will close the room in psychologically and
become fatiguing.
Room structure. Use rooms that are somewhat square in shape.
Long, narrow rooms make it difficult for trainees to see, hear,
and identify with the discussion.
Lighting. Main source of lighting should be fluorescent lights.
Incandescent lighting should be spread throughout the room and
used with dimmers when projection is required.
Wall and floor covering. Carpeting should be placed in the
meeting area. Solid colors are preferable because they are not
distracting. Only meeting-related materials should be on the
meeting room walls.
Meeting room chairs. Chairs should have wheels, swivels, and
backs that provide support for the lower lumbar region.
Glare. Check and eliminate glare from metal surfaces, TV
monitors, and mirrors. Ceiling. Ten-foot-high ceilings are
preferable.
Electrical outlets. Outlets should be available every six feet
around the room. A telephone jack should be next to the outlets.
Outlets for the trainer should be available.
Acoustics. Check the bounce or absorption of sound from the
walls, ceiling, floor, and furniture. Try voice checks with three
or four different people, monitoring voice clarity and level.

rooms have touchscreen systems controlling both the
audiovisual equipment and the room environment.
Although the use of technology in training is discussed in more
detail in Chapter 8, it is important to note that laptop computers
create a desktop training environment that is replacing trainers
as the primary way to present training content. For example, at
Ernst & Young, an accounting and consulting firm, laptops are
used by employees in tax, finance, consulting, and auditing
training courses to view visuals, work on case-study exercises,
ask questions, and access other information stored on the
company's intranet.59 The laptop connects employees to Web-
based training designed to help them gain prerequisites for
training sessions as well as provide follow-up information after
they attend training. Instead of playing a major role as
presenters of content, trainers devote their time to coaching,
providing feedback, and monitoring the progress of trainees.
Trainers can "see" how trainees are working and provide
individualized feedback and coaching. Trainers can use the
computer to ask questions about what trainees are finding
difficult in a particular training session. These responses can be
shared with other trainees or used to guide the trainer to hold
special "help" sessions or provide supplemental learning
modules. The desktop training environment can handle different
sizes of training groups even if they are in assorted
geographical areas.
Seating Arrangements Seating arrangements at the training site
should be based on an understanding of the desired type of
trainee interaction and trainee-trainer interaction.60 Figure 4.4
shows several types of seating arrangements.
Fan-type seating is conducive to allowing trainees to see from
any point in the room. Trainees can easily switch from listening
to a presentation to practicing in groups, and trainees can
communicate easily with everyone in the room. Fan-type seating
is effective for training that includes trainees working in groups
and teams to analyze problems and synthesize information.
If the training primarily involves knowledge acquisition, with

lecture and audiovisual presentation being the primary training
method used, traditional classroom-type seating is appropriate.
Traditional classroom instruction allows for trainee interaction
with the trainer but makes it difficult for trainees to work in
teams (particularly if the seats are not movable to other
locations in the room).
If training emphasizes total-group discussion with limited
presentation and no small-group interaction, a conference-type
arrangement may be most effective. If the training requires both
presentation and total-group instruction, the horseshoe
arrangement is useful.
Choosing Trainers
Selecting professional trainers or consultants is one obvious
possibility for companies. Trainers, whether from inside or
outside the company, should have expertise in the topic and
experience in training.61 Train-the-trainer programs are
necessary for managers, employees, and "experts" Who may
have content knowledge but need to improve presentation and
communications skills, gain an understanding of the key
components of the learning process (e.g., feedback, practice), or
learn to develop lesson plans. This may involve having
employees and managers earn a certificate that verifies they
have the skills needed to be effective trainers. To increase their
chances of success in their first courses, new trainers should be
observed and should receive coaching and feedback from more
experienced trainers. When companies use in-house experts for
training, it is important to
FIGURE 4.4
Examples of
Seating
Arrangements
Source: Based on P. H. Margolis and C. R. Bell, Managing the
Learning Process (Minneapolis, MN: Lakewood Publications,

1984).
Fan-Type Seating
o o
O O
o
o o
o o
o o
o oo oo o
Classroom-Type Seating
n
1 1
P t t f c t t
1 1

Horseshoe ArrangementO O
O O
0
cN—/o o
Conference-Type Seating
emphasize that these experts convey training content in as
concrete a manner as possible (e.g., use examples), especially if
the audience is unfamilar with the content. Experts may have a
tendency to use more abstract and advanced concepts that may
confuse trainees.62
Using managers and employees as trainers may help increase
the perceived meaning-fulness of the training content. Because
they understand the company's business, employee and manager
trainers tend to make the training content more directly
applicable to the trainees' work. Also, use of managers and
employees can help increase their support for learning and
reduce the company's dependency on expensive outside
consultants. Serving as trainers can be rewarding for employees
and managers if they are recognized by the company or if the
training experience is linked to their personal development
plans.
For example, when MasterCard became a public corporation it
staged the largest training event in the history of the

company.63 The training event included a series of four and
one-half hour seminars in 36 cities involving most of the
employees within a three-week time period. The seminars
involved using learning maps to help employees understand the
competitive marketplace that the company was entering, how
MasterCard makes money, and MasterCard's business strategy
and the competencies and actions needed to support the
strategy. To ensure that all employees would be involved in the
training sessions, the seminars were planned so that no more
than 10 employees were seated at each table with a learning
O

