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Copyright 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall. 7-1
Chapter 7
Quality and Performance
NOTES for the Instructor:
The study projects and the cases are posed as challenging assignments to students.
This study guide elaborates all the material needed to teach those study guides
and cases. The study projects can be assigned in two different ways:
a. If you want to evaluate the ability of the students to form assumptions,
research for materials, and understand the study projects, you can ask the
students to work on the study project without any additional information.
In this case, the students should be encouraged to obtain necessary
information using the Internet.
b. If you want to provide all the information, you can provide that
information shown in the following pages to solve the study projects.
Objectives
• Manage project quality as seen by quality gurus
• Determine how performance in projects are measured
• Define cost of quality
• Implement quality planning, assurance, and control in projects
• Measure project value, project performance, and project scope
Cases
• Information technology Case: SAP Project at NIBCO, Inc.
• Healthcare IT Case: Memorial Hospital of South Bend: Computerized Physician
Order Entry Project
• Financial Services IT Case: Syndicated Community Bank: Core Banking Systems
Replacement Project
• General Construction Case: Craig Constructions, Inc.: A Home Improvement
Project
Review Questions
1. Performance of a project can be defined as the execution or accomplishment of a
project to fulfill customer requirements in accordance with the project scope.

2. Project value is a relative worth or importance that is monetary in nature.
3. Quality is defined as conformance to requirements. Deming defined quality as a
predictable degree of uniformity and dependability at low cost suitable to the
market. Juran defined quality as something that satisfies customer needs. Project
quality is the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics of a project fulfill
project scope.
4. Some of the main differences are in the areas of responsibility of senior
management, SPC, and teamwork.
5. The major goal of quality management is to prevent defects. Quality management
eliminates the source of defects so that defect detection and rework do not happen
often during projects. Quality management complements project management,
which means that components of quality management including customer
satisfaction, defect prevention, continuous improvement, and management
responsibility to provide essential resources are important in project management.
Quality management is composed of quality planning, quality assurance, and
quality control. Quality management is more about process and is based on
problems related to processes.
6. The eight quality management principles include customer focus, leadership,
involvement of projects, process approach, systems approach, continual
improvement, decision making approach, and supplier relationships.
7. The quality model described in ISO/IEC 9126-1 addresses a framework for
software evaluation using the general characteristics of software. These are further
refined into sub-characteristics, which in turn are decomposed into attributes,
yielding a multilevel hierarchy. The characteristics in a quality model are non-
measurable quality factors and are used only to classify the sub-characteristics of
the model, which may be subjectively measured. The ISO/IEC 9126 standard
makes a distinction between internal quality and external quality and introduces
the quality in use.

8. Quality management is composed of quality planning, quality assurance, and
quality control.
9. Quality planning: The inputs for the quality planning are the scope document, the
requirements from stakeholders, the risk register, and the project schedule. By
using this input information, a project manager in cooperation with the quality
team can develop a quality plan for a project as the output.
Quality assurance: The inputs for quality assurance are quality planning, work
performance information, quality control measurements, and quality metrics. The
outputs of the process are asset updates, change requests, project management
plan updates, and project document updates.
Quality control: The inputs are quality metrics, approved change requests, and
organizational process assets. The outputs are quality control measurements,
validated changes, and updates to project management plans and other project
documents.
10. Benchmarking is a process to measure the performance of an organization and
compare that measure with other organizations in the same industry to understand
industry best practices.
11. A quality audit is a review of the quality plan to determine whether the project
activities comply with organizational and project policies, processes, and
procedures.
12. There are many tools and techniques used in quality control including:
• Cause-and-effect diagrams
• Run charts
• Scatter diagrams
• Histograms
• Pareto charts
• Six Sigma
• Process maps or flowcharts
• Control charts
• Statistical sampling
• Reviews, and
• Testing and inspection.

13. Testing is a procedure in which the system, product, or service is observed during
operation in order to determine whether it functions properly. Inspection is the
activity of examining the product, sub-components, or systems to determine if
they meet the design standards.
14. Process capability is a critical aspect of quality control and evaluates the ability of
a project process to meet or exceed the expectations or preset specifications.
15. Statistical sampling deals with the selection of a subset of a population in order to
gain knowledge about the whole population and to predict quality outcomes of the
population using statistics.
16. The three criteria are:
1. The level of precision
2. The level of confidence or risk, and
3. The level of variability in the attributes being measured.
17. There are a number of methods of quality reviews including:
• Expert reviews
• Peer reviews
• Team reviews
• Walk-through reviews
• Formal reviews
• Management reviews, and
• Process reviews.
18. Metrics are required in order to answer the following questions:
• Is the project is on track?
• Is the project manager sure about the progress of the project?
• Does the project manager understand the current status of the project,
schedule wise or cost wise?
• Can the project manager be sure of the performance of the project?
Teaching Points - Discussion Questions

1. What else may be considered for performance other than quality?
Performance measurement should consider many metrics that are listed in the chapter.
It should also consider measuring time and cost constraints and make sure that the
project is performing according to plan.
2. Do the three quality gurus preach the same message on quality?
Even though they preach the same message, there are variations to their quality
messages; See Table 7-1.
3. Quality audits have to be performed on each project.
Quality audits typically should be deployed in all projects large and small. However,
in reality it is not possible to do this because of added costs and time. Many industrial
projects, especially small projects, are not usually audited.
4. Is there one tool that may be used in all projects for quality control?
Analyzing using process maps is a very easy method that can be used in all projects
for quality control. The “as-is” process and the “to-be” process bring out the essence
of quality control in a very easy method especially in small projects.
5. Can we do without metrics when managing projects?
No; every project has to be measured against the measurements of selected metrics.
Proper metrics have to be identified and used. If metrics are not used in a project,
there is no way to know how a project is progressing and may not ensure the success
of the project.
6. There are differences between testing and inspection.
Yes; Testing helps to execute the software in order to test the functionality and
requirements while inspection analyzes the code based on a set of predefined rules.
7. Who decides which metrics are the best for a project: the project manager or
management?
Project manager should decide the metrics while management should help the project
manager by removing any obstacles in order to measure those metrics.
8. Should management be involved in quality management?
Yes; the management should provide leadership to encourage project managers to
manage the project quality.
Answers to Chapter Problems
Problem 1:
Observations

Sample
number
1 2 3 4 5
Mean Range
1 0.786 0.799 0.793 0.511 0.781 0.734 0.288
2 0.799 0.506 0.516 0.797 0.529 0.629 0.293
3 0.796 0.500 0.515 0.788 0.521 0.624 0.296
4 0.795 0.506 0.783 0.787 0.789 0.732 0.289
5 0.772 0.502 0.526 0.769 0.781 0.670 0.279
6 0.773 0.795 0.507 0.793 0.506 0.675 0.289
7 0.795 0.512 0.790 0.771 0.507 0.675 0.288
8 0.525 0.501 0.798 0.777 0.785 0.677 0.297
9 0.797 0.501 0.517 0.506 0.516 0.567 0.296
10 0.795 0.505 0.516 0.511 0.797 0.625 0.292
11 0.795 0.782 0.768 0.792 0.792 0.786 0.027
12 0.783 0.759 0.526 0.506 0.522 0.619 0.277
13 0.521 0.512 0.793 0.525 0.510 0.572 0.283
14 0.787 0.521 0.507 0.501 0.500 0.563 0.287
15 0.793 0.516 0.799 0.511 0.513 0.626 0.288
Mean 0.652 0.271
X-bar
UCL
= 0.809
use Table 7-6
LCL= 0.494
R-bar
UCL
= 0.572
use Table 7-7
LCL= 0.000

Problem 2:
0.03 defective without inspection
0.02 defective with inspection
Improvement=0.01
Cost of inspection = $0.40
Opportunity Cost of replacing the 1% improvement = $ 0.50
Therefore, inspection done be done now.

