QMS Conversion A Process Approach 2nd Edition David Hoyle
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- 5. QMS Conversion A Process Approach 2nd Edition David Hoyle Digital Instant Download Author(s): David Hoyle ISBN(s): 9780750675987, 0750675985 Edition: 2nd File Details: PDF, 1.33 MB Year: 2002 Language: english
- 7. QMS Conversion: A Process Approach
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- 9. QMS Conversion: A Process Approach David Hoyle John Thompson An imprint of Elsevier Science Amsterdam London New York Oxford Paris Tokyo Boston San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney
- 10. Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Science. Copyright © 2002, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Elsevier-Science prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible. © Transition Support Ltd 2001 Original Title: Converting a Quality Management System Using the Process Approach Original ISBN: 1-903417-07-4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. The publisher offers special discounts on bulk orders of this book. For information, please contact: Manager of Special Sales Elsevier Science 225 Wildwood Avenue Woburn, MA 01801-2041 Tel: 781-904-2500 Fax: 781-904-2620 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications available, contact our World Wide Web home page at: http://www.bh.com. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America
- 11. About the authors David Hoyle has over 30 years experience in quality management. He held managerial positions with British Aerospace and Ferranti International. As a management consultant—first, with Neville-Clarke Ltd and, before forming Transition Support Ltd, as an independent—he guided such companies as General Motors, Civil Aviation Authority and Bell Atlantic through their ISO 9000 programs. He has delivered quality management and auditor training courses throughout the world and has published five books with Butterworth Heinemann on ISO 9000, some of which have been translated into Spanish, Japanese, and Mandarin. Worldwide sales of his first book, now in its fourth edition, have totalled over 30,000 copies. He participates in various committees of the Institute of Quality Assurance and has been engaged in the revision of ISO 9000. He is a Chartered Engineer, a Fellow of the Institute of Quality Assurance, an IRCA registered Lead Auditor and a Member of the Royal Aeronautical Society. John Thompson is an experienced management consultant in business improvement; over a 20-year period he has held management positions in Unilever, RHP Bearings, Mars and Caradon. During the past 12 years and prior to forming Transition Support Ltd, he was in management consultancy as a Director of Neville-Clarke Ltd and GPR Consultants Ltd. He assisted organizations in Europe, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia in their business improvement activities, including the use of ISO 9000 Baldrige, Singapore Quality Award and EFQM frameworks. He has helped many organizations to develop improvement strategies and apply the process approach to system development and to auditing. These included the Anchor Trust, Mars, TRW and MAFF. He is an adviser to the MTTA on its step change initiative. Initially trained as a statistician, he has undertaken post-graduate studies in business administration and is currently completing an MA in human resource management.
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- 13. vii Contents Foreword ix 1. A real change in direction 1 2. Processes versus procedures 7 3. Quality management system principles 15 4. The conversion process 45 5. Planning for change 55 6. Modeling the business 65 7. Organizing process development teams 75 8. Process analysis 83 9. System construction 115 10. Successful system validation 127 Appendices—Introduction 133 Appendix A: Sample level 1 flow charts 135 Appendix B: Sample level 2 flow charts 141 Appendix C: Sample level 3 flow charts 155 Index 173
- 14. The past has only got us to where we are today . . . it may not necessarily get us to where we want to be!
