![JENKINS AND NORRIS
4
are profoundly influenced by highly technical scientific considerations” (p. 19) so
that some understanding of science is needed by “lawyers, writers, teachers,
politicians, public servants, and businessmen” (p. 17). The U.S. continued to worry
deeply about the condition of its science and mathematics education for the
remainder of the 20th
century and into the 21st
. The National Science Foundation
supported an entire program of science and mathematics curriculum development in
the wake of the launch of Sputnik. The American Association for the Advancement
of Science (2001, 2007) published a two-volume Atlas of scientific literacy as part
of its Project 2061, a long-term initiative aimed at the reformation of science and
mathematics education. The atlas provides some 100 maps that show how ideas in
science and mathematics and about science and mathematics are related. Despite all
of these efforts, the Committee on Science Learning, Kindergarten through Eighth
Grade of the National Research Council (Duschl, Schweingruber, & Shouse, 2007)
announced in the first sentence of the first page of its report of 2007: “At no time in
history has improving science education been more important than it is today.” In
the same year, The National Academies were asked how to make improvements to
the science and technology enterprise in the United States. The first
recommendation of the Academics’ Committee on Prospering in the Global
Economy of the 21st Century was to “Increase America’s talent pool by vastly
improving K-12 science and mathematics education” (2007, p. 5).
A similar concern with the quality of science education has existed in Europe.
For example, the United Kingdom experienced a push for reforming science
education in the 1960s and 1970s through sponsorship by the Nuffield Foundation.
A report funded by the Nuffield Foundation appearing in 1998 (Millar & Osborne,
1998) with the purpose of providing “a new vision of an education in science”
(p. 1) has had considerable influence worldwide in reshaping the discussions about
science education reform. Its over 500 citations are evidence of its impact. At
around the same time, a Select Committee on Science and Technology (2000) of
the U.K. House of Lords was announcing a “crisis of confidence” (p. 5) in science
and that “[s]ociety’s relationship with science is in a critical phase” (p.5). One year
later, the government of the U.K. commissioned a study into the supply of high
quality scientists and engineers, which found a “disconnect between the
strengthening demand for graduates (particularly in highly numerate subjects) on
the one hand, and the declining numbers of mathematics, engineering and physical
science graduates on the other” (Roberts, 2002, p. 2).
In 2008, Osborne and Dillon made a report to the Nuffield Foundation on science
education in Europe. In the report, they argued that current science curricula “are
increasingly failing to engage young people with the further study of science” and do
“not meet the needs of the majority of students who require a broad overview of the
major ideas that science offers, how it produces reliable knowledge and the limits to
certainty” (p. 7). A strong indicator of the failure of science teaching in the classrooms
of industrialized nations, including those of Europe, is that there is a negative
correlation of 0.92 between students’ attitudes towards science and the United Nations
index of human development (Sjøberg & Schreiner, 2005), a fact that was uncovered
by the Research on Science Education (ROSE) study sponsored by Norway.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2206287-250605005101-84650331/85/Reading-For-Evidence-And-Interpreting-Visualizations-In-Mathematics-And-Science-Education-Frank-Jenkins-16-320.jpg)
![CRYSTAL—ALBERTA
7
As another example of outreach activities that were sponsored by all centres,
both the CRYSTAL—Alberta Speaker Series and the CMASTE Discussion Group
were useful tools in disseminating research results to the local mathematics and
science education communities. Visiting scholars and local graduate students were
typical presenters, and research papers focused on mathematics and science
reasoning were frequently discussed. One of the main advantages of this approach
was to involve partners in science education (such as the Telus World of Science, a
science centre and museum; and Inside Education, a non-profit environmental
education organization), science consultants from surrounding school districts, and
Alberta Education personnel with curriculum development and student assessment
roles.
Internationally, CRYSTAL—Alberta has become known for its work on
mathematics and science reasoning—both through dissemination at international
education and science conferences and through international outreach projects. For
example, resource materials are employed extensively in CMASTE-produced and
UNESCO-sponsored Iraqi science teacher education lessons. The teacher education
lessons are meant to transform and modernize Iraqi science education. The focus
on scientific reasoning also resonates with the CMASTE and Inter Americas
Network of Academics of Science (IANAS) partnership and its focus on inquiry-
based science education. In this and other ways CMASTE has served as a
continuing partner of CRYSTAL—Alberta.