Cost of inspection = $0.80
Inspection should not be done now.
Problem 3
Cost of quality is:
CoQ = Cp + Ca + Cf
This is described as the cost of prevention plus the cost of detection plus the cost
of failures. This is not the cost of achieving quality in product and services, but
rather not achieving quality and the cost associated with failures due to the lack of
quality in the production process.
The cost of quality for Superior Buy, who is the buyer in this scenario, would
most likely be replacing or upgrading inferior computers that do not perform as
expected. If the computers were to fail due to manufacturing defects, this would
be covered under the manufacturer warranty. But if Superior Buy purchased
computers with lower performance specifications to try and save money, then the
cost of bringing them up to par if they are under performing would be the cost of
quality. The cost includes installing additional RAM, changing the processor,
installing different or new software, or may even be replacing the whole computer
with one that will perform. Superior Buy must take into account these costs for
possible upgrades or replacements when defining the specifications for their
order.
The cost of quality for Dell, who is the supplier in this scenario, would most
likely be warranty repair or replacement costs. These costs would be incurred if
defective computers were to leave the factory and end up in the hands of the
customer. These costs would start the minute the customer calls the service
number for help, and are not finished until the customer is completely satisfied
with the end result. One customer may even call multiple times with multiple
problems. Dell must integrate quality within the manufacturing process which
will increase quality, decrease defects, and ultimately reduce the cost of quality.
Problem 4:
Process Mean Standard
Deviation
Lower
Specification
Upper
Specification
1 7.0 0.1 6.9 7.9
2 4.0 0.1 4.2 4.9

3 6.6 0.1 5.4 6.5
For Process 1:
cp= (upper spec - Lower
Spec)/6σ= 1.667 Process is capable
This m
For Process 2:
Spec)/6σ= 0.972 Process not capable
For Process 3:
Spec)/6σ= 1.410 Process is capable
When the mean is centered or not situations, we can use Cp equation
as follows:
If the means of all processes are not exactly in the center:
It is lesser of the formulae: (Upper spec-Mean)/3*σ or (Mean-Lower spec)/3σ
Formula1 Formula2
Process
1 0.333 3.000 0.333
Process
2 -0.556 2.500 -0.556
Process
3 -0.256 -0.256 3.077
In this case, all processes are not capable.

The Cp should be at least equal to 1.33
Problem 5:
a. The metrics to show control over a project are scope variance hours, scope cost
increase, productivity, project cost deviation, and project progress deviation. The
variance and deviation metrics for scope, cost and progress indicates that these factors
are well defined and restrained within acceptable limitation. Meanwhile, productivity
reflects how well the individual processes are executed.
b. The metrics to show progress would be actual scope hours, productivity, and product
progress deviation. Actual scope hours provide evidence for completed tasks which
are related to the defined scope. Productivity and product progress deviation manifest
the consistency of project progress.
c. The metrics to charge a customer for changes are Scope Variance Hours, Scope Cost
Increase, Number of baseline Changes, Project Effort and Project Cost Deviation.
Number of baseline changes elicits additional requirements which have to be paid by
the customers. The project effort, project cost deviation, and scope cost increases are
used for calculating the amount of additional payment. Rescheduling of the project
should take into account the scope variance hours metric.
d. The metrics are Project Feature Enhancement Increase. This indicator measures the
efficiency of effort scheduling which should be governed to complete important
features.
e. The metrics to use to manage customer expectations are Project Merit and Project
Risk. The project merit communicates that expectations are consistently maintained
and transparent during project duration. Meanwhile, project risk conveys the plans for
securing and preserving expectations.
f. The metrics to understand how fast a team is performing tasks are Project Efficiency
and Project Effort. These metrics quantify the pace of task execution.
g. The metrics for how well a team is performing are Project Effectiveness, Productivity
and Project Effort. The three metrics are numerical presentations of quality of project
execution.
h. The metrics are removed are Removed Defects Efficiency. Removed Defects
Efficiency numerically measures defect detecting and removing capability.
i. The metrics are the Project Customer Commitment which completely evaluates
factors of customer involvement, communication, and availability.
Problem 6:
Costs Cost of
Conformance
Cost of Non-
Conformance
Cost of
Prevention
Cost of
Appraisal
Cost of
Failure
Cost of
Training
X

Business
Opportunity
Cost
X
Cost of Testing
Material
X
Cost of Quality
Planning
X
Cost of
Rework
X
Cost of
handling
Complaints
X
Cost of
explaining
Project
Deviations
X
Cost of Testing
Tools
X
Cost of
Stationary and
Printing for
Quality
X
Problem 7:
Year Revenues
0 ($22,500)
1 $51,000
2 $96,250
3 $96,250
4 $96,250
5 $96,250

Cpr+Ca $62,800
Cost of quality maint $37,000
Discount rate 10%
a
Cost of software
quality $62,800
b See Appendix D
SQNPV $201,426.86
c ROSQ 4.14
Problem 8:
See Appendix D
These are the non-conformance costs:
Csc, Suncontractor related quality prevention and appraisal
costs
Ccp, Coordination and planning-related quality prevention and appraisal
costs
Ccw, Construction and workmanship-related quality prevention and
appraisal costs
Paid to sub-contracted electricians $210,000 not applied
Paid for quality related planning costs $2,000,450 Ccp
Paid for quality coordination $340,000 Ccp
Paid for lack of good workmanship $540,000 Ccw
Paid for accident-related work $380,000 not applied
Paid for transportation of poor quality materials $6,000 Internal
failure
Paid for quality faults by sub-contracted
electricians
$80,040 Internal
failure

Paid to repair leaky plumbing $6,000 Internal
failure
Paid to locate faulty roof shingles $80,700 Ccp
Cost of construction quality = = Csc+Ccp+Ccw $2,961,150
Cost of internal failures $92,040
Total cost of Quality $3,053,190
Problem 9:
Description Cost
Quality training $4,000 Cpr
Reliability training $20,000 Cpr
Scrap $15,000 Cf
Downtime $6,000 Cf
Transportation losses $8,000 Cf
Supplies inspection $6,000 Ca
Contracted laboratory
testing
$300,000
Ca
Pilot production runs $8,000 Cpr
Reliability testing $9,560 Ca
CoQ $376,560

The cost of quality is $4,000 + $20,000 + $15,000 + $6,000 + $8,000 + $6,000 +
$300,000 + $8,000 + $9,560 = $376,560
Problem 10
Assume 8 hrs in a work day
Expected Time to process 20 days
No. of hrs in a day (assume) 8 hrs
Total Time in hours 160 hrs
Time for processing 4 days
Total applications to be
processed 1200
Defects > 20 days 150
Completed in a time period 1050
Applications with customer
issues 20 out of 150
Apps with issues processed in 11 days
Apps with issues processed in 88 hrs
Applications without issues 1180
Rework time 5 days
Rework time 40 hrs

Project Efficiency 88%
Project Effectiveness 98%
Productivity 4.84 in March
Expected Productivity 7.5 in March
Defective loans 13%
Correct loans 88%
See Appendix D
Project Quality Time 0.55
Time spent on defects 40 hrs
Defect by Time 0.16129
defect/project
time
Problem 11:
Year Discount
factor
Cost Benefits
Discounted
Costs
Discounted
Benefits
Accum.
Discounted
costs
Accum.
Discounted
Benefits
0 1.00 ($22,500.00) $22,500.00 ($22,500.00) $22,500.00 ($22,500.00) $22,500.00
1 0.91 $6,250.00 $17,500.00 $5,681.82 $15,909.09 ($16,818.18) $38,409.09
2 0.83 $6,250.00 $14,000.00 $5,165.29 $11,570.25 ($11,652.89) $49,979.34
3 0.75 $6,250.00 $11,000.00 $4,695.72 $8,264.46 ($6,957.18) $58,243.80
4 0.68 $6,250.00 $5,000.00 $4,268.83 $3,415.07 ($2,688.34) $61,658.87
5 0.62 $6,250.00 $0.00 $3,880.76 $0.00 $1,192.42 $61,658.87
Total Cash
flows $60,466.45
Initial
Investment $22,500.00