- 15. ix Foreword Since 1987 the policies and practices of organizations that serve the achievement of quality have been inextricably linked with ISO 9000 that has become the most successful international standard ever. Organizations were being told that all they had to do was “document what you do and do what you document.” This simplistic and often misleading message spread so widely that probably over 90% of the quality systems developed since 1987, were merely collections of documents describing what organizations believed was needed to satisfy the 20 elements of the standard. This approach, the “element” or “clause” approach focused on conformity to requirements, often quite independently of business needs. As a consequence many organizations failed to realize any significant business benefit. In the year 2000 revision of the ISO 9000 family of standards a fundamental change took place. The family of standards became based on eight principles of quality management that align well with the criteria in the EFQM Excellence Model. Completely rewritten and clearly focusing on customers, the “document what you do—do what you document” approach and the 20 elements were swept aside to be replaced with 5 sections that better reflect how organizations operate. But perhaps the most significant change was to promote a process approach to quality management. Requirements for documented procedures almost disappeared being replaced with requirements for processes. “Process” is not just another word for “procedure” but a totally different concept. The focus is on the mechanisms in an organization that enable it to satisfy customers. These mechanisms are the organization’s “business processes” and this presents a significant opportunity for organizations to achieve real business benefits through application of ISO 9000:2000. For those organizations that designed their systems and behaviors around the “old” 20 elements the 2000 revision created a significant change. It created the need for such quality management systems to be converted so that they used the process approach to quality management. Written for executives, managers and practitioners, the purpose of this book is to help organizations see beyond the badge on the wall and gain benefits
- 16. Foreword x from their management system by converting their existing systems of documentation into systems of managed processes. How to use this book Each chapter in the book deals with a separate topic and each one has a set of learning outcomes that can be accomplished by covering its contents. The chapters follow the sequence of the conversion process. The first three chapters aim to change perceptions and establish the success criteria for the conversion. Chapter 1 provides the basis for understanding the approach taken by the ISO 9000:2000 family of standards. Chapter 2 aims to enable the reader to gain an understanding of the difference between procedures and processes. Chapter 3 introduces the eight quality management principles upon which the revision to ISO 9000 was based and illustrates the characteristics of an organization in which people are applying these principles. Chapter 4 outlines the conversion process and explains the steps to be taken while Chapters 5 to 9 cover each of these steps in more detail. Chapter 8 is the most comprehensive in the book, explaining process analysis and the factors that need to be taken into account when designing and constructing effective processes. Chapter 10 addresses system validation which can be used at any stage in the conversion process as it contains criteria for judging a successful conversion and tracking progress. Each chapter addresses the change in direction brought about by the ISO 9000:2000 family of standards. At the end of each chapter a summary is presented, often in terms of the differences between the old approach and the new approach, so as to continually emphasize the change in direction presented by the ISO 9000:2000 family of standards. References to ISO 9000 Within this book reference to ISO 9000 without a year identifier refers to the old version of the family of standards unless a comparison is being made, when the form “ISO 9000:1994” is used to denote the old family and “ISO 9000:2000” to denote the new family of standards. Reference to the “2000 Standard” means the ISO 9001:2000. Reference to the “ISO 9000:2000 family” means
- 17. Foreword xi ISO 9000, ISO 9001, ISO 9004 and ISO 19011 and it is therefore recommended that as a minimum, both ISO 9000 and ISO 9004 should be studied as well as ISO 9001 in preparing for the conversion. “ISO 9000:2000” refers to the Fundamentals and vocabulary standard. “ISO 9001:2000” refers to the Requirements standard used for assessment and contractual purposes and “ISO 9004:2000” refers to the Guidelines for performance improvement. ISO 19011 refers to the Quality and environmental system audit standard planned for released in 2001.