The outreach component of CRYSTAL—Alberta mostly involved outreach to
K-12 classrooms. An outreach website that communicated work on mathematics and
science reasoning was created and called ‘CRYSTAL—Alberta Outreach’
(go to www.crystalalberta.ca, and follow the link). Links from the outreach website
direct users to the visualization-based website (www.KCVS.ca). As described
previously, the research was classified as either mathematics or science and text or
visualization in a two by two matrix, and the outreach website sections were classified
in the same way. This consistency between the research and the communication
through outreach was a helpful element for the organization of the project.
Initially, a graduate student with classroom experience was employed to review
the education literature on mathematics reasoning (Metz, 2008). She also searched
for requirements about mathematics reasoning in the curriculum framework
developed under the Western and Northern Canadian Protocol (WNCP) for
mathematics K-9 (WNCP, 2006) and 10–12 (WNCP, 2008), and in National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000, 2006) curriculum documents. The
interest in the forms of reasoning invoked in mathematics and in mathematics
education is indicated in the abstract for the review:
Mathematics has traditionally been defined in terms of deductive logic ….
[This view] has been challenged by quasi-empiricist and fallibilistic views of
mathematics…. (Metz, 2008)
The quasi-empiricist and fallibilist views of mathematics move mathematics
reasoning beyond the normal deductive view to the possibility of hypothetico-
deductive reasoning (allowing for falsifiability as in science) and inductive](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2206287-250605005101-84650331/85/Reading-For-Evidence-And-Interpreting-Visualizations-In-Mathematics-And-Science-Education-Frank-Jenkins-19-320.jpg)
![JENKINS AND NORRIS
14
SUMMARY
Together the chapters attend to the challenges of promoting mathematics and
science reasoning and deep understanding. The historical context provided a
backgrounder to the need for research on mathematics and science reasoning. The
research and dissemination model described some of the CRYSTAL—Alberta
attempts to distribute past and present research and outreach resources locally,
nationally, and internationally. Also provided were examples of resources,
instructional strategies, assessment items, and potential curriculum outcomes that
can be used to promote mathematics and science reasoning. The range of the
conceptualization in the research indicates the breadth of what might initially be
seen as a narrow topic and, again, indicates the difficulty in producing applied
education research on any particular topic. Experience in education programs most
often shows that at least 10 years are required to move from research through
development into implementation. Perseverance with and belief in the goals will
decide the eventual outcomes of CRYSTAL—Alberta.
REFERENCES
Academics’ Committee on Prospering in the Global Economy of the 21st
Century. (2007). Rising above
the gathering storm: Energizing and employing America for a brighter economic future.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Alberta Teachers’ Association. (2009). CRYSTAL—Alberta [Special issue]. Alberta Science Education
Journal, 40(1).
Alberta Teachers’ Association. (2011). More CRYSTAL—Alberta [Special issue]. Alberta Science Education
Journal, 41(1).
American Association for the Advancement of Science. (2001, 2007). Atlas of scientific literacy
(Vols. 1–2). Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
The Committee of Ten. (1894). Report of the Committee of Ten on secondary school studies with the
reports of the conferences arranged by the Committee. New York: The American Book Company
for the National Educational Association.
Conant, J.B. (1951). On understanding science. New York: Mentor Books.
Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC). (1997). Common framework of science learning
outcomes. Toronto, ON: Author.
Duschl, R.A., Schweingruber, H.A., & Shouse, A.W. (Ed). (2007). Taking science to school: Learning
and teaching science in grades K-8. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Fang, Z., Lamme, L., Pringle, R., Patrick, J., Sanders, J., Zmach, C., et al. (2008). Integrating Reading
into Middle School Science: What we did, found and learned. International Journal of Science
Education, 30, 2067-2089. doi:10.1080/09500690701644266
Metz, M. (2008). What is mathematical reasoning? CRYSTAL—Alberta, University of Alberta,
Edmonton, Canada.
Millar, R. & Osborne, J. (1998). Beyond 2000: Science education for the future. London: King’s
College London.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (2000). Principles and standards for school
mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (2006). Mathematics teaching in the middle
school. Reston, VA: Author.