Profitability
Index 2.69 Hence, the project has positive value
Project
Value $61,250.00
Problem 12:
Weighted score
Criteria Weight A B C
A B C
Alignment to
strategy
20 3 2 2
12 8 8
Cost benefits 10 1 2 4 2 4 8
Flexibility of
products
10 1 2 3
2 4 6
Competitive
advantage
15 5 4 3
15 12 9
Time to market 20 1 2 4 4 8 16
Employee benefits 10 2 2 3 4 4 6
Sales prospects 15 4 5 3 12 15 9
100 Total 51 55 62
a. Project C
b. Project A
Study Projects
Information Systems:
For the Wireless Project the following quality metrics will be captured, tracked, and
analyzed on a continuous basis throughout the project: performance, conformance,

reliability, serviceability, and aesthetics. These metrics will be captured by the project
team and presented to the project sponsor as outlined in the quality plan (in a separate
word document).
The following tools could be employed for the different processes used to establish
quality within the Wireless Project:
• Cause and Effect Diagrams – These types of diagrams are used to identify the root
cause of a problem. These could easily be integrated into a quality process for
testing and debugging performance issues within the Wireless Project.
• Run Charts – This type of chart is used to graphically display observed data in a
time sequence. The project team could employ this type of chart to observe the
download and upload speeds of the Wireless Network over the course of a day to
see the variance of said speeds.
• Scatter Diagrams – This type of chart is used to observe the effect of two
variables in a situation. For the design of the Wireless Project, one could plot the
bandwidth against the download speed to determine how much bandwidth is
needed for the download speed required.
• Histograms – This type of chart is used to graphically represent the distribution of
data. For the Wireless Project, a histogram could be used to analyze network
performance metrics such as delay, packet loss, retransmission, and throughput.
• Pareto Charts – This type of chart contains both bars and a line graph, where
individual values are represented in descending order by bars, and the cumulative
total is represented by the line. For the Wireless Project, a histogram could be
used to analyze network performance metrics such as delay, packet loss,
retransmission, and throughput.
• Six Sigma – This statistical analysis is used to identify the number of defects in a
process, and to help reduce the defects produced to increase quality. This type of
statistical analysis may be a bit much for the Wireless Project, but it could be used
to analyze the suppliers of the equipment. The suppliers with a higher Six Sigma
level would be more likely to supply the project with quality equipment that is
less likely to fail.
• Process Maps or Flowcharts – These diagrams can be used to graphically display
any process. An example of a process map or flowchart for the Wireless Project
could be one that shows the construction, testing, and reworking (if needed) of the
wireless network. There are many different activities that go into this process, and
some must be completed before others can start. This type of chart could quickly
and easily explain this to a non-technical reader.
• Control Charts – A control chart is used to determine whether or not a process is
within control limits. For the Wireless Project this type of chart could be used to
identify bottlenecks and reduce waste if used in the scheduling of workers.

• Statistical Sampling – This type of analysis is used to gain a better knowledge of a
population of data using a smaller subset of data called a sample. This type of
sampling could be used in analyzing network performance metrics, and help to
identify the possible problem areas.
• Reviews – These are done to review a product, service, or system against quality
criteria set forth by the project team or organization. In the Wireless Project
nightly meetings with both the project team and project sponsor will be held to
review the activities of the day and to identify sub-quality items that need to be
addressed immediately.
• Testing and Inspection – This is done to promote quality in products and services.
In the Wireless Project a testing and inspection plan will be created for the
construction and implementation of the wireless network. This will ensure that the
various stages of the network are tested, and quality is established and maintained
throughout the life of the project.
Below is a table of the quality audit data for the Stafford Wireless Project. These data
points provided valuable insight into issues that need to be addressed immediately for
successful completion of the project.
Quality Audit (with arbitrary numbers)
Wireless Network Project Audit
Audit
Date
Auditor U
or
P
Non-Compliant Issues Elevated
to
Senior
Mgmt.
No of Hi-
Priority
Items
Hrs to
prepare
and
conduct
the
audit
Major Minor Closed
3/19/12 JS/PR P 0 2 0 0 0 2
3/20/12 JS/PR P 0 0 2 0 0 3
3/22/12 JS/PR U 1 1 0 1 1 2
U- Unplanned; P-Planned
Below is a testing and inspection plan for the Wireless Project. This plan will ensure
that the wireless network is tested throughout the project, and any failures or defects
are discovered and quickly addressed.

• Inspection
• Before installation, the wireless router will be inspected for damage.
• Before installation, the wireless access points will be individually
inspected for damage.
• Unit Tests
• Upon installation, the wireless router will be tested for functionality.
• Upon installation, the wireless access points will be individually tested for
functionality.
• Upon installation, the firewall will be tested for functionality.
• Upon installation, the internet services will be tested for functionality.
• Upon installation, the streaming internet services will be tested for
functionality.
• Integration Tests
• Once the individual components pass the unit tests, the wireless network
will be tested as a whole. Each piece will again be tested, but not for
individual functionality, but for interworking with the other components.
This will include the wireless network itself (router, wires, wireless access
points, firewalls), the Internet service, and the services provided through
the Internet (streaming television, streaming music, and VOIP services).
• Functional Requirements
• The wireless network as a whole will be tested end to end for
functionality. This will include the wireless network itself (router, wires,
wireless access points, firewalls), the Internet service, and the services
provided through the Internet (streaming television, streaming music, and
VOIP services).
• Performance Tests
• The network will be tested for issues such as download and upload speed,
uptime, signal strength, and bandwidth. This will include load testing, with
the estimated maximum number of users.
• The services will be tested for quality and reliability.
• Acceptance/Installation Tests

• The project sponsor and end users will test the network and services to
determine if the performance, quality, and value of the wireless network
and services are acceptable and meet the standards set forth in the project
documentation.
• The following metrics would be used to measure, track, and monitor the
progress of the Stafford Wireless with reference to project scope,
performance, and value.
• Scope – To monitor the scope of the project, the schedule (hours) of the
project participants can be used
• Performance – The wireless signal strength and upload/download speeds
are three metrics that can be used to adequately judge the performance of
the network in the project
• Value – To monitor the value that the project brings to the sponsor and end
users, the cost savings can be measured and tracked. This is the savings
which the sponsor will see by cancelling some of the now redundant
services. Also to measure value, customer satisfaction can be measured
and tracked on a daily basis.
New Product Development
a.
• Customer-focused: Understanding customers’ needs, meeting customers’
requirements and exceeding customers’ expectations
• Continual improvement: Continual improvement of the organization’s overall
performance should be a permanent objective of the organization
Quality assurance:
• Checking whether the quality is built into the project process
• Checking whether the project scope accurately reflects the needs of the customer
• Checking whether the project plan is followed
Quality control:
• Determining the metrics that will be used in this project
• Determining the audits and reviews
b.
The tools that will be employed for each of the three quality processes:
• Control charts
• Six sigma
• Statistical sampling
• Testing and inspection
c. Quality Audit (with arbitrary numbers)

Audit
Date
Auditor U
or
P
Non-Compliant Issues Elevated
to
Senior
Mgmt.
No of Hi-
Priority
Items
Hrs to
prepare
and
conduct
the
audit
Major Minor Closed
119/12 RB P 0 2 1 0 2 15
120/12 RB P 1 2 1 1 2 45
122/12 RB P 0 3 0 0 1 12
d.
• Animal testing for safety and metabolism:
Periodical testing and inspection of animals, which consists of:
Specification section
Required test
Frequency
Tested by, and
Date completed.
e.
In order to measure the track of scope, performance and value, we would use the
following metrics:
o Scope variance hours
o Project quality time, and
o Profitability Index.
Healthcare
a. Two important quality factors in this project are performance and
perceived quality. Performance in improving health care and health care
delivery is largely related to the efficiency of the health care. Perceived
quality is the belief of the patient that they are getting the care that they
need.
• The Quality Measurement and Management Project
• Quality Plan Document

1. Quality Policy & Standards: A typical quality management plan can be found
at:http://intermountainhealthcare.org/qualityandresearch/institute/Documents/
articles_qmmp.pdf; accessed on 6/20/2012
2. Project Quality Definition
The quality of this project will largely be seen as an improvement in the value
of care. The value will be increased with an infrastructure for high quality
care, reduction of inappropriate variations in indications for treatment,
reduction in inappropriate variations in care, mitigation of errors, risk adjusted
studies, improving clinical research and improving the delivery process.
3. Deliverables and Acceptance Criteria
Mission Statement – Customer focus
Operational Model – Improve delivery
4. Quality Assurance
• Quality Process analysis will be used to verify that all processes
related to the operation model are geared towards quality
improvement.
• Testing and Inspections will be conducted during quality audits
performed throughout the duration of the project.
• Project scope metrics and customer reviews will be used to determine
if the project scope remains aligned with the needs of the customer.
• Flow charts and project progress metrics will be used to ensure that the
project plan is followed.
• All third party deliverables will be thoroughly inspected and tested
upon receipt to ensure declared standards are met.
5. Project Monitoring and Control
• The metrics for project effectiveness and project merit are the most
critical for maintaining project quality because they indicate that the
value of the project remains consistent.
• All project milestones will be accompanied by a quality audit and team
reviews. Periodic customer reviews will be taken to evaluate customer
expectations and satisfaction.
• Any deviations from project plan will be documented and discussed
with customer at predetermined intervals. Quality audits and reviews
will be used to determine if project tasks are meeting all set standards.
• We would employ benchmarking to verify project planning, quality
audits to determine if quality goals and standards are met, and reviews
to gauge customer satisfaction.
Quality Auditor U Non-Compliant Issues Elevated No of Hi- Hrs to