; -;ss, employee licable to the r support for ants. Serving piized
by the : plans, rgest training four and

TABLE 4.13
Matching Training Rooms with Learning Requirements
Source: Based on "Workplace Issues: One in a Series. Learning
Environments for the Information Age," available from the
Steelcase Web site, www.steelcase. com (March 1,2006).
map. Each table required a facilitator who understood the
training content and the instructor's guide and was skilled at
facilitating group processes such as dealing with talkative
trainees. This instructional strategy required more than 200
trainers. The trainers (HR professionals) participated in a
simulated seminar that showed them how the training would
work and how to perform their required duties. The trainers
needed to be comfortable with facilitation and handling groups.
They also learned how to teach the table coach's role to local
managers in the same way it was taught to them: by reviewing
the actual training experience. Follow-up online sessions and
Web sites were also developed for the trainers to review and
prepare for the seminars. The Web sites included planning
checklists, sign-up sheets, people to call for help, and sneak
previews of the video presentations to be given by the CEO.
At Alltell, a wireless communications company, new trainers
take a series of classes to learn what they need to know and
do.64 They can also work toward a higher level senior trainer
certification. In the senior trainer program, participants attend
training either at the company or through a vendor and their

performance is evaluated. For example, at the end of call center
training, the trainer is evaluated in two ways. First, a training
manager observes the course and evaluates the new trainer's
instructional skills. Second, the new trainer is evaluated based
on the number of trainees who pass the test, certifying they
have the skills needed to work in a call center.
How Trainers Can Make the Training Site and Instruction
Conducive to Learning
As a trainer, you can take several steps to make the room and
instruction conducive to learning.65
Creating a Learning Setting
For Learning that Requires:
High Collaboration, Low Self-Direction
High Collaboration, High Self-Direction
Before choosing a training room, consider how the trainees are
expected to learn. That is, determine the extent to which
trainees decide when, where, and how they will learn (self-
direction) and whether learning will occur by interactions with
others (collaboration).66 Table 4.13 describes the types of
training rooms that are appropriate for the amount of self-
direction and collaboration necessary for learning. For example,
a classroom with easy-to-move furniture supports high
collaboration but low self-direction; this classroom can be used
for lectures, presentations, discussions, and small groups. A
distance learning room
Suggested Training Rooms
Classroom with breakout rooms
Lecture hall with breakout rooms
Breakout rooms
Project room
Low Collaboration, Low Self-Direction
Conference room
Classroom
Computer classroom Lecture hall

Low Collaboration, High Self-Direction
Distance learning room Media lab Computer lab
Chapter 4 Learning: Theories and Program Design169
that includes computers, cameras, and data equipment supports
learning that requires low collaboration but high self-direction.
Self-directed learning that requires little collaboration is best
suited for labs equipped with computers and software that
supports online learning, computer-based training, or software
instruction. Of course, a dedicated training space may not be
necessary for these learning requirements because trainees can
work from their own personal computer at home or at work. The
advantages and disadvantages of online learning are discussed
in Chapter 8, but be aware that employees may not like the lack
of face-to-face collaboration that occurs in online learning
programs.
Think about the physical requirements of the training room. Do
the trainees need to be able to concentrate and write? Do they
need to be able to see detailed visuals? Choose a room large
enough to meet your purpose, not just to accommodate a certain
number of trainees. Avoid putting 25 people in a room that can
seat 250. A small number of trainees in a large room makes it
impersonal and leaves people feeling insignificant. Consider the
room design well in advance of the session and work with the
training site coordinator to design a setting that meets your
learning needs.
Preparation
You need to know your content very well. Use mental and
physical rehearsals to help build confidence and to evaluate the
pace and timing of material. Observe master trainers to get new
ideas. Design the training from the audience's perspective—ask
"So what?" about everything you plan to do. If you are using
computers, CD-ROMs, the Internet, distance learning, or other
technologies, make sure you know how to work the equipment
and have backup materials in case the technology fails. Make