National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). (2005). Centres for research
in youth, science, teaching and learning (CRYSTAL) pilot program: Information for grantees.
Ottawa, Canada: Author.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2206287-250605005101-84650331/85/Reading-For-Evidence-And-Interpreting-Visualizations-In-Mathematics-And-Science-Education-Frank-Jenkins-26-320.jpg)
![READING FOR EVIDENCE
23
The two key areas that we want to explore in this chapter are the use of
textbooks and the internet as sources of information for students. The research
literature suggests that many students are motivated to choose strategies that ensure
they can complete the task in the shortest possible amount of time. Indeed students
in our study expressed similar views about not wanting to waste time, and as a
result the internet was the favourite method for finding information, followed by
class textbooks. We suspect that this is because it is easier to cut and paste digital
information into an assignment, but no one admitted to this possibly because of
plagiarism issues!
CLASS TEXTBOOKS
In Alberta, there is a heavy dependence on the use of textbooks in science
classrooms. Textbooks used in schools are approved by the province on the basis
of a match with outcomes described in the Program of Studies. Schools and
teachers then select specific books from the list of approved textbooks; students
usually have access to one textbook in a subject area. In the development of these
authorized textbooks, content is reviewed for accuracy and appropriateness by
scientists and teachers and these experts are listed at the front of the book. So here
we have an interesting situation of information in the form of a textbook which
already has had several stages of evaluation, validation, and approval before
getting to the classroom.
In our study, a number of students expressed a desire to use the class textbook as
the main source of information despite not finding it easy to use. These students
were making a crude cost-benefit analysis based on the fact that they assume that
all the material presented in the textbook is relevant so they don’t need to evaluate
it and sift through irrelevant material, which wastes time. Students told us that they
had absolute confidence in everything in the textbook because their teachers and
schools recommend it to them and they have faith in the teacher and in the school.
Andy said, “Well I used it [a textbook] because I knew it would be reliable. If the
school would give it to us and it not be reliable...then that would kind of
be defeating a bunch of purposes.” So this presents an interesting issue for science
teachers. The evaluation is vicarious having assumed to have been done by
teachers, the province, and experts who have reviewed the material for accuracy
and relevancy. Whilst many students are not aware of the behind-the-scenes
evaluation, they are basing their trust in the textbook on the trust they have in their
teachers. Here is an example of students accepting knowledge without question
because of unconditional trust in the textbook, in the teacher, or in both.
Teachers could ask their students: “Would a research scientist studying
antibiotic resistance in bacteria use a school textbook as a source of information to
plan their work and, if not, why not?” While this question might seem quite
ridiculous and the answer obvious, it will facilitate a discussion about information
literacy, the differences between information and evidence, the rapidly changing
nature of scientific knowledge, thus the nature of science. Clearly the purpose for
using the information is a key factor in determining the level of evaluation given.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2206287-250605005101-84650331/85/Reading-For-Evidence-And-Interpreting-Visualizations-In-Mathematics-And-Science-Education-Frank-Jenkins-33-320.jpg)
![SHANAHAN
42
and applied to their world where appropriate” (Council of Ministers of Education,
1997, p.7). Reading is frequently referred to only in the context of textbook reading
and content learning, where it is placed in opposition to inquiry science: “Science
teaching must involve students in inquiry-oriented investigations in which they
interact with their teachers and peers. …The perceived need to include all the
topics, vocabulary, and information in textbooks is in direct conflict with the
central goal of having students learn scientific knowledge with understanding”
(National Research Council,1996, pp. 20–21). At best, especially in elementary
science, reading about science is often seen as a pathway to literacy (e.g., students
need to learn to read informational text), but it still is seen as something extra or
other to inquiry science. At worst, reading can seem antithetical to inquiry, where
reading is characterised as only textbook or worksheet reading. Reading and text
are, however, essential for inquiry, offering access to social norms and
epistemological practices of science. Because of the forms that scientific text takes,
it should be central in encouraging and supporting student inquiry in school
science.