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- 19. 1 Chapter 1 A real change in direction Learning outcomes After studying this chapter you should be able to: understand the real change in direction of the 2000 standard understand the reasons for change recognize the difference between conformance to standard and system performance explain the linkage between the role of the QMS and business outputs A system focused on achieving business objectives The ISO 9000:2000 family of standards is based on the process approach to management. This approach recognizes that all work is performed to achieve some objective—also that the objective is achieved more efficiently when related resources and activities are managed as a process. In addition it is believed that the objectives of the organization which serve to meet its mission will be met more effectively when the organization is managed as a system of interrelated processes. It follows therefore that this system should be designed to enable the organization to meet its objectives and should interconnect all the processes required to deliver the desired results. Objectives are derived from the expectations of interested parties as now referred to in the ISO 9000:2000 family. Who are these interested parties? These for most organizations include:
- 20. A real change in direction 2 Customers who want products and services that fulfill their expectations Suppliers who want commercially viable and stable relationships Employees who want satisfying employment Shareholders who want a good return on their investment Society that wants organizations to operate responsibly, lawfully and ethically None of these interested parties or stakeholders have objectives that are unrelated to the others and therefore they cannot have systems that operate independently—in fact there can only be one system. The process approach is therefore concerned with managing the interrelationships between the interested parties so that all are satisfied—not just customers. It is not a trade- off or a balancing act. Employee satisfaction or care for society or the environment cannot be traded-off against customer satisfaction. Clearly this is a change in focus and direction. The fork in the road—old versus new interpretation On first reading, the 2000 standard can be interpreted as shown in the Customer fulfillment cycle (Figure 1.1). Here there is a clear linkage between quality policy, objectives and where the QMS delivers the outputs to satisfy customer needs. To many this does not represent a significant change from how a QMS has been perceived. In reality the QMS was only a system of documentation focused on conformity to procedures (defined by a standard) as shown in the Conformity cycle (Figure 1.2). Here the linkage is between procedures which implement quality policy and deliver records that demonstrate conformity, often independent of business objectives. What the 2000 Quality Policy Quality Objectives Outputs Customer needs QMS Figure 1.1 Customer fulfillment
- 21. A real change in direction 3 standard requires is to go beyond conformity and seek customer satisfaction. However, because of the interdependencies referred to above, we have to go even further, beyond customer satisfaction and seek satisfaction of all the interested parties. The 2000 standard needs to be interpreted as representing a QMS focused upon achieving business objectives as shown in the Business management cycle (Figure 1.3). Here the linkage is between a system of processes focused on achieving business objectives and satisfying the expectations of interested parties. What is important to understand is the fundamental difference between Figures 1.2 and 1.3 and to interpret the changes to ISO 9000 as moving towards a new perception of the Business management cycle and not a continuance of the old perception as illustrated in Figure 1.4. This view of a QMS is clearly a change in perception from a collection of procedures to the integration of business processes that involve people, technology, materials, equipment, facilities and the physical and human environment. However, as experience proves, it is the culture that most influences the effectiveness of such systems. No approach will therefore be successful without taking full account of the prevailing culture in the organization. Whether the system is being developed from scratch or being converted from an established system, the development process is the same. The real differences emerge during system design, construction and operation. To convert a system that has been documented as a quality manual and a series of procedures firstly requires an understanding of the fundamental difference between procedures and processes and this is addressed in the next chapter. Figure 1.2 Conformity cycle Interested party expectations Mission Business Objectives Outputs QMS QMS focused on achieving business objectives Quality Policy Records Conformity Procedures Audit and Review QMS focused on system conformity Figure 1.3 Business management cycle
- 22. A real change in direction 4 What an ISO 9000:2000 organization looks like An organization that has embraced the process management approach should be able to demonstrate a number of role model characteristics: A clearly defined business planning process that produces a robust business plan A business plan that consists of objectives, appropriate measures of success, actions focused on achieving those objectives with the relevant resources and skills provided An improvement culture and investment program to support continual improvement objectives Measured and monitored performance improvements in financial, environmental, quality, employee and customer satisfaction indicators Effective customer and market research processes linked to improvement planning N e w p e r c e p t i o n O l d p e r c e p t i o n No business benefits Business benefits Quality Policy Quality Objectives Outputs Customer needs QMS Quality Policy Records Conformity Procedures Audit and Review QMS focused on system conformity Interested party expectations Mission Business Objectives Outputs QMS QMS focused on achieving business objectives Figure 1.4 Convergence towards a business management cycle
- 23. A real change in direction 5 Benchmarked performance against appropriate external data Awareness of position relative to competitors with known strengths and weaknesses Personnel development processes focused on releasing full potential Effective management of processes; i.e., processes that deliver outcomes which satisfy all the interested parties. Summary Clearly there is a real change in direction that results from comparing the old approach to ISO 9000, with its focus on conformity to standard, with the new approach with its focus on achieving real business benefits. The key differences in the two approaches are summarized in Table 1.1. This chapter has highlighted the nature of the change in direction, in a way that should produce a change in perception about a QMS and give some insight into the magnitude of the challenge. In the next chapter, the difference between processes and procedures is explained in order to create an understanding essential for a successful conversion to be accomplished.