sure your visuals are available in at least two formats (e.g.,
PowerPoint slides and overheads). Arrive at the training room at
least 15 minutes early to make sure the room is set up correctly,
materials are available, and technology is functioning. Greet the
trainees as they enter the room.
Classroom Management
Monitor the room for extra chairs, overflowing trash cans, and
piles of materials left over from previous training sessions. A
messy, disorganized, uninviting training room creates learning
distractions. Give trainees frequent breaks so they can leave the
room and return ready to learn.
Interacting with Trainees
You as a trainer carry the responsibility for the trainees'
learning experience. You need to communicate the topics that
will be covered, the learning approach that will be used, and the
expectations for trainees. You need to be dramatic to draw
attention to important points. Research suggests that trainees
have the best recall of training content when the trainer is
enthusiastic and avoids vocal distractions (e.g., use of "er" and
"um").67 Also, you should use a relaxed style and make learners
comfortable.68 As a trainer, you should recognize that your
expectations for trainees' learning and your stereotypes can
result in learners confirming those expectations (i.e., a self-
fulfilling prophecy).69 Negative expectations held by
instructors can lead to learners' negative evaluation of the
training and the trainer.70
How you should engage trainees is based on both the size of the
room and the number of trainees. The larger the room, the more
your gestures and movements must be exaggerated to get the
audience's attention. To create intimacy with the training group,
you must move close to them. Standing in the front of the room
is a way to establish authority. One

.

hat requires low little collabora-supports online dicated training
inees can work i disadvantages nay not like the
nees need to be uals? Choose a tain number of iber of trainees t.
Consider the coordinator to
Is to help build trainers to get what?" about ernet, distance ment
and have available in at ining room at available, and
:rials left over room creates )m and return
!. You need to
be used, and ortant points.
the trainer is ), you should ecognize that earners con-ctations
held
trainer.70 i the number
be exagger-ip, you must ithority. One

TABLE 4.14
Examples of How to Get Trainees Involved
Source: Based on J. Curtis, "Engage Me, Please!" T+ D
(November 2008): 68-73.
of the best ways to gain trainees' attention is to facilitate
discussion from different places in the room. Strive to lead the
instruction but focus on the trainees. Help trainees develop their

own answers, apply tools and techniques, and use reference
materials to reach solutions that are effective in training and on
the job. Use questions that lead trainees to answers or points
you want to make. Continually strive for interaction with
trainees— trainees may have more real-life experiences,
exposure to, or applications related to training.topics than you
do. Create a training environment where trainees can learn from
each other. Listen to trainees, summarize learning points, and
provide feedback. Table 4.14 provides examples of how to get
trainees involved in a training session.
Dealing with Disruptive Trainees
How can you deal with employees who don't want to be trained
despite being informed in advance of the course and how it
relates to the business?71 First, take charge of the session
immediately, communicate your credentials, and in a friendly
but assertive way tell employees why the training is important
and how it will help them. Then let them vent their frustrations.
Useful methods for this activity are to have trainees describe
what they would be doing if they were not in the program, have
trainees draw pictures of how the person next to them feels
about attending the training, or have trainees break into groups
and then ask some groups to make a list of the top 10 reasons
not to be in the class and the other groups to list 10 reasons to
be in the class. Reassemble the class and discuss first the
reasons not to be in the class, and then end with the reasons
why the trainees should be in the class. For trainees who
disrupt, sleep through, or constantly interrupt the training
sessions, consider using activities that get trainees moving,
engaged, and energized.
Managing Group Dynamics
To ensure an even distribution of knowledge or expertise in
groups, ask trainees to indicate whether they consider
themselves novices, experienced, or experts on a topic. Arrange
the groups so that they contain a mix of novice, experienced,
and expert trainees. Group dynamics can be changed by
changing learners' positions in the room. Pay attention to group

dynamics by wandering through the room and noticing which
groups are frustrated or stalled, who is withdrawn, and who is
dominating the group. Your role is to make sure that everyone
in a group has an opportunity to contribute. Seating
arrangements such as rectangular tables often give trainees
authority based on where they are seated. For example, the end
of a rectangular table is the position of authority. Putting a
quiet person in the "power seat" creates an opportunity for that
person to assume a leadership role within the group.
· Prepare and distribute content-related, open-ended questions
to be discussed in breakout groups.
· Use creative activities or games that relate to the training
content.
· Use assessment or measures that allow the trainees to learn
about themselves and each other.
· Incorporate role-playing.
· Conclude the training session by asking trainees either
individually or in teams from the same company or work group
to consider the following question: "As a result of this session,
what do you plan to start, stop, or continue doing? On what
topic would you like to have more information?"
Chapter 4 Naming: Theories and Program Design 163
Chapter 4 Naming: Theories and Program Design 163
(fewer than 10 words) apology, only after the customer has
stopped talking [criteria] and no matter how upset the customer
is [conditions]." Table 4.8 shows the characteristics of good
training objectives.
Employees Need Meaningful Training Content
Employees are most likely to learn when the training is linked
to their current job experiences and tasks—that is, when it is
meaningful to them.34 To enhance the meaningfulness of