Textual Representations of the Evidence Practices of Science
From Dewey and Schwab to contemporary science educators, there’s been
recognition of tight interconnections between understanding that science itself is
inquiry and approaching student learning of scientific concepts from an inquiry
perspective. Flick and Lederman, in their introduction to the volume Scientific
Inquiry and Nature of Science, are clear to emphasize the intertwined nature of
these two goals and how a thorough understanding of the latter depends on the
former. They argue that “It is one thing to be able to focus on a scientific question
[e.g., to do inquiry to learn scientific concepts], for example, where does salt go
when dissolved in water, and quite another to recognize that question as part of a
much larger process of building scientific knowledge” (Flick & Lederman, 2004,
p. xi). In the context of this example, there will be no definitive single piece of
evidence to support the desired concept that the salt is distributed, on a particle
level, throughout the water. Understanding the value of different forms of evidence
and the processes of making decisions based on the weight of several different
types of evidence are needed to make this a valuable student inquiry. An important
scaffold therefore is an epistemological understanding of science—of which
evidence is acceptable for creating an explanation and how different pieces of
evidence come together to support a broad and underlying explanation like the
particulate nature of matter. If this is the case, though, why not stop at explicitly
teaching concepts related to the nature of science? Why is text important?
Authentic scientific texts are important because, as a complement to the explicit
lessons that teachers can provide about nature of science related ideas, they can
provide a window into and immersion in the social and cultural practices of science
(Norris & Phillips, 2003). In making comparisons between the discourse patterns
of different academic disciplines, including physical and biological sciences,
Hyland (2004) makes a very strong case for the importance of the text itself for](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2206287-250605005101-84650331/85/Reading-For-Evidence-And-Interpreting-Visualizations-In-Mathematics-And-Science-Education-Frank-Jenkins-52-320.jpg)
![The following books were read by the whole class:
(1) Alcott's "Little Women." Lessons were given on reading it with the children.
(2) Mara L. Pratt's "History stories," vol. 3.
(3) Eggleston's "First lessons in American history." The Pratt and Eggleston books were
read in succession for the purpose of contrasting them. A yet better contrast would have
been Baldwin's "Fifty famous stories."
(4) Frau Spyri's "Heidi." Some of our girls read this story in the original German but most in
the translation published by Ginn & Co. It is a charming story of a breezy little maiden
whose home was in the Swiss Alps, and one of the rather scarce desirable books for the
fourth grade.
(5) Mrs. Burnett's "Sara Crewe." This was read as a type of the "child novel" and for the
sake of a study of the charms, dangers and benefits of this class of books.
(6) Howard Pyle's "Men of iron" was read as a study of the worthy historical story.
The following outline was given the students as an aid in judging the books read: Outline
to aid in estimating a juvenile book.
1. Written when? By whom? For children or adults? [e.g., "Robinson Crusoe" and "Gulliver's
travels" were written for adults.] If for children, of what age? (Consider both manner
and matter.)
2. Essential purpose of the book: Recreative? Instructive? Moral? Is the recreation afforded
wholesome? The instruction reliable? The moral lessons sound?
3. Style: Is it clear? Correct? Beautiful? Suitable?
4. If a story, What is the strongest character in it? The most effective passage? Give
reasons for thinking so. Is it true to life?
5. Is the book a creator of ideals? How so? Along what lines?
An effort was made that there should be no formal adherence to this outline. Papers on the
books read were required in which the outline could not be used. For example, after
reading "Men of iron" the students were required to write, in class, a paper on "The
education of a boy in chivalry" based on the story of Myles Falworth.
The oral discussions of these books were often very animated.
Each student was also required to hand in an annotated list of at least 20 books actually
read by the student and judged by her suitable for the grade in which she is to train. An
oral discussion of these lists took place, and the student in many cases was required to
justify her judgment, and to answer questions in regard to the books read.
Some of these lists were very cheering. One excellent list for the sixth grade, with very
original annotations contained 60 instead of 20 books actually read, and 30 more which the
student had listed to be read at her convenience.