Audit
(with
arbitrary
numbers
) Audit
Date
or
P
Major Minor Closed to
Senior
Mgmt.
Priority
Items
prepare
and
conduct
the
audit
1/19/12 SR P 2 3 4 0 1 10
1/20/12 SR P 1 2 4 0 2 10
1/22/12 SR U 0 1 2 0 0 12
1/23/12 SR P 3 0 0 0 0
INSPECTION TEST PLAN AND LOG
Inspection-Test By (All tests verified by Superintendent and/or QC Manager)
Item Specifications Section Inspections & Tests Required Frequency
1
Quality of
organization/Managem
ent
Interview executive personnel Annual
2
Quality of
ent
Examine the quality statement Annual
3
Quality of
ent
Randomly interview employees’
understanding about the quality
statement and principles
Annual
4
Quality of
ent
Survey the customer research
documents which are similar to
QFD
Annual
5
Quality of
ent
Survey quality training materials Annual

6 Quality of evaluation
Randomly interview employees’
knowledge about processes,
process variation, and data
collection
Twice per year
Review process data and
collecting methods
Twice per year
Interview executive personnel
about understanding of process
variation
Twice per year
9 Quality of service
Survey process documentation
such as swim lane, process maps
Per process
change
Evaluate data collection and
measurement
Per process
change
Evaluate change management
process and documentation
Per process
change
12 Quality of service Survey customer training plan
Per process
change
13 Value of care
Survey the analysis
documentation
Annual
14 Value of care Review process or procedure logs Annual
15 Value of care
Review the risk management plan
and documentation (risk log or
register)
Annual
16 Value of care
Study policies for employee
development programs
Annual
• Scope Variance Hours, Project Efficiency and Project Merit could be used to track
project progress in terms of scope, performance and value.
Financial Services
● Performance - Is the excellence of the transaction times, customer service
helpfulness, and customer feedback for their services in the financial instrument of
World Bank.

● Reliability- Is the extent to which the World Bank services of the financial instrument
are not likely to stop.

Quality process 1 (Planning)
Benchmarking - Identifies the best practices of other successful projects
○ By identifying the largest opportunities to improve project performance. Using key
work processes, prioritizing them and flow-charting them for analysis and
comparison of practices.
○ Determine which other projects employ superior project practices and management
that can be adopted or adapted.
○ Plan and conduct an investigation, gather data and process of benchmarking
investigation.
○ Determine the performance gap, compare best practices to current practices.
○ Decide how much the performance gap decided in the previous step will narrow or
widen in the near future.
○ Communicate the findings and acceptance and commitment from various parts of the
project.
○ Revise performance goals based on implementation of the best practices in the project
process.
○ Develop action plans, including implementation plans, measurements, assignments,
and timetables.
○ Implement the actions and monitor the progress.
○ Continue benchmarking and update work practices to stay current with ongoing
changes in other projects.
Quality process 2 (Assurance)
Quality Audits - To audit the performance of the new financial instrument, the
following steps are used:
○ Identify the best practice intended by implementing the financial instrument.
○ Identify the possible shortcomings and flaws that might occur during the
implementation or after it.
○ Provide the plan that is used to control and avoid those shortcomings and flaws.
○ Hire qualified auditors to do the auditing.
○ Provide positive assistance to the auditor to insure the desired outcomes.
○ Improve the implemented instrument by incorporating the auditing outcomes and
suggestions.

○ Store the contribution of the audit in the lessons learned management system.
Quality process 3 (Control)
Flowcharts - Visual presentation of a process model.
By providing a visual model of how inputs, activities, and outputs of a process are
linked, it can provide information that may be difficult to be documented in words.
Mapping of the existing process will help the team gain a thorough understanding of the
process. The flowchart will be created as follows:
○ Determine where a process starts and where it ends.
○ Sequence the activities of the process.
○ Identify the activities that might create flaws or delays in the process.
○ Create a plan to control the process by giving more attention to those activities.
Quality Audit (with arbitrary numbers)
Test Plan
Stage One (Unit Testing):
Hardware testing -
▪ Make sure that all hardware is connected properly.
▪ Make sure that hardware features meet the required specifications.

Software testing -
▪ Make sure that the code is written according to the desired
design.
▪ Make sure that all software is installed properly.
▪ Make sure that software is free of bugs.
Stage Two (Integration Testing):
System testing -
▪ Verify that the system meets the desired requirements.
▪ Make sure that all modules of the application are functioning
together correctly.
Stage Three (Function Testing):
▪ Review the functional requirements of the application.
▪ Verify that the application conforms to its functional specifications.
Stage Four (Performance Testing):
▪ Validate that the application performs all its required functions.
Stage Five (Acceptance Test):
▪ Verify the application can meet the customer’s requirements and
needs.
▪ Make sure the application’s user interfaces are friendly and easy
enough for the users to use.
Stage Six (Installation Test):
▪ Test the system’s user interface.
▪ Test the system’s database.
▪ Test the system’s security.
▪ Test the system’s installation.
▪ Test the system’s networking.
Inspection Plan
● Technical
▪ Inspect the financial processes and procedures in the system.
▪ Inspect the financial instruments.
▪ Inspect the team roles and responsibilities as well as the optimal
size and selection.

▪ Inspect the techniques or tools to detect defects in the system
providing the financial services.
● Managerial
▪ Review the effect on the effort from the inspections.
▪ Review the effect on project duration from the inspections.
▪ Review the effect on project quality from the inspections.
● Organizational
▪ Inspect that the project aligns with the organizational goal.
▪ Inspect to see whether the project is well structured by reviewing
its plan, schedule, budget, and scope documentations.
▪ Inspect the selection of the team to make sure that all expertise is
available.
▪ Review the environment of the project implementation.
● Assessment
▪ Provide the qualitative and quantitative assessments of inspection
in order to make comparison of cost-benefit ratio in a given
situation
● Tools
▪ The purpose of the various tools used will be to support the
inspections of the processes in the project.
Scope:
• Planned Scope Hour (PSH) - Planned scope hours are the amount of work
scheduled based on the project scope in the WBS for a given period of
time.
• Actual Scope Hour (ASH) - Actual scope hours are the amount of work
completed based on the project scope in the WBS for a given period of
time.
• Scope Variance Hours (SVH) - The scope variation compares the
deviations of ASH from PSH for a given period of time.
Performance:

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these disturbances that Otho was induced to turn his arms on Italy.
He shortly became master of it all, and had himself declared
emperor by the Holy See, with all the pomp that had attended the
same ceremony to Charlemagne (962). Pope John XII, whom Otho
had been the means of raising to the pontifical chair, rebelled soon
after. Otho returned to Rome in fury, had John deposed, hanged
one-half of the senate before he left the city, and wrung a solemn
acknowledgement from an assembly of reluctant bishops, that the
emperor had a right not only to nominate to vacant bishoprics, but
also to elect the pope himself. Otho died (972), and was followed in
succession by Otho II, Otho III, St. Henry, Conrad II, and Henry III,
the history of whose reigns exhibits nothing instructive, or upon
which the mind can rest with pleasure. Henry IV (1056) was a
distinguished victim of papal tyranny. The celebrated Hildebrand,
known as Gregory VII, was in this age the means of raising the
power of the church to a height which it had never reached before.
During Henry’s contest with this daring and ambitious pontiff, he
made him twice his prisoner, and twice did the thunders of the
Vatican excommunicate and depose him in consequence. As a
specimen of the power and insolence of this pope, we may mention
that Henry, dispirited by the effect which his excommunication had
upon his friends and followers, having resolved to go to Rome and
ask absolution from Gregory in person, did so; and presenting
himself as a humble penitent at the palace of St Peter, was there
stripped of his robes, and obliged to remain in that condition, in an
outer court, in the month of January (1077), barefooted, among
snow, and fasting, for three successive days, before he was allowed
to implore forgiveness for his offences! On the fourth day he was
permitted to kiss the toe of his holiness, and then received
absolution! Henry died in 1106.
FROM THE NINTH TO THE ELEVENTH CENTURY.
Italy. The state of Italy during this period has been already
partially noticed in the preceding section. From the time of Lothaire,

to whom it was nominally assigned as a separate kingdom (843), to
that of Otho the Great (964), the country was ravaged by
contending tyrants. Between the invasions of the Normans on the
one hand, and the claims of the German emperors on the other, it
became much distracted, and was ultimately split up into several
independent states. Some of these, particularly Venice, Genoa, Pisa,
and Florence, became afterwards independent and powerful
republics. It was during this period that the foundation of the
temporal power of the popes was laid.
G I B R A L T E R .