training content, the message should be presented using
concepts, terms, and examples familiar to trainees. Also, the
training context should mirror the work environment. The
training context refers to the physical, intellectual, and
emotional environment in which training occurs. For example,
in a retail salesperson customer-service program, the
meaningfulness of the material will be increased by using
scenarios of unhappy customers actually encountered by
salespersons in stores. Some useful techniques for convincing
trainees that the training program content is meaningful
include:35
· Telling stories about others' success in applying training
content, especially former trainees.
· Showing how training relates to company goals and strategy.
· Showing how trainees can use training content ideas at work.
· Discussing examples or cases that remind trainees of the good
and poor work they have seen.
· Repeating the application of ideas in different contexts.
· Presenting evidence of the effectiveness of knowledge, skills,
and behaviors.
· Showing how the conditions that trainees face in training are
similar to those on the job.
· Providing practice or application activities that can be used on
the job.
· Providing hard copies or electronic access to well-organized
materials so trainees can refer to them on the job or use them to
teach others.
· Allowing trainees to choose their practice strategy and how
they want training content presented (e.g., verbally, visually,
problem-based, a combination of approaches).
Employees Need Opportunities to Practice
Practice refers to the physical or mental rehearsal of a task,
knowledge, or skill to achieve proficiency in performing the
task or skill or demonstrating the knowledge. Practice involves
having the employee demonstrate the learned capability (e.g.,
cognitive strategy,

TABLE 4.8
Characteristics of Good Training Objectives
· Provide a clear idea of what the trainee is expected to be able
to do at the end of training.
· Include standards of performance that can be measured or
evaluated.
· State the specific resources (e.g., tools, equipment) that the
trainee needs to perform the action or behavior specified.
· Describe the conditions under which performance of the
objective is expected to occur (e.g., the physical work
environment, such as at night or in high temperatures; mental
stresses, such as angry customers; equipment failure, such as
malfunctioning computer equipment).
·
verbal information) emphasized in the training objectives under
conditions and performance standards specified by the
objectives. For practice to be effective, it needs to actively
involve the trainee, include overlearning (repeated practice),
take the appropriate amount of time, and include the appropriate
unit of learning (amount of material). Practice also needs to be
relevant to the training objectives. It is best to include a
combination of examples and practice rather than all practice.36
This helps to avoid overloading trainees' memory so they can
engage in the cognitive processes needed for learning to occur
(selecting, organizing, and integrating content). Viewing

examples helps learners develop a new mental model of skills
which they can then use in practice. Some examples of ways to
practice include case studies, simulations, role plays, games,
and oral and written questions.
Pre-practice Conditions Trainers need to focus not just on
training content but also on how to enable trainees to process
information in a way that will facilitate learning and the use of
training on the job. There are several steps trainers can take
within the training course prior to practice to enhance trainees'
motivation to learn and facilitate retention of training content.
Before practice, trainers can37
1. Provide information about the process or strategy that will
result in the greatest learning. For example, let trainees in a
customer service class know about the types of calls they will
receive (irate customer, request for information on a product,
challenge of a bill), how to recognize such calls, and how to
complete the calls.
2. Encourage trainees to develop a strategy (metacognition) to
reflect on their own learning process. Metacognition refers to
individual control over one's thinking. Two ways that
individuals engage in metacognition are monitoring and
control.38 Monitoring includes identifying the problem or task,
evaluating one's own learning progress, and predicting what will
occur as a result of learning. Control includes identifying the
specific steps for completing a task or solving a problem,
deciding how quickly or how much attention to devote to the
task, and deciding how to prioritize learning. Trainees who
engage in metacognition ask themselves questions such as, Why
am I choosing this type of action? Do I understand the
relationship between this material and my job? What is the next
step in the task? Metacognition helps trainees monitor learning
and decide what content needs more energy and attention.
3. Provide advance organizers—outlines, texts, diagrams, and
graphs that help trainees organize the information that will be
presented and practiced.
4. Help trainees set challenging mastery or learning goals.