Not all of the lists were of that character. A list for the third grade recommended "Gulliver's
travels, by Gulliver" as a valuable aid in geography.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/2206287-250605005101-84650331/85/Reading-For-Evidence-And-Interpreting-Visualizations-In-Mathematics-And-Science-Education-Frank-Jenkins-61-320.jpg)
Reading For Evidence And Interpreting Visualizations In Mathematics And Science Education Frank Jenkins
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- 6. Reading for Evidence and Interpreting Visualizations in Mathematics and Science Education
- 8. Readi Mathe Edited b Stephen Universi ng for Evid ematics and by P. Norris ity of Alberta, E dence and d Science E Edmonton, Ca Interpretin Education nada ng Visualiz zations in
- 9. A C.I.P. r ISBN: 97 ISBN: 97 ISBN: 97 Published P.O. Box Rotterdam https://ww Printed o All Right No part o form or b otherwise supplied for exclus record for this bo 78-94-6091-922- 78-94-6091-923- 78-94-6091-924- d by: Sense Publ x 21858, 3001 AW m, The Netherlan ww.sensepublish on acid-free pape ts Reserved © 20 of this work may by any means, e, without writte specifically for sive use by the p ook is available -0 (paperback) -7 (hardback) -4 (e-book) lishers, W nds hers.com/ er 012 Sense Publis y be reproduced electronic, mec en permission fro the purpose of purchaser of the from the Library shers d, stored in a ret chanical, photoc om the publisher being entered an work. y of Congress. trieval system, o opying, microfi r, with the excep and executed on or transmitted in ilming, recordin ption of any mat a computer sys n any ng or terial stem,
- 10. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements vii I. Introduction 1. CRYSTAL—Alberta: A Case of Science-Science Education Research Collaboration 3 Frank Jenkins and Stephen P. Norris II. Reading for Evidence 2. Reading for Evidence 19 Susan Barker and Heidi Julien 3. Reading for Evidence through Hybrid Adapted Primary Literature 41 Marie-Claire Shanahan 4. Explanatory Reasoning in Junior High Science Textbooks 65 Jerine Pegg and Simon Karuku 5. The Environment as Text: Reading Big Lake 83 Susan Barker and Carole Newton III. Visualizations in Science and Mathematics 6. Visualizations and Visualization in Mathematics Education 103 John S. Macnab, Linda M. Phillips, and Stephen P. Norris 7. Visualizations and Visualization in Science Education 123 John Braga, Linda M. Phillips, and Stephen P. Norris 8. Curriculum Development to Promote Visualization and Mathematical Reasoning: Radicals 147 Elaine Simmt, Shannon Sookochoff, Janelle McFeetors, and Ralph T. Mason 9. Introducing Grade Five Students to the Nature of Models 165 Brenda J. Gustafson and Peter G. Mahaffy 10. Using Computer Visualizations to Introduce Grade Five Students to the Particle Nature of Matter 181 Brenda J. Gustafson and Peter G. Mahaffy Notes on Contributors 203 Index 207
- 12. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research reported in this volume was supported by a grant from the National Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada through their pilot program, “Centres for Research in Youth, Science Teaching and Learning (CRYSTAL)”. This volume represents the hard work and dedication of many individuals. The contributors gave their unconditional support to the work and throughout its many stages remained a collegial and cooperative group. I thank them for their efforts and for their fine work. Two individuals deserve special mention. Carolyn Freed was the production assistant and copy editor at the early stages of the book. She helped train the authors in the use of the formatting template and established the basic system of electronic files that carried the project to its completion. Much gratitude is due her. Jennifer Sych replaced Carolyn mid-stream in the project. Not only did she learn the technical aspects of the job very quickly, she became the persistent but ever gracious liaison between the Editor and the chapter authors, became an accomplished user of the APA manual, and proved to have a keen eye for detail in her editorial roles. That the book has been completed in a timely fashion owes much to Jennifer’s skills and ethic for hard work. Thanks, Jennifer. Stephen P. Norris December, 2011
- 14. I. INTRODUCTION
- 15. Stephen P. Norris (Ed.), Reading for Evidence and Interpreting Visualizations in Mathematics and Science Education, 3–15. © 2012 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved. FRANK JENKINS AND STEPHEN P. NORRIS 1. CRYSTAL—ALBERTA A Case of Science-Science Education Research Collaboration INTRODUCTION In 2004, Canada’s national funding body for scientific research, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), for the first time asserted itself in kindergarten to grade 12 science and mathematics education. The Council issued a request for proposals to establish, on a pilot basis, Centres for Research in Youth, Science Teaching and Learning (CRYSTALs). The primary purpose of these centres was to “increase our understanding of the skills and resources needed to improve the quality of science and mathematics education (K-12)” (NSERC, 2005). Proposals were required to show how the centres would establish effective collaborations between