- 24. A real change in direction 6 Table 1.1 Contrast between old and new approaches Old approach New approach No clearly defined and communicated organizational purpose and objectives Everyone understands the organization’s purpose and objectives and is motivated and supported to achieve them No marketing process and customer satisfaction measurement within QMS Marketing process integrated in QMS and customer satisfaction regularly monitored People are just another resource to be used to achieve the results People are valued, developed and results achieved through team work There is a set of random task based procedures that are independent of the business objectives Processes are designed to achieve defined objectives and are continually measured, reviewed and improved The system for achieving quality is defined by the 20 elements of ISO 9001:1994 Delivering business results is achieved through a coherent management system of integrated processes Continual improvement is perceived as correcting mistakes only Continual improvement is perceived as proactively seeking opportunities to improve performance at all levels and in all aspects Data generated by the QMS that creates records is not used to make decisions Decisions are based on performance data generated by the processes of the management system Key decisions are made in an arbitrary and unilateral manner with purchasing decisions being based primarily on lowest price Key decisions take into account the different stakeholders and their impact
- 25. 7 Chapter 2 Processes versus procedures Learning outcomes After studying this chapter you should be able to: distinguish between procedures and processes understand what makes processes fundamentally different from procedures identify whether you have documented your procedures or your processes understand how big a gap exists between a procedural approach and a process approach Change in direction ISO 9001:1994 refers to documented procedures being required to implement almost every clause of the standard. In ISO 9001:2000, the requirement for documented procedures has been completely removed (apart from a few specific instances). In addition, the requirement for documentation has also been drastically reduced, signaling a change in direction away from documentation as the primary output from implementing ISO 9001:2000. The emphasis has moved from documented procedures to defined processes where the degree of documentation required is determined from an analysis of need. However, this change in direction as indicated in the Foreword and Chapter 1, is much more than a change in words. Procedures are not documented processes—as will become apparent from reading this chapter.
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- 28. SCAFFOLDING
- 30. CHAPTER I SCAFFOLDING Scaffolding is the art of arranging and combining pieces of timber in order to enable workmen to proceed with their work, and from which, if required, to lift and carry the material necessary for their purpose. Many definitions of a scaffold have been given by authorities on building construction; some of the best known are as follows:— Mitchell (C. F.): ‘Temporary erections constructed to support a number of platforms at different heights, raised for the convenience of workmen to enable them to get at their work and to raise the necessary material for the same.’ Tredgold (Hurst): ‘A scaffold as used in building is a temporary structure supporting a platform by means of which the workmen and their materials are brought within reach of their work.’ Rivington: ‘Scaffolds are temporary erections of timber supporting platforms close to the work, on which the workmen stand and deposit their materials.’ Banister F. Fletcher, in ‘Carpentry and Joinery’: ‘A scaffold is a temporary structure placed alongside a building to facilitate its erection by supporting workmen and raising materials during the construction, or for the repair of buildings.’ Recent cases tried under the Workmen’s Compensation Act have given a wider meaning to the word, and the following definition is perhaps the most comprehensive at the present time: A scaffold, as used in building, is a temporary arrangement of timbers combined and supported in various ways to enable the workmen to proceed with their work, and where required, to afford facilities for the lifting and carrying of the materials. The two principal methods of scaffolding are known respectively as the North and South country systems. The northern, as indicated by the name, was at one time in use only in Scotland and the north of England, but its many advantages, more especially for the