T E R R A C E O F S T . P E T E R ’ S , R O M E .
Spain. During the period of which we have been treating, Spain
seemed less a part of Europe than any other country in it. The
greater part of it still continued under the dominion of the Moors,
and apparently with advantage. ‘This period,’ says Mr. Tytler, ‘from
the middle of the eight to the middle of the tenth century, is a most
brilliant era of Arabian magnificence. Whilst Haroun al Raschid made
Bagdad illustrious by the splendor of the arts and sciences, the
Moors of Cordova vied with their brethren of Asia in the same
honorable pursuits, and were undoubtly at this period the most
enlightened of the states in Europe. Under a series of able princes,
they gained the highest reputation, both in arts and arms, of all the
nations of the West.’ And yet these Eastern conquerors seem to have
had their troubles as well as others. A race of powerful nobles
among them, as in the other countries of Europe, distracted the
country, and made effective government impossible. The Christian
part of the population, still possessed of several provinces in the
north, might have taken advantage of such a state of things for

repossessing themselves of their lost country; but civil dissension
was still greater among themselves; and Christian princes readily
formed alliances with the Moors, if they saw a prospect of
weakening an immediate enemy by that means, forgetting that the
common foe still remained to harass them. But the detail of these
numerous and petty contentions need not detain us longer; nor does
the history of Spain assume any importance till towards the
conclusion of the fifteenth century, when the united arms of
Ferdinand and Isabella expelled the Moors for ever from the country.
GENERAL STATE OF EUROPE IN THE ELEVENTH CENTURY.
Before the end of the tenth century, Europe had reached a point
of darkness and degradation beyond which it seemed impossible to
go. Though long nominally converted to the Christian religion, the
nations of Europe may be said to have scarcely exhibited, up to this
period, a single distinctive mark of what men understand by
Christian civilization. ‘The barbarous nations,’ says Dr. Robertson,
‘when converted to Christianity, changed the object, not the spirit of
their religious worship. They endeavored to conciliate the favor of
the true God by means not unlike to those which they had employed
in order to appease their false deities. Instead of aspiring to sanctity
and virtue, which alone can render men acceptable to the great
Author of order and of excellence, they imagined that they satisfied
every obligation of duty by a scrupulous observance of external
ceremonies. Religion, according to their conception of it,
comprehended nothing else; and the rites by which they persuaded
themselves that they should gain the favor of Heaven, were of such
a nature as might have been expected from the rude ideas of the
ages which devised and introduced them. They were either so
unmeaning as to be altogether unworthy of the Being to whose
honor they were consecrated, or so absurd as to be a disgrace to
reason and humanity. Charlemagne in France, and Alfred the Great
in England, endeavored to dispel this darkness, and gave their
subjects a slight glimpse of light and knowledge. But the ignorance

of the age was too powerful for their efforts and institutions. The
darkness returned, and settled over Europe more thick and heavy
than before.’ The clergy were the only body of men among whom
any knowledge or learning now remained; and this superiority they
employed to continue, if not to deepen, the degradation into which
society had fallen. The superstitious belief that moral crimes could
be expiated by presents to the Deity, if not originated by them, at
least found them its strenuous defenders, for the reason that a gift
to God meant, in plainer language, a solatium to the church. The
priests would have made men believe that avarice was the first
attribute of the Deity, and that the saints made a traffic of their
influence with Heaven. Hence Clovis is said to have jocularly
remarked, that ‘though St. Martin served his friends very well, he
also made them pay well for his trouble.’
Persons in the highest ranks and most exalted stations could
neither read nor write. Of the clergy themselves, many of them did
not understand the Breviary which it was their duty to recite; and
some of them, it is asserted, could scarcely read it. Those among
the laity who had to express their assent in writing, did so by a sign
of the cross attached to the document (sometimes also by a seal);
and to this day, in consequence, we speak of signing a document
when we subscribe our names.
The evils of the feudal system, too, had by this time become
excessive and insupportable. Every petty chief was a king in his own
dominions, and his vassals were his subjects, if indeed they should
not be called slaves. These barons made laws of their own, held
courts of their own, coined money in their own names, and levied
war at their own pleasure against their enemies; and these enemies
were not unfrequently their kings. Indeed the kings of these times
can be looked upon in no other light than as superior lords, receiving
a nominal and empty homage for lands which, in the fictitious
language of feudal law, were said to be held of the crown. In these
circumstances, what might we expect to be the condition of the
great body of the people? They were either actual slaves, or

exposed to so many miseries, arising from pillage and oppression,
that many of them made a voluntary surrender of their liberty in
exchange for bread and protection from the feudal lords. There was
no people, as that term is now understood. ‘There was nothing
morally in common,’ says Guizot, ‘between the lord and the serfs;
they formed part of his domains, and were his property; under which
designation were comprised all the rights that we at present call
rights of public sovereignty, as well as the privileges of private
property; he having the right of giving laws, of imposing taxes, and
of inflicting punishment, as well as that of disposing and selling. In
fact, as between the lord and the laborers on his domain, there were
no recognized laws, no guarantees, no society, at least so far as may
be predicated of any state in which men are brought into contact.’ In
what way society rose above so many accumulated evils, and light
sprang from so much darkness, we shall now endeavor to show. The
most remarkable and the most lasting influence, beyond all question,
was that exerted by the Crusades.
THE CRUSADES.
‘It is natural to the human mind,’ says Dr. Robertson, ‘to view
those places which have been distinguished by being the residence
of any celebrated personage, or the scene of any great transaction,
with some degree of delight and veneration. To this principle must
be ascribed the superstitious devotion with which Christians, from
the earliest ages of the church, were accustomed to visit that
country which the Almighty had selected as the inheritance of his
favorite people, and in which the Son of God had accomplished the
redemption of mankind. As this distant pilgrimage could not be
performed without considerable expense, fatigue, and danger, it
appeared the more meritorious, and came to be considered as an
expiation for almost every crime. An opinion which spread with
rapidity over Europe about the close of the tenth and beginning of
the eleventh century, and which gained universal credit, wonderfully
augmented the number of credulous pilgrims, and increased the

ardor with which they undertook this useless voyage. The thousand
years mentioned by St. John [Rev. xx. 2, 3, 4] were supposed to be
accomplished, and the end of the world to be at hand. A general
consternation seized mankind; many relinquished their possessions,
and, abandoning their friends and families, hurried with precipitation
to the Holy Land, where they imagined that Christ would quickly
appear to judge the world.
While Palestine continued subject to the caliphs, they had
encouraged the resort of pilgrims to Jerusalem, and considered this
as a beneficial species of commerce, which brought into their
dominions gold and silver, and carried nothing out of them but relics
and consecrated trinkets. But the Turks having conquered Syria
about the middle of the eleventh century, pilgrims were exposed to
outrages of every kind from these fierce barbarians. This change
happening precisely at the juncture when the panic terror which I
have mentioned rendered pilgrimages most frequent, filled Europe
with alarm and indignation. Every person who returned from
Palestine related the dangers he had encountered in visiting the holy
city, and described with exaggeration the cruelty and vexations of
the infidel Turks.
Among the most notorious of those who had returned with these
accounts, was a monk known by the name of Peter the Hermit. By
all accounts this individual seems to have been a weak-minded and
contemptible being. He is represented as running from city to city,
and from kingdom to kingdom, bareheaded, with naked arms and
legs, and bearing aloft a ponderous crucifix in his hand, imploring
and preaching with an enthusiastic madness on the necessity of
wresting the Holy Land from the hands of the infidels. In a more
enlightened age, Peter the Hermit would probably have been
confined as a troublesome lunatic; in this, however, he was not only
allowed to go on, but was encouraged and abetted in his career. The
ambitious Hildebrande had expressed a strong desire to send armed
forces from Europe to exterminate the Mohammedans from
Palestine, in order that another country might be brought under his