scientists and mathematicians and science and mathematics educators. Five centres were funded across the nation. This volume reports some of the outcomes of CRYSTAL—Alberta, the centre designated by NSERC to be the national leader. This chapter will set into historical context the significance of NSERC’s initiative, describe how CRYSTAL—Alberta organized its research and dissemination agendas, and provide an overview of the subsequent chapters. HISTORICAL CONTEXT The purpose and nature of school science and mathematics education have been topics of discussion for over 100 years in industrialized countries such as Canada. The United States has one of the longest histories of discussion of these topics and brings the topics back to the table very frequently. As early as 1894, a report by The Committee of Ten, prepared under the auspices of the National Educational Association, proposed that “the study of simple natural phenomena” (p. 117) begin in elementary schools with at least one period per day devoted to it, and that at least 200 hours be devoted to the study of physics and chemistry in high school. The basic rationale provided by the Committee was that the study of nature and of the scientific method were properly part of ordinary schooling and should proceed with the inclusion of time for experiments and laboratory work. Mathematics was similarly supported and a focus in instruction on promoting “clear and rigorous reasoning” (p. 25) was emphasized. During the middle of the twentieth century, James Conant (1951) was a United States’ leader in upholding the role of science in democratic citizenship. The gist of his argument was that “matters of public policy
- 16. JENKINS AND NORRIS 4 are profoundly influenced by highly technical scientific considerations” (p. 19) so that some understanding of science is needed by “lawyers, writers, teachers, politicians, public servants, and businessmen” (p. 17). The U.S. continued to worry deeply about the condition of its science and mathematics education for the remainder of the 20th century and into the 21st . The National Science Foundation supported an entire program of science and mathematics curriculum development in the wake of the launch of Sputnik. The American Association for the Advancement of Science (2001, 2007) published a two-volume Atlas of scientific literacy as part of its Project 2061, a long-term initiative aimed at the reformation of science and mathematics education. The atlas provides some 100 maps that show how ideas in science and mathematics and about science and mathematics are related. Despite all of these efforts, the Committee on Science Learning, Kindergarten through Eighth Grade of the National Research Council (Duschl, Schweingruber, & Shouse, 2007) announced in the first sentence of the first page of its report of 2007: “At no time in history has improving science education been more important than it is today.” In the same year, The National Academies were asked how to make improvements to the science and technology enterprise in the United States. The first recommendation of the Academics’ Committee on Prospering in the Global Economy of the 21st Century was to “Increase America’s talent pool by vastly improving K-12 science and mathematics education” (2007, p. 5). A similar concern with the quality of science education has existed in Europe. For example, the United Kingdom experienced a push for reforming science education in the 1960s and 1970s through sponsorship by the Nuffield Foundation. A report funded by the Nuffield Foundation appearing in 1998 (Millar & Osborne, 1998) with the purpose of providing “a new vision of an education in science” (p. 1) has had considerable influence worldwide in reshaping the discussions about science education reform. Its over 500 citations are evidence of its impact. At around the same time, a Select Committee on Science and Technology (2000) of the U.K. House of Lords was announcing a “crisis of confidence” (p. 5) in science and that “[s]ociety’s relationship with science is in a critical phase” (p.5). One year later, the government of the U.K. commissioned a study into the supply of high quality scientists and engineers, which found a “disconnect between the strengthening demand for graduates (particularly in highly numerate subjects) on the one hand, and the declining numbers of mathematics, engineering and physical science graduates on the other” (Roberts, 2002, p. 2). In 2008, Osborne and Dillon made a report to the Nuffield Foundation on science education in Europe. In the report, they argued that current science curricula “are increasingly failing to engage young people with the further study of science” and do “not meet the needs of the majority of students who require a broad overview of the major ideas that science offers, how it produces reliable knowledge and the limits to certainty” (p. 7). A strong indicator of the failure of science teaching in the classrooms of industrialized nations, including those of Europe, is that there is a negative correlation of 0.92 between students’ attitudes towards science and the United Nations index of human development (Sjøberg & Schreiner, 2005), a fact that was uncovered by the Research on Science Education (ROSE) study sponsored by Norway.