- 31. transport of material, have now caused it to become general throughout the country. The second method is essentially the South country system, and is of greater use when power is not necessary for the construction of the building. A combination of both methods is commonly seen, and found useful in practice. In scaffolding, the vertical timbers are known as standards or uprights. The horizontal timbers between the standards are known as ledgers when of cylindrical section, but as transoms and runners when of rectangular section. Braces, shores, struts and ties of any section are pieces used to stiffen the structure. The putlogs, or joists as they are called when of greater length, carry the boards which form the working platform. The Northern System.—This scaffolding can be divided into two parts. First, the derrick staging from which the transporting power acts; and, second, the platforms, which bring the workmen within reach of their work. Derrick Stagings.—These stagings, also known as Scotch derricks and ‘Scotchmen,’ are erected to carry the power required, usually a steam crane. They consist of three or four timber towers or legs supporting a platform upon which the crane stands. The number of legs depends upon the area over which the power is required to act. When one crane is to be erected, three legs are sufficient to carry the platform. If the building is a large one, several such stagings may be constructed; but in some cases two cranes are required where the size of the building will not allow of two stagings. In these cases the platform is square and supported at each angle by a leg. The cranes are then fixed diametrically opposite each other. In determining the position of the legs they must be placed where the effective range of the crane is most required, and also where they will cause the least possible obstruction to the progress of the building. The position of the tower that carries the crane, and which
- 32. is known as the principal or king leg, is first fixed. The secondary or queen legs are set out from it in the form of an isosceles triangle. The distance between the king and queen legs depends upon the length of the sleepers. These run from below the engine to the lower ends of the guys, and average from 25 to 30 feet in length. The legs, especially the king legs, if intended to rise from the earth, must have a foundation of two thicknesses of 3-inch timbering laid crosswise. This is unnecessary if there is a concrete or other solid foundation. Apart from the necessity for any foundation, the standards should rise from a framework of balk timbers of about 12 in. by 12 in., laid on the ground, and halved at their intersection (fig. 1).
- 33. Fig. 1.—Elevation of Staging for Derrick Crane
- 34. In the case of the queen legs an extra balk is placed under the framework, as shown in fig. 1. The legs are from 6 to 10 feet square on plan, the king legs being the larger. Each leg comprises four standards, either of whole timbers or battens bolted together. The standards for the king legs should measure not less than 9 in. by 9 in.; if of battens, then three pieces 9 in. by 3 in. should be used. For the queen legs, balks 7 in. by 7 in., or three pieces 7 in. by 21⁄2 in., are sufficient sectional area. Where battens are used they are given a lap equal to one-third of their full length, and are bolted together by 3⁄4-inch wrought-iron bolts. Whole timbers are used when they can be obtained in one piece of sufficient length. As the standards rise they are divided into bays by transoms. These are made out of about 9-in. by 3-in. deals, placed from about 6 to 10 feet apart. The bays are triangulated by cross-braces 7 in. by 21⁄2 in.; both of these are usually placed on the outside of the bay, but one or both may be placed on the inside. The first method is the better, as the braces, by butting against the transoms, give an increased resistance to movement. The king leg, having to carry the weight of the engine, requires greater strength. This is gained by running an extra standard up the centre of the leg. If it is whole timber, balks about 14 in. by 14 in. are required; if built up, four deals 16 in. by 4 in. are used. It should stand upon an extra balk laid with the horizontal framing at the bottom of the leg, and should rest on a solid foundation. To prevent any tendency to flexure this extra standard should be strutted from all four of the outer standards behind each transom (see fig. 2). Another method is to shore the central standard from the foundation, as in fig. 3. The legs in this manner can be made to support a platform up to 120 feet in height. The required height having been reached, the legs are connected by trussed beams in the following manner: Two balk timbers of about
- 35. 12 in. by 8 in. are laid immediately above each other between the king leg and each queen leg, resting on the two top transoms, as shown in fig. 1. They are from 6 to 9 feet apart, the top bay being sometimes made slightly lower than the others. The lower balks are connected to the centre standard of the king leg by wrought-iron straps. Fig. 2.—Plan of King Leg
- 36. a, Central Standard. b, Shorings. Fig. 3.—Showing Shoring to Central Standard The top balks project from 6 to 10 feet beyond the king leg, and are halved at their point of intersection. The projecting ends are connected to each other by pieces 8 in. by 6 in., and again to the return balk by similar pieces (see fig. 4). They are also supported by struts from the central standard, as shown in fig. 1. The upper and lower balks are connected by iron bolts about 10 feet apart, and each bay thus formed is cross-braced in the same manner as the legs.