5. Create realistic expectations for the trainees by
communicating what will occur in training.
6. When training employees in teams, communicate performance
expectations and clarify roles and responsibilities of team
members.
Practice Involves Experience Learning will not occur if
employees practice only by talking about what they are
expected to do. For example, using the objective for the
customer service course previously discussed, practice would
involve having trainees participate in role playing with unhappy
customers (customers upset with poor service, poor
merchandise, or unsatisfactory exchange policies). Training
should involve an active learning approach in which trainees
must explore and experiment to determine the rules, principles,
and strategies for effective performance.39 Trainees need to
continue to practice
even if they have been able to perform the objective several
times (overlearning). Overlearning helps the trainee become
more comfortable using new knowledge and skills and increases
the length of time the trainee will retain the knowledge, skill, or
behavior.
Conventional wisdom is that we all learn the most from our
errors. However, most people feel that errors are frustrating and
lead to anger and despair. Research suggests that from a
training perspective, errors can be useful.40 Error management
training refers to giving trainees opportunities to make errors
during training. In error management training, trainees are
instructed that errors can help learning, and they are encouraged
to make errors and learn from them. Trainees may actually
commit more errors and may take longer to complete training
that incorporates error management training. However, error
management training helps improve employee performance on
the job (a concept known as transfer of training, which is

discussed in Chapter 5).
Error management training is effective because it provides the
opportunity for trainees to engage in metacognition, that is, to
plan how to use training content, to monitor use of training
content, and to evaluate how training content was used. This
results in a deeper level of cognitive processing, leading to
better memory and recall of training. Trainers should consider
using error management training in the training program along
with traditional approaches by giving trainees the opportunity to
make errors when they work alone on difficult problems and
tasks while encouraging them to use errors as a way to learn.
It is important to note that allowing trainees simply to make
errors does not help learning. For errors to have a positive
influence on learning, trainees need to be taught to use errors as
a chance to learn. Error management training may be
particularly useful whenever the training content to be learned
cannot be completely covered during a training session. As a
result, trainees have to discover on their own what to do when
confronted with new tasks or problems.
Massed versus Spaced Practice The frequency of practice has
been shown to influence learning, depending on the type of task
being trained.41 Massed practice conditions are those in which
individuals practice a task continuously without rest. Massed
practice also involves having trainees complete practice
exercises at one time within a lesson or class versus distributing
the exercises within the lesson. In spaced practice conditions,
individuals are given rest intervals within the practice session.
Spaced practice is superior to massed practice. However, the
effectiveness of massed versus spaced practice varies by the
characteristics of the task. Task characteristics include overall
task complexity, mental requirements, and physical
requirements. Overall task complexity refers to the degree to
which a task requires a number of distinct behaviors, the
number of choices involved in performing the task, and the
degree of uncertainty in performing the task. Mental
requirements refers to the degree to which the task requires the

subject to use or demonstrate mental skills or cognitive skills or
abilities to perform the task. Physical requirements refers to the
degree to which the task requires the person to use or
demonstrate physical skills and abilities to perform and
complete the task. Table 4.9 shows how tasks can differ.
For more complex tasks (including those that are representative
of training settings such as Web-based instruction, lecture, and
distance learning), relatively long rest periods appear to be
beneficial for task learning.
After practice, trainees need specific feedback to enhance
learning. This includes feedback from the task or job itself,
trainers, managers, and peers.
Mental Overall Requirements Complexity
Low Low
Physical Requirements
High Low
TABLE 4.9 Mental and Physical Requirements and Overall
Complexity for Tasks
Tasks
High
Average
High High
Low High
High High
Rotary pursuit, typing, ball toss, ladder climb, peg reversal,
bilateral transfer, crank turning Free recall task, video games,
foreign language, slide bar task, voice recognition, classroom
lecture, sound localization, word processing, stoop task, verbal
discrimination, maze learning, connecting numbers, upside
down alphabet printing, distance learning, Web training

Gymnastic skills, balancing task Air traffic controller
simulation, milk pasteurization simulation, airplane control
simulation, hand movement memorization, puzzle box task,
music memorization and performance
Source: J. Donovan and D. Radosevich, "A Meta-analytic
Review of the Distribution of Practice Effect: Now You See It,
Now You Don't," Journal of Applied Psychology 84 (1999):795-
805.
Whole versus Part Practice A final issue related to practice is
how much of the training should be practiced at one time. One
option is that all tasks or objectives should be practiced at the
same time (whole practice). Another option is that an objective
or task should be practiced individually as soon as each is
introduced in the training program (part practice). It is probably
best to employ both whole and part practice in a training
session. Trainees should have the opportunity to practice
individual skills or behaviors. If the skills or behaviors
introduced in training are related to one another, the trainee
should demonstrate all of them in a practice session after they
have been practiced individually.
For example, one objective of the customer service training for
retail salespeople is learning how to deal with an unhappy
customer. Salespeople are likely to have to learn three key
behaviors: (1) greeting disgruntled customers, (2) understanding
their complaints, and then (3) identifying and taking appropriate
action. Practice sessions should be held for each of the three
behaviors (part practice). Then another practice session should
be held so that trainees can practice all three skills together
(whole practice). If trainees are only given the opportunity to
practice the behaviors individually, it is unlikely that they will
be able to deal with an unhappy customer.
Effective Practice Conditions For practice to be relevant to the
training objectives, several conditions must be met.42 Practice
must involve the actions emphasized in the training objectives,
be completed under the conditions specified in the training