spiritual subjection; and Urban II, who at this time occupied the
chair of St. Peter, warmly seconded the efforts of the enthusiastic
monk. Nor was Peter’s success small. Vast multitudes proclaimed
themselves ready to engage in the undertaking. Two great councils
of the church, one of them held at Placentia, and the other at
Clermont, in Auvergne, attended by prelates, princes, and immense
multitudes of the common people, declared enthusiastically for the
war (1095). The pope himself attended at the last, and Peter and he
having both addressed the multitude, they all exclaimed, as if
impelled by an immediate inspiration, ‘It is the will of God! it is the
will of God!’ These words were thought so remarkable, that they
were afterwards employed as the motto on the sacred standard, and
came to be looked upon as the signal of battle and rendezvous in all
the future exploits of the champions of the cross. Persons of all
ranks now flew to arms with the utmost ardor. The remission of
penance, the dispensation of those practices which superstition
imposed or suspended at pleasure, the absolution of all sins, and the
assurance, of eternal felicity, were the rewards held out by the
church to all who joined the enterprise; and ‘to the more vulgar
class,’ says Mr. Hallam, ‘were held out inducements which, though
absorbed in the overruling fanaticism of the first Crusade, might be
exceedingly efficacious when it began to flag. During the time that a
Crusader bore the cross, he was free from suits for his debts, and
the interest of them was entirely abolished; he was exempted, in
some instances at least, from taxes, and placed under the protection
of the church, so that he could not be impleaded in any civil court,
except in criminal charges or questions relating to land.’
It was in the spring of the year 1096, that Peter set out for Judea,
at the head of a promiscuous assemblage of 80,000 men, with
sandals on his feet, a rope about his waist, and every other mark of
monkish austerity. Soon after, a more numerous and better
disciplined force of 200,000 followed, including some able and
experienced leaders. Godfrey of Bouillon, Robert, Duke of Normandy
(son of William the Conqueror of England), the Counts of
Vermendois, Toulouse, and Blois, are a few of the more illustrious.

The progress of this immense mass of human beings on their
journey was marked by misery and famine. They had vainly trusted
to Heaven for a supernatural supply of their wants, and in their
disappointment they had plundered all that came in their way. ‘So
many crimes and so much misery,’ says Mr. Hallam, ‘have seldom
been accumulated in so short a space, as in the three years of the
first expedition;’ and another historian says that a ‘fresh supply of
German and Italian vagabonds,’ received on the way, were even
guilty of pillaging the churches. It is certain that before the hermit
reached Constantinople, the number of his forces had dwindled
down to 20,000. Alexis Comnenus, then emperor of Constantinople,
who had applied to the states of Europe for assistance, without
much hope of obtaining it, in order that he might be enabled to
resist a threatened attack by the Turks upon himself, was surprised
and terrified at the motley group of adventurers who had now
reached the shore of his dominions. He readily afforded them the
means for transporting themselves across the Bosphorus, and
performed the same friendly office to the larger force which followed
under Godfrey and others; glad, apparently, to have the barbarians
of the north, as his subjects called them, out of his dominions. The
Sultan Solyman met the army of the hermit, if army it could be
called, and cut the greater part of it to pieces on the plains of Nicea.
The second host proved more successful. In spite of their want of
discipline, their ignorance of the country, the scarcity of provisions,
and the excess of fatigue, their zeal, their bravery, and their
irresistible force, enabled them twice to overthrow old Solyman, to
take his capital Nice, and after an obstinate resistance, the city of
Antioch also (1098). At length (1099) they reached Jerusalem, much
diminished in numbers, and broken in spirit; but with persevering
assiduity they proceeded to lay siege to the city, and in six weeks
they became its masters. Their cruel conduct to the inhabitants
attests the barbarous feelings of their hearts. ‘Neither arms
defended the valiant, nor submission the timorous; no age nor sex
was spared; infants on the breast were pierced by the same blow
with their mothers, who implored for mercy; even a multitude of ten
thousand persons who surrendered themselves prisoners and who

were promised quarters, were butchered in cold blood by these
ferocious conquerers. The streets of Jerusalem were covered with
dead bodies. The triumphant warriors, after every enemy was
subdued and slaughtered, turned themselves, with sentiments of
humiliation and contrition, towards the holy sepulchre. They threw
aside their arms, still streaming with blood; they advanced with
reclined bodies and naked feet and heads to that sacred monument;
they sung anthems to Him who had purchased their salvation by His
death and agony; and their devotion, enlivened by the presence of
the place where He had suffered, so overcame their fury, that they
dissolved in tears, and bore the appearance of every soft and tender
sentiment. So inconsistent is human nature with itself, and so easily
does the most effeminate superstition ally both with the most heroic
courage and with the fiercest barbarity!’
With a becoming foresight, the Crusaders established a Christian
kingdom in the heart of Palestine; and at the head of it, by universal
consent was placed Godfrey, whose goodness and justice had
signalized him, and gained him respect in the midst of the general
wickedness. The pope, however, was too eager to enjoy the triumph
to which he had looked forward, and sending an ignorant and
obtruding ecclesiastic to assume this command, Godfrey retired; and
thus was lost undoubtedly the best chance that Europeans ever had
of really posessing the Holy Land. The Turks had now time to
recover their strength and renew their attacks: they did so: many of
the Crusaders had in the meantime returned home, and those of
them who remained, surrounded and menaced by such foes, at last
implored aid from Christendom. There the spirit which had been
raised by Peter the Hermit was far from being extinguished; and
another, more eloquent and more learned than Peter—
namely, St.
Bernard—
had arisen to keep alive the flame of devotion. Roused by
his preachings, Europe sent forth a second Crusade (1147). It
consisted of 200,000 French, Germans, and English, in two divisions,
the first led on by Conrad III of Germany, and the second by Louis
VII of France. Strangely enough, both these leaders permitted
themselves to be drawn into a snare by false guides, furnished by

the Greek emperor; and both armies, one after another, were
withdrawn amidst the rocks of Laodicea, and after being nearly
starved by famine, they were cut to pieces by the Sultan of Iconium.
This Crusade proved the most disastrous of them all. ‘Thousands of
ruined families,’ says Russell, ‘exclaimed against St. Bernard for his
deluding prophecies: he excused himself by the example of Moses,
who, like him, he said, had promised to conduct the Israelites into a
happy country, and yet saw the first generation perish in the desert.’
It was shortly after this period that the illustrious Saladin
appeared (1180). Born among an obscure Turkish tribe, this
individual fixed himself by his bravery and conduct on the throne of
Egypt and began to extend his conquest in the East. The still
existing, though wretchedly-supported kingdom of the Christians in
Palestine, proving an obstacle to the progress of his arms, Saladin
directed his power against it, and assisted by the treachery of the
Count of Tripoli, he completely overcame the Christians in battle
(1187). The holy city itself fell into his hands after a feeble
resistance; and except some cities on the coast, nothing remained to
the Christians of all that a century before, it cost Europe so much to
acquire. The followers of the cross, however, were not yet wholly
disheartened; and a third great Crusade was entered into before the
end of the twelfth century.
The three greatest sovereigns of Europe—
Fredrick Barbarossa of
Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard Cœur de Lion of
England—
all took part in the scheme. The forces of Fredrick were
earliest in the field. He had passed through the unfriendly territories
of the Greek empire, crossed the Hellespont, and defeated the
infidels in several battles, before Richard or Philip had stirred from
home. The Christians of the East were beginning to look with hope
and pride on so great assistance; but they seemed fated to be
unfortunate. Fredrick died (1190) from having thrown his body,
heated by exertion, into the cold river of Cydnus; and his army, like
the others that had gone before it, dwindled into nothing. The
united armies of Richard and Philip followed. In their progress, the

feelings of envy and national hatred rose above the object which
had brought them together. Philip returned, disgusted or dismayed,
shortly after they reached their destination; and Richard was thus
left alone to uphold the glory of European arms. He did it nobly.
With a mixed army of French, German, and English soldiers,
amounting in all to 30,000, Richard performed feats of valor which
have not been surpassed in the history of any time or nation. On the
plains of Ascalon, a tremendous battle was fought with Saladin, and
that brave and great man was defeated, and 40,000 of his soldiers
are said to have been left dead upon the field of battle. But this
conquest was unavailing, and the followers of Richard began to fear
that there would be no end to their struggles. The zeal which had
brought so many of them from their homes, and sustained them so
long in absence, at last abated. Saladin readily concluded a treaty by
which Christians might still be permitted to visit the tomb of Christ
unmolested, and Richard left the Holy Land for ever. It is due to the
memory of Saladin (who did not long survive this period) to state
that, after he made himself master of Jerusalem, he never molested
the Christians in their devotions—
a circumstance which, by contrast,
reflects infinite disgrace on the cruel barbarities of the first
Crusaders. In his last will he ordered alms to be distributed among
the poor, without distinction of Jew, Christian, or Mohammedan;
intending by this bequest to intimate that all men are brethren, and
that when we would assist them, we ought not to inquire what they
believe, but what they feel—
an admirable lesson to Christians,
though from a Mohammedan. But the advantages in science, in
moderation, and humanity, seem at this period to have been all on
the side of the Saracens.
There were no more great Crusades. Considerable bands of
private adventurers still continued to move eastward; but disaster
and disgrace attended every effort, and Europe at last became
disheartened when the bones of two millions of her sons lay
whitened on the plains of Asia, and so little had been accomplished.
Nevertheless, in the year 1202, Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was able
to raise another considerable army for the rescue of the Holy