- 37. The iron bolts are covered by pieces of the same scantling as the braces. In the single derricks the queen legs can be connected by a trussed beam similarly formed, or by a single balk carried across and laid on the top transom. Fig. 4.—Plan of Top Platform partially covered If the span is considerable, struts can be carried from the queen legs towards the centre of the underside of the balk to prevent sagging. On the trussed beams thus formed, joists of 9 in. by 3 in. or ordinary poles are laid about 3 feet apart. They are laid parallel to one another, and in a direction at right angles to the truss or single beam forming the back support of the platform. The centre joists are continued to the ends of the balks which project beyond the king leg. The advantage of having continued the top balks can now be seen, as it gives greater area to the platform immediately round the engine.
- 38. The boards 9 in. by 11⁄2 in. are laid at right angles to the joists. Another way of forming the platform is to cover only partially the surface between the legs. In this case two additional joists, 6 in. by 6 in., are thrown across the king leg (see fig. 4), the boards not extending beyond their length. When this is done, the workmen reach the platform from the communicating ladder which usually passes up a queen leg, by means of a run two boards wide. It is better to lay the larger platform, as, apart from the question of safety to the men, it serves as a storage for coal for the engine, the weight of which tends to keep the erection steady. Double boards should be laid under coals or other heavy stores. To reach the platform, ladders are fixed in different ways. They can run up inside, or be fixed to the outside of the queen legs. In either case they are nearly or entirely upright. A better method is shown in fig. 5, and should be carried out wherever possible.
- 40. Fig. 5.—Showing Method of Fixing Ladders The derrick sleepers, two in number, are of balk timber, and lie across the platform from beneath the engine bed to which they are connected, to the centre of the queen legs. The guys or stays, also of balk timbers, besides being connected to the mast, are attached to the sleepers over the queen legs (see fig. 1). To counteract the overturning force exerted by the jib and the material lifted, the guys are chained down to the timber balk at the bottom of the queen legs (fig. 1). This balk supports a platform which is loaded with bricks or stones more than equal to double the weight that will be lifted. The chain, which works loose with the vibration of the scaffold, is tightened by means of a screw coupler fixed in its length. The arrangement is as follows:—Two lengths of heavy chain with large links at each end are required. One length is carried round the sleeper and then taken down the centre of the leg. The other length is taken round the balk which is placed underneath the staging, and carried up through the load, when the tightening screw can be applied and the correct tension brought up. To prevent lateral motion the legs are cross-braced by poles or deals between each leg as shown on frontispiece. The poles are tied to the legs just beneath the platform and connected at their meeting point. When crossing they should be at right angles to each other. Deals 9 in. by 3 in. can take the place of the poles if required, bolts in this case being used instead of tyings. At the building of the new Post Office, Leeds, 1893, a different method of raising the platform for the crane was adopted. The legs, instead of being framed, consisted of a single balk of timber strutted on each side from the ground level, the sleepers and guys being firmly attached to the standards themselves. When erecting long ranges of buildings it may be more convenient to have the derrick mounted upon a travelling bogie than to dismantle the structure in order to re-erect at another point. Fig. 6 illustrates the system, the travelling power being usually manual. The arrangement is suitable for small derricks, and is employed where the crane is erected outside the building.
- 41. Fig. 6.—Showing Staging mounted on Travelling Bogie Another method of using travelling cranes is to erect a platform as shown in fig. 7. The standards, which may be of balk timber or built up, as previously shown, are about 10 feet apart longitudinally and 20 to 30 feet transversely. They stand upon sills of the same section where the foundation is not solid. On the head of the standards, the runners are laid connecting all the standards in the same row. Head pieces may be fitted between the standards and runners; this serves to distribute pressure. All the connections are securely made by dog irons, bolts, and straps. The stability depends entirely upon the bracing, and this, it is important to note, should be between each bay longitudinally, and at least every second bay transversely.