objectives, help trainees perform to meet the criteria or standard
that was set, provide some means to evaluate the extent to
which trainees' performance meets the standards, and allow
trainees to correct their mistakes.
Practice must be related to the training objectives. The trainer
should identify what trainees will be doing when practicing the
objectives (performance), the criteria for attainment of the
objective, and the conditions under which they may perform.
These conditions should be present in the practice session.
Next, the trainer needs to consider the adequacy of the trainees'
performance. That is, how will trainees know whether their
performance
meets performance standards? Will they see a model of desired
performance? Will they be provided with a checklist or
description of desired performance? Can the trainees decide if
their performance meets standards, or will the trainer or a piece
of equipment compare their performance with standards?
The trainer must also decide—if trainees' performance does not
meet standards— whether trainees will be able to understand
what is wrong and how to fix it. That is, trainers need to
consider whether trainees will be able to diagnose their
performance and take corrective action or if they will need help
from the trainer or a fellow trainee.
Employees Need to Commit Training Content to Memory
Memory works by processing stimuli we perceive through our
senses into short-term memory. If the information is determined
to be "important," it moves to long-term memory, where new
interconnections are made between neurons or electrical
connections in the brain. There are several ways that trainers
can help employees store knowledge, skills, behavior, and other
training in long-term memory.43 One way is to make trainees
aware of how they are creating, processing, and accessing
memory. It is important for trainees to understand how they

learn. A presentation of learning styles (discussed earlier in this
chapter) can be a useful way to determine how trainees prefer to
learn.
To create long-term memory, training programs must be explicit
on content and elaborate on details. There are several ways to
create long-term memory. One approach trainers use is to create
a concept map to show relationships among ideas. Another is to
use multiple forms of review including writing, drawings, and
role plays to access memory through multiple methods.
Teaching key words, a procedure, or a sequence, or providing a
visual image gives trainees another way to retrieve information.
Reminding trainees of knowledge, behavior, and skills that they
already know that are relevant to the current training content
creates a link to long-term memory that provides a framework
for recalling the new training content. External retrieval cues
can also be useful. Consider a time when you misplaced your
keys or wallet. In trying to remember, we often review all the
information we can recall that was close in time to the event or
preceded the loss. We often go to the place where we were when
we last saw the item because the environment can provide cues
that aid in recall.
Research suggests that no more than four or five items can be
attended to at one time. If a lengthy process or procedure is to
be taught, instruction needs to be delivered in relatively small
chunks or short sessions in order to not exceed memory
limits.44 Long-term memory is also enhanced by going beyond
one-trial learning. That is, once trainees correctly demonstrate a
behavior or skill or correctly recall knowledge, it is often
assumed that they have learned it, but this is not always true.
Making trainees review and practice over multiple days
(overlearning) can help them retain information in long-term
memory. Overlearning also helps to automize a task.
Automatization refers to making performance of a task, recall of
knowledge, or demonstration of a skill so automatic that it
requires little thought or attention. Automatization also helps
reduce memory demands. The more that automatization occurs,

the more that memory is freed up to concentrate on other
learning and thinking. The more active a trainee is in rehearsal
and practice, the greater the amount of information retained in
long-term memory and the less memory decay occurs over time.
Another way to avoid overwhelming trainees with complex
material is to give them pre-training work that can be completed
online or using workbooks.45 For example, trainees can become
familiar with the "basics" such as names, definitions, principles,
and characteristics
of components before they are trained in how the principles are
applied (e.g., dealing with angry customers) or how a process
works (e.g., testing for pathogens in a blood sample, changing a
car's water pump).
Employees Need Feedback
Feedback is information about how well people are meeting the
training objectives. To be effective, feedback should focus on
specific behaviors and be provided as soon as possible afterthe
trainees' behavior.46 Also, positive trainee behavior should be
verbally praised or reinforced. Videotape is a powerful tool for
giving feedback. Trainers should view the videotape with
trainees, provide specific information about how behaviors need
to be modified, and praise trainee behaviors that meet
objectives. Feedback can also come from tests and quizzes, on-
the-job observation, performance data, a mentor or coach,
written communications, or interpersonal interactions.
The specificity of the level of feedback provided to trainees
needs to vary if trainees are expected to understand what leads
to poor performance as well as good performance.47 For
example, employees may need to learn how to respond when
equipment is malfunctioning as well as when it is working
properly; therefore, feedback provided during training should
not be so specific that it leads only to employee knowledge
about equipment that is working properly. Less specific