Sepulchre; but having reached Constantinople at a time when there
was a dispute in the succession to the throne, he readily laid aside
the project of the Crusade, took part in the quarrel, and in the
course of five months he was himself the emperor. The citizens of
Venice in Italy, who had lent their vessels for this enterprise, shared
in the triumphs of the piratical Crusaders: they obtained the Isle of
Candia, or Crete. Baldwin, however, was soon driven from the
throne, and murdered; though the Latins, as his successors from the
West were called, kept possession of Constantinople for fifty-seven
years.
At this period (1227) a great revolution took place in Asia.
Ghenghis Khan, at the head of a body of Tartars, broke down from
the north upon Persia and Syria, and massacred indiscriminately
Turks, Jews, and Christians, who opposed them. The European
settlements in Palestine must soon have yielded to these invaders,
had not their fate been for a while retarded by the last attempt at a
Crusade under Louis IX of France. This prince, summoned, as he
believed, by Heaven, after four years’ preparation set out for the
Holy Land with his queen, his three brothers, and all the knights of
France (1248). His army began their enterprise, and we may say
ended it also, by an unsuccessful attack on Egypt. The king went
home, and reigned prosperously and wisely for thirteen years; but
the same frenzy again taking possession of him, he embarked on a
Crusade against the Moors in Africa, where his army was destroyed
by a pestilence, and he himself became its victim (1270).
Before the end of the thirteenth century (1291) the Christians
were driven out of all their Asiatic possessions. ‘The only common
enterprise,’ says Robertson, ‘in which the European nations were
engaged, and which they all undertook with equal ardor, remains a
singular monument of human folly.’
INSTITUTION OF CHIVALRY, ETC.

Among the most remarkable institutions of the middle ages was
that of Chivalry. The institution was certainly not the result of
caprice, nor a source of unmixed extravagance, as it has been
represented, but an effort of human nature to express its feelings of
love, honor and benevolence, at a time when the spirit of liberty was
extinguished, and religion had become debased. The feudal state
was a state of perpetual war, rapine, and anarchy, during which the
weak and unarmed were often exposed to injuries. Public protective
law scarcely had an existence; and in these circumstances assistance
came oftenest and most effectually from the arms of private friends.
It was the same feeling of courage, united to a strong sense of duty,
which both gave rise to chivalry, and led such multitudes to join the
Crusades. Chivalry existed before them, and it survived them. Those
whose devoted themselves to a life of chivalry were called knights,
and sometimes knight-errants, in allusion to their habits of
wandering from one country to another in search of helpless objects,
which their generosity might find a pleasure in relieving and
defending. Admission to the order of knighthood was long reckoned
an honor of the highest sort: and to fulfill the vows which entrants
took upon them might well be considered so. They were bound, ‘by
God, by St. Michael, and St. George,’ to be loyal, brave, and hardy;
to protect the innocent, to redress the injuries of the wronged; and,
above all, to uphold and defend the characters of women. The
institution of chivalry is sometimes thought to have thrown an air of
ridiculousness upon everything connected with the softer sex, and
some of the vagaries of knight-errantry gave sufficient countenance
to such a supposition; but on the whole we are bound to rate its
beneficial influences in elevating the female character high indeed,
when we contrast the gross and groveling situation held by the sex
in former times with the high and virtuous emotions that we have
learned to associate in modern times with the name of woman. If
the whole of this effect is not to be ascribed to chivalry, not a little of
it must certainly be so; nor do its beneficial effects end here. The
feelings of honor, courtesy, and humanity, which distinguished it,
spread themselves into other parts of conduct. War, in particular,
was conducted with less ferocity, and humanity came to be deemed

as necessary to an accomplished soldier as courage. The idea of a
gentleman is wholly the production of chivalry; and during the
twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, a sense of
honor and a refinement of manners towards enemies sprung up,
which have extended to modern times, and form a distinguishing
feature of them.
The history of the Crusades has carried us over nearly two
centuries of the history of Europe. But Europe might be said, almost
without exaggeration, to have been then in Asia. It was certainly not
the scene of any transaction of importance during all that period.
The numerous quarrels, both public and private, which had before
agitated the several countries, and had constituted all their history,
gave way, by mutual consent, as well as by the orders of the church,
to the one idea which then reigned supreme among them. Society
was thus unconsciously the means of permitting some of those
powerful and pacific principles to come into play, which were soon to
give it a new destiny. The absence of so many great barons during
the time of the Crusades, was a means of enabling the common
people, who have hitherto lived as their slaves, to raise themselves
in public standing and estimation; while the possessions of many of
these barons, by sale or the death of their owners without heirs,
reverted to the sovereigns. In this way the power of the people and
of royalty advanced together, and both at the expense of the class of
nobility. The people were not unwilling to exchange the mastery of
inferiors for that of a superior; and the kings, on their part, looked
on this rising power of the people with pleasure, as it offered a
shield to protect them from the insolence of the nobles. In these
circumstances boroughs began to flourish. This was a new element
in the progress of civilization. Men who had hitherto skulked in
castles, and had sacrificed their liberties and their lives for bread and
protection from isolated chiefs, now found that, by a union among
themselves, they might secure bread by industry, and protection and
liberty by mutual aid. Multitudes, therefore, forsook their feudal
subservience to enjoy independent citizenship. Villeins, or laborers,
joyfully escaped, to take their place on a footing of equality with

freemen; and sovereigns found means to pass a law that if a slave
should take refuge, in any of the new cities, and be allowed to
remain there unclaimed for a twelvemonth, he had thereby become
free, and was henceforth a member of the community. Another
improvement which kings were able to introduce about this time was
the gradual abolition of minor courts of justice, which barons had
previously held in their several domains, and their getting public and
universal law administered by judges of their own appointment.
Even single combat, the practice most inveterately adhered to of any
among the ancient nobles, became less frequent and less honorable.
The more revolting and absurd features of it were wholly abolished,
though the great absurdity, and indeed the great crime itself, cannot
be said to have become totally extinct, even up to our own day,
when we recollect that the barbarous practice of duelling is still
permitted to exist.
The effect, however, produced by the Crusades, which proved
greatest in its consequences, though perhaps it was the most
unlooked for at the time, was the rise of commerce. The first of
these expeditions had journeyed to Constantinople by land; but the
sufferings were so great, that all the rest were induced to go by sea.
The Italian cities of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, furnished the vessels
which conveyed them; and the sums of money obtained by the
freight of so many and so great armies were immense. This,
however, was but a small part of what the Italian citizens gained by
the expeditions to the Holy Land. The Crusaders contracted with
them for military stores and provisions; and any of the Asiatic
possessions of value, which came temporarily into the hands of the
Christians, became emporiums of commerce for them. The sweet
reward of labor was thus first felt for ages in Europe. New arts were
brought from the East, and many of those natural productions of the
warmer climates were first introduced into the West, which have
since afforded the materials of a lucrative and extended commerce.
We will allude in a separate section to the brilliant career of several
of the Italian Republics.