- 42. Fig. 7.—Elevation of Derrick Staging Timbers placed as A in fig. 7 give rigidity to the standards by preventing flexure, and are necessary when the lengths of the uprights exceed 30 times their least diameter. The deals used for braces are bolted to the standards; for poles, tying is resorted to. Working Platforms.—The working platforms used in conjunction with overhead or overhand work depend upon the requirements of the building. By over head or hand work is meant that the material upon which the mechanic is to be employed reaches him from over head or hand. When no outside scaffolding is needed, the platforms are laid upon the floor joints in the interior of the building, being raised upon trestles as the work proceeds, and until the next floor is reached. Light forms of scaffolds, as the ordinary masons’ and bricklayers’ pole scaffolds, are now frequently used as working platforms in connection with the Scotch system. The South Country System.—This system is divided into two classes according to the strength required. For the first, square timbers are used; for the second, poles are employed. The scaffolds built of square timbers are known as gantries and stagings, and the
- 43. pole erections are termed bricklayers’, and masons’ or independent scaffolds. Gantries.—The term gantry was originally given to erections constructed with a view to the easy carriage of heavy material, but of late it has also come to mean a structure arranged to support lighter forms of scaffolding over footpaths which have to be kept open for public use. Fig. 8.—Elevation of Gantry for Traveller
- 44. Fig. 8a.—End Elevation of Gantry shown in Fig. 8 1st. Gantries for transport of material, commonly called travellers. Figs. 8 and 8a show the general construction. The distance between the outer rows of standards and the wall depends upon circumstances. If possible, the space should be allowed for a cart-way, as the material can thus be brought quite close to the work before being lifted. If, owing to adjacent footpaths or any other reason, this cannot be done, the uprights should be placed close to the wall on either side, the material being lifted at the end of the gantry or other convenient spot, over which the lifting gear can be brought. The standards of square timber for the gantry are from 6 in. to 12 in. square, and are erected upon sleepers, or, as they are sometimes termed, sills laid in the same direction as the run of the scaffold. One row of standards is placed on each side of the wall. The standards are placed 8 to 10 feet apart. On the top of the standards runners are fixed connecting each standard in the same row. Sills, standards, and runners should be of the same sectional area. The runners are strutted on their underside, from the standards by pieces of, at least, half the sectional area of the supported timbers. If the struts are of equal size to the runners, double the weight can be carried.
- 45. The cleats from which the struts rise, are simply spiked to the standards, but if designed to carry excessive weights they are slightly housed in. As the space between each row of standards has to be kept open for the building, no cross bracing can be allowed except at the ends. Strutting is therefore resorted to in order to give stability. The struts, one to each standard, are bolted to the upright near the top, and again to a foot block driven into the ground. Other methods of fastening down the bottom ends of the struts are shown in fig. 9; the use of each depends upon the nature of the soil. Struts are also fixed at the ends to prevent lateral movement. Head pieces, or corbels, as they are sometimes termed, are occasionally inserted between the standards and runners, and serve to distribute pressure. Straining pieces spiked on the underside of the runners, for the struts to pitch against, are used when the standards are considerably apart. Fig. 9.—Footing Blocks for Struts Rails upon which the travelling engine or traveller can move are laid on top of the runners, and are turned up at the ends of the platform to serve as buffers to the engine platform.
- 46. End Elevation Side Elevation Fig. 10.—Elevation of Travelling Gantry The engine platform consists of two trussed beams of timber about 3 feet apart, connected at their ends with short pieces of the same scantling, and fitted with grooved wheels to move upon the rails. Rails are also laid upon each beam and serve for the traversing motion of the crab. Movement of the traveller is obtained from the crab, which is worked either by manual or steam power, and acts through a system of shafting and geared wheels. Movement in three directions is necessary from the crab: vertically for lifting, and horizontally in two directions, transversely and longitudinally. Travellers are made up to 50 feet wide and any required length. Another method of building travellers is shown in fig. 10. In this case, the rails upon which the traveller moves in a longitudinal direction are fixed on sleepers on the ground level, and the standards and runners of the first example are not required. In their place is constructed a triangulated system of balk timber framing. The platform is fixed to the head pieces, and is braced as shown. Less timber is used in their construction, but owing to the greater weight a steam winch is required to impart motion. Gantries which serve as a base for lighter forms of scaffolding.—These erections are in reality elevated platforms, and allow of a clear way for a footpath where required. They are constructed of two frames, placed apart according to the width of the path over which the platform stands (fig. 11).
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