feedback can cause trainees to make errors that lead to
equipment problems, providing trainees with opportunities to
learn which behaviors lead to equipment problems and how to
fix those problems. Difficulties encountered during practice as a
result of errors or reduced frequency of feedback can help
trainees engage more in exploration and information processing
to identify correct responses.
Employees Learn through Observation, Experience, and Social
Interaction
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, one way employees learn is
through observing and imitating the actions of models. For the
model to be effective, the desired behaviors or skills need to be
clearly specified and the model should have characteristics
(e.g., age or position) similar to the target audience.48 After
observing the model, trainees should have the opportunity in
practice sessions to reproduce the skills or behavior shown by
the model. According to adult learning theory, employees also
learn best if they learn by doing 49 This involves giving
employees hands-on experiences or putting them with more
experienced employees and providing them with the tools and
materials needed to manage their knowledge gaps.
Learning also occurs through interacting with other trainees in
small groups during the training session as well as back at
work. By working in small groups, trainees can obtain diverse
perspectives on problems and issues, perspectives they would
never hear if they learned alone. Problem-based learning may be
useful for stimulating and holding trainees' attention.50 In
problem-based learning, trainees are divided into small groups.
(Action learning, a type of problem-based learning, will be
discussed in Chapter 7.) The groups are presented with a
problem such as a real problem the company is facing or a case
study. In each group, trainees are asked to identify the problem
and to identify what they know and do not know (learning
issues). Each group has to decide how it will better understand
the learning issues. Part of the training program is designed to
allow trainees to access the Web, experts in the field, and

company records and documents to solve the learning issues.
After trainees gather information, they discuss what they have
learned and how to use that
information to solve the problem. Table 4.10 shows the types of
situations, with examples, in which learning through
observation, experience, and interacting with others may be
most valuable.
Communities of practice refers to groups of employees who
work together, learn from each other, and develop a common
understanding of how to get work accomplished.51 The idea of
communities of practice suggests that learning occurs on the job
as a result of social interaction. Every company has naturally
occurring communities of practice that arise as a result of
relationships employees develop to accomplish work and as a
result of the design of the work environment. For example, at
Siemens Power Transmission in Wendell, North Carolina,
managers were wondering how to stop employees from
gathering in the employee cafeteria for informal discussions.52
But that was before the managers discovered that the informal
discussions actually encouraged learning. In the discussions,
employees were developing problem-solving strategies, sharing
product and procedural information, and providing career
counseling to each other. Now Siemens is placing pads of paper
and overhead projectors in the lunchroom as aids for informal
meetings. Managers who were previously focused on keeping
workers on the job are now encouraging employees by
providing essential tools and information and giving employees
the freedom to meet.
Communities of practice also take the form of discussion
boards, list servers, or other forms of computer-mediated
communication in which employees communicate electronically.
In doing so, each employee's knowledge can be accessed in a
relatively quick manner. It is as if employees are having a
conversation with a group of experts. Wyeth Pharmaceuticals
has 11 communities of practice (COP) focusing on maintenance,

shop floor excellence.53 The COP's make it easy for employees
to share best practices, learn from one another, and improve
business processes. The maintenance function used its COP to
deliver more than 600 hours of training on new technology and
maintenance processes. This has resulted in more reliable
equipment and higher productivity, such as increasing
equipment use in one manufacturing plant from 72 to 92
percent.
Despite the benefits of improved communication, a drawback to
these communities is that participation is often voluntary, so
some employees may not share their knowledge unless the
organizational culture supports participation. That is, employees
may be reluctant to participate without an incentive or may be
fearful that if they share their knowledge with others, they will
give away their personal advantage in salary and promotion
TABLE 4.10 Situations, Skills, and Knowledge Best Learned
through Observation, Experience, and Interacting with Others
Situations/Knowledge Examples
Interpersonal SkillsNegotiating a merger, handling a problem
employee
Personal Knowledge Based onClosing a sale, creating a new
candy bar, reducing
Experiencetension between employees
Context-Specific KnowledgeManaging in an international
location, handling union
grievances, manufacturing with special equipment
Uncertainty or New SituationsMarketing a new product or
service, using a new
technology for service or manufacturing
Source: Based on D. Leonard and W. Swap, "Deep Smarts,"
Harvard Business Review (September 2004): 88-97.
decisions.54 (The role of organizational culture in learning is
discussed in Chapter 5.) Another potential drawback is
information overload. Employees may receive so much