In these views we represent the fairest side of the picture. There
were yet many obstacles in the way of a complete and harmonious
evolution of the principles of civilization. But the elements all seemed
now to have acquired existence, and time only was required to
consolidate and strengthen them.
FROM THE CRUSADES TO THE MIDDLE OF THE FIFTEENTH
CENTURY—
RISE OF SOME NEW POWERS.
The most remarkable general feature of European society about
the time of the Crusades was the papal influence. Between the
pontiffs and the German emperors there was kept up a perpetual
struggle for power; but for a long time the advantage was almost
always with the popes. The treatment which some of the emperors
received from them was extremely humiliating. Frederick Barbarossa
was compelled to kiss the feet of his holiness, Alexander III, and to
appease him by a large cession of territory, after having indignantly
denied his supremacy, and refused the customary homage. Henry
VI, while doing homage on his knees, had his imperial crown kicked
off by Pope Celestinus, who, however, made some amends for this
indignity by the gift of Naples and Sicily. Henry had expelled the
Normans from these territories, which now became appendages of
the German empire (1194). In the beginning of the thirteenth
century, Pope Innocent III was imagined to have permanently
established the powers of the Holy See, and its right to confer the
imperial crown; but this proved far from being the case. In the time
of Frederick II, who succeeded Otho IV (1212), the old contentions
rose to more than the usual height, and two factions sprung up in
Italy, known by the names of Guelphs and Ghibellines, the former
maintaining the supremacy of the popes, and the latter that of the
emperors. Frederick maintained the contest which now arose
between himself and the popes with much spirit; but on his death
(1250) the splendor of the empire was for a considerable time
obscured. At length Rodolph of Hapsbourg, a Swiss baron, was
elected emperor (1274). Rodolph became the founder of the House

of Austria, and ruled with both vigor and moderation. His son Albert
I was the means of causing the inhabitants of Switzerland to assert
and obtain their liberty, by his attempting to bind them in subjection
to one of his children, and then using force to compel them. In the
pass of Morgarten, a small army of four or five hundred of these
brave mountaineers defeated an immense host of Austrians (1315).
Sixty pitched battles, it is said, were fought between the contending
parties; but the spirit of William Tell, who appeared at this time, and
of his patriot countrymen, rose above all attempts to enslave them;
and the Swiss cantons secured a freedom which their descendants
enjoy to this day. The further history of Germany, for nearly a
century, is not politically important. Disputes between the emperors
and the papacy still continued, though the balance of advantage was
now oftener against the church.
About the beginning of the fifteenth century, the great papal
schism, as it has been called, took place. It arose from there being
no fewer than three different claimants for the chair of St. Peter—
Gregory XII, who was owned pope by the Italian states; Benedict
XIII, by France; and Alexander V, a native of Candia, by a number of
the cardinals. This schism proved very hurtful to the authority of the
church, though in that respect it benefited the interests of society,
and contributed to open men’s eyes. The appearance of John Huss
at this time aided in producing that effect. Huss proclaimed the
same opinions as the great English reformer Wickliffe. He was
branded of course by the clergy as a heretic and propagator of
sedition. The general council of the church, held at Constance
(1414), concocted no fewer than thirty-nine articles in which Huss is
said to have erred. Some of the points he denied having professed,
and others he offered to support by argument; but his voice was
drowned by the clamors of bigotry. His hair was cut in the form of a
cross; upon his head was put a paper mitre, painted with the
representation of three devils; and he was delivered over to the
secular judge, who condemned both him and his writings to the
flames. A similar fate shortly after befell his disciple, Jerome of
Prague, who is said to have exhibited the eloquence of an apostle

and the constancy of a martyr at the stake (1416). In revenge for
these cruelties, the Hussites of Bohemia kept up a war with the
empire for twenty years; and it was only after having their right to
express their opinions acknowledged that they desisted. The great
schism lasted for many years. A Neapolitan archbishop, named Bari,
was elected and deposed by the resident cardinals at Rome within a
few months. Boniface IX and Innocent VI were each temporarily his
successors. The result of the lengthened dispute may be stated to
be, that papal authority was greatly weakened; the government of
the church was brought down among a class of ecclesiastics that
had never before tasted the sweets of power; and future popes were
obliged to resort to such questionable practices for the maintenance
of their dignity, that men in general began to lose respect for their
sanctity, and a foundation was laid for changes which it fell to the lot
of Luther and others to effect.
The period which witnessed these transactions was remarkable
for the continued wars between France and England. In the
beginning of the twelfth century, the famous dispute for supremacy
arose between Thomas-à-Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, and
Henry II, which ended in the death of the prelate (1171), but in the
triumph of his principles. The beginning of the thirteenth century is
memorable in English history, as having witnessed the granting of
the Magna Charta by King John; and towards the conclusion of it
appeared Edward I, whose name is associated with the first great
attempts to subdue the Scots on the part of England. The bravery of
Wallace and of others averted that calamity for ever. Wales was not
so fortunate; and Ireland had already become a conquered province.
During this period, several of those countries in the north of
Europe, which have made a considerable figure in modern history,
for the first time attracted attention. The greatest of these was
Russia. In the middle of the thirteenth century, the tribes of Tartary
made a complete conquest of this country, and for about a hundred
years they maintained their supremacy. At length Ivan ascended the
throne of Moscow (1462), and overcoming the Tartars, established a

kingdom of his own, and was able to form an alliance with the
Emperor Maximilian of Germany, who did not hesitate to style him
brother. This was the first entrance of Russia into European politics.
Before the end of the fourteenth century, the Christian religion
had penetrated into Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, and Poland; but it
failed in producing any immediate beneficial effect. The political
events which took place in these countries, however, were very
various at this period, but proved too unimportant in their results to
admit of being even outlined here.
THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS—
COMMERCE IN GENERAL.
Among the Italian cities, Venice, at the extremity of the Adriatic,
Ravenna, at the south of the mouth of the Po, Genoa, at the foot of
the Ligurian mountains, Pisa, towards the mouths of the Arno,
Rome, Gaëta, Naples, Amalphi, and Bari, were either never
conquered by the Lombards, or were in subjection too short a time
to have lost many of their ancient habits and customs. In this way
these cities naturally became the refuge of Roman civilization, at a
time when other parts of Europe were wading through barbarian
darkness. The feudal system never prevailed among them with any
force; and several of these and other cities had important privileges
conferred upon them by the German emperors at a very early
period. Sismondi, the historian of Italy, asserts that Otho I (936)
erected some of them into municipal communities, and permitted
them the election of their own magistrates. It is certain that, in 991,
the citizens of Milan rose in tumult, expelled an archbishop from
their city, and were able to establish a qualified right to interfere in
future elections. The after-history of Milan is eventful and tragical;
but we can only give a short account of it here. In the middle of the
twelfth century, Frederick Barbarossa became engaged with the
cities of Lombardy, and particularly with it, in extensive and
destructive wars. In the year 1162 Milan was finally overcome; the
walls and houses were razed from their foundation, and the suffering
inhabitants dispersed over other cities, obtaining sympathy in their

distress, and communicating their enthusiastic love of freedom in
return. The republican form of government was adopted in every
considerable town; and before the end of the thirteenth century,
there was a knowledge, a power, and an enterprise, among these
apparently insignificant republics which all Europe could not match.
The beneficial though unlooked-for effect of the Crusades upon
commerce has already been mentioned. During the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries the commerce of Europe was almost entirely in
the hands of the Italians, more commonly known in those ages by
the name of Lombards. The republic of Pisa was one of the first to
make known to the world the riches and power which a small state
might acquire by the aid of commerce and liberty. Pisa had
astonished the shores of the Mediterranean by the number of
vessels and galleys that sailed under her flag, by the succor she had
given the Crusaders, by the fear she had inspired at Constantinople,
and by the conquest of Sardinia and the Balearic Isles. Immediately
preceding this period, those great structures which still delight the
eye of the traveler—
the Dome, the Baptistry, the Leaning Tower, and
the Campo Santo of Pisa had all been raised; and the great
architects that spread over Europe in the thirteenth century, had
mostly their education here. But unfortunately, the ruin of this
glorious little republic was soon to be accomplished. A growing envy
had subsisted between it and Genoa during the last two centuries,
and a new war broke out in 1282. It is difficult to comprehend how
two simple cities could put to sea two such prodigious fleets as
those of Pisa and Genoa. Fleets of thirty, sixty-four, twenty-four, and
one hundred and three galleys, were successively put to sea by Pisa,
under the most skillful commanders; but on every occasion the
Genoese were able to oppose them with superior fleets. In August,
1284, the Pisans were defeated in a naval engagement before the
Isle of Meloria; thirty-five of their vessels were lost, five thousand
persons perished in battle, and eleven thousand became prisoners of
the Genoese. After a few further ineffectual struggles, Pisa lost its
standing.

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