information that they fail to process it. This may cause them to
withdraw from the community of practice.
Employees Need the Training Program to Be Properly
Coordinated and Arranged
Training coordination is one of several aspects of training
administration. Training administration refers to coordinating
activities before, during, and after the program.55 Training
administration involves:
1. Communicating courses and programs to employees.
2. Enrolling employees in courses and programs.
3. Preparing and processing any pretraining materials such as
readings or tests.
4. Preparing materials that will be used in instruction (e.g.,
copies of overheads, cases).
5. Arranging for the training facility and room.
6. Testing equipment that will be used in instruction.
7. Having backup equipment (e.g., paper copy of slides, an extra
overhead projector bulb) should equipment fail.
8. Providing support during instruction.
9. Distributing evaluation materials (e.g., tests, reaction
measures, surveys).
10. Facilitating communications between trainer and trainees
during and after training (e.g., coordinating exchange of e-mail
addresses).
11. Recording course completion in the trainees' training
records or personnel files.
Good coordination ensures that trainees are not distracted by
events (such as an uncomfortable room or poorly organized
materials) that could interfere with learning. Activities before
the program include communicating to trainees the purpose of
the program, the place it will be held, the name of a person to
contact if they have questions, and any preprogram work they
are supposed to complete. Books, speakers, handouts, and
videotapes need to be prepared. Any necessary arrangements to
secure rooms and equipment (such as DVD players) should be

made. The physical arrangement of the training room should
complement the training technique. For example, it would be
difficult for a team-building session to be effective if the seats
could not be moved for group activities. If visual aids will be
used, all trainees should be able to see them. Make sure that the
room is physically comfortable with adequate lighting and
ventilation. Trainees should be informed of starting and
finishing times, break times, and location of bathrooms.
Minimize distractions such as phone messages; request that
trainees turn off cell phones and pagers. If trainees will be
asked to evaluate the program or take tests to determine what
they have learned, allot time for this activity at the end of the
program. Following the program, any credits or recording of the
names of trainees who completed the program should be done.
Handouts and other training materials should be stored or
returned to the consultant. The end of the program is also a
good time to consider how the program could be improved if it
will be offered again. Practical issues in selecting and preparing
a training site and designing a program are discussed later in the
chapter.
Learning: Theories and Program Design
Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to jm
1. Discuss the five types of learner out-
comes.^M^ jjgr
2. Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional
design.
3. Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training

program.
4. Describe how learners receive, process, store, retrieve, and
act upon information.
5. Discuss the internal conditions (within the learner) and
external conditions (learning environment) necessary for the
trainee to learn each type of capability.
6. Be able to choose and prepare a training site.
7. Explain the four components of program design: design
document template, course or lesson plan, and course or lesson
plan overview.
A Positive Learning Environment Energizes Training!
Boring lectures, lack of meaningful content in e-learning, and
on-the-job training that doesn't give employees the opportunity
to practice and receive feedback—all of these methods
demotivate trainees and make it difficult for them to learn.
However, many companies are using innovative instructional
methods to make training more interesting and to help trainees
learn.
ArchivesOne, a records management company, encourages
employees to learn outside the classroom. The company has
started a book club in which two to three business books are
read by employees who then meet in six-person groups for half-
hour sessions to discuss the books. The books provided to
employees are intended to reinforce company values and
customer service. The book discussions are led by general
managers and regional vice-presidents who are provided with

facilitator guides that help them respond to questions about
concepts in the books. The facilitators also challenge the
employees to consider how they can apply the concepts and
ideas in the books to improve ArchivesOne.
138
The training offered to truck technicians at ArvinMeritor was
revised to get learners more involved. Technicians complete
online prework that helps them learn about rear drive axle
components, operations, and preventative maintenance. Next,
in-person class time is used for hands-on work such as
disassembling and reassembling drive axle parts and making
adjustments to drive axles. After training, learners complete

post-work which reviews the concepts covered in the hands-on
sessions. Every four to six months, learners are asked to go
online to practice using simulation technology that allows them
to select tools from their tool box to measure or adjust or
otherwise work with drive axle components using their
computer mouse.
The Toshiba America Group specializes in advanced electronics
and is a recognized leader in products that enhance the home,
the office, and industry and health care environments. Toshiba
markets and manufactures information and communication
systems, electronic components, heavy electrical apparatus,
consumer products, and medical diagnostic imaging equipment.
At Toshiba America Business
Solution
s in Irvine, California, a mobile flexible training program was
developed to train new dealers who had no experience with the
company's products. Training To Go is a blended learning
approach with work-based and classroom learning sessions.
Delivering the information in multiple ways engages the
learners and aids in retention.
Colorado Springs Utilities, a community-owned utility, provides
natural gas, water, and electric services to more than 600,000
customers. All the company executives issue public statements
in support of learning, participate in learning events as
instructors or speakers, and include learning objectives as part
of their performance goals. Every training program begins with

a brainstorming session to identify themes and activities; this
beginning engages trainees and helps them enjoy training and
retain more of what they have learned. In a safety training class,
students experience a simulated emergency and have to respond
using skills they have learned along with their knowledge of an
evacuation plan. The trainees perform different roles and
activities in response to a power shutdown. Afterward, the
trainer critiques their performance, and trainees discuss what
they have learned (or still need to learn). Trainees complete a
written exam and review to ensure their knowledge retention.
Source: Based on J. Salopek, "Toshiba America Business

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