- 17. CRYSTAL—ALBERTA 5 Canada’s initiatives into science and mathematics reform prior to the NSERC initiative were modest by comparison to those of the U.S. and U.K. The Science Council of Canada was a government advisory board that existed for about 25 years starting in the late 1960s. In 1984, the Council produced a report from a four-year study on the state of science education in Canada (Science Council of Canada, 1984). In the Canadian federation, provinces have sole jurisdiction over education. Without the cooperation of the provinces on the collection of student achievement information, which the Council did not have, the most crucial data needed to report on the state of science education was not available. This lack of cooperation reduced the impact that the report had on science education in the country, even though several discussion papers that it commissioned have become classic readings on science education programs nationwide. In 1997 work by the Council of Ministers of Education (CMEC), which is a body comprising the ministers of education and their staffs from the ten provinces and three territories, produced a framework of learning objectives for K-12 science for use across the country. The framework was for curriculum developers and was based upon a vision for scientific literacy aimed at developing “inquiry, problem- solving, and decision-making abilities, to become lifelong learners, and to maintain a sense of wonder about the world” (CMEC, 1997, p. 4). It was assumed that scientific literacy is fostered best “through the study and analysis of the interrelationships among science, technology, society, and the environment” (1997, p. iii). This framework remains in use more than a decade since its publication, and is one of the reasons that science curricula remain reasonably comparable from province to province to territory (for example, in their emphasis on science, technology, society, and the environment), even though each political entity maintains complete control over education in its jurisdiction. NSERC entered this situation with its program of Centres for Research in Youth, Science Teaching and Learning. Being an organization that deals with science and engineering research funding, NSERC seemed not to understand the incredibly long time that it takes to make change in education. Moreover, it was not apparent that consideration had been given to the jurisdictional boundaries existing in the country, because the assumption seemed to have been made that there would be an uptake of research results in all jurisdictions. Also, although NSERC mandated as a condition of funding that science and mathematics educators and scientists and mathematicians collaborate on educational research and development, there was little history of such collaboration in the country and seriously competing views between the educators and scientists about the very nature of educational goals and educational research. Although it is assumed in science that many years and even decades can pass between the publication of a scientific finding and the translation of that finding into some useful product or practice, it was expected that any findings from the CRYSTAL research could be put to immediate use, which is contrary to the historical fact that educational research findings show a similar lag in application. The criteria used to evaluate the program did not take account of the fact that science and mathematics education research conducted in Canada is only a very small fraction of such research
- 18. JENKINS AND NORRIS 6 worldwide. Thus, it is reasonable to expect policy makers at ministries of education and school districts to look to the worldwide body of research, including that from Canada, in making the most informed decisions about educational practices. The result, in all likelihood because Canadian research output is such a tiny fraction of worldwide output, would be that Canadian research would not play a major role, unless it were aimed specifically to solve a parochial problem. CRYSTAL—ALBERTA RESEARCH AND DISSEMINATION MODEL The research and dissemination model for CRYSTAL—Alberta involved many components. The research goal was to promote mathematics and science reasoning. To organize the research, a two-by-two matrix was employed: reasoning in mathematics and science and reasoning as displayed in text and visualizations. The same matrix was used both to classify the research projects and to organize the outreach resources on the outreach website. The collaborative research teams purposely included teachers, graduate students, education researchers and scientists. Undergraduate students also were included on some teams. Dissemination of research from the program included components organized directly by the administration team of CRYSTAL—Alberta and components organized by individual researchers. In the latter case, researchers conveyed their research findings through presentations at teacher workshops and conferences and at research conferences. They also published their research in teacher association newsletters and journals and in peer-reviewed education research journals. CRYSTAL—Alberta also organized formal dissemination of research through three national and two local conferences. The national conferences for the five CRYSTALs across Canada involved short presentations and discussions of research being conducted at each of the centres—a collaborative sharing of diverse research. Each centre had its own research and outreach goals, with only minor collaboration among researchers across centres. Local conferences sponsored by each centre involved teachers, consultants, outreach partners, ministry of education personnel, and graduate students, in addition to the education researchers and scientists. The local conferences allowed participants to select several short discussions of research during half-day or day-long agendas. The local conferences served to open lines of communication among partners in science education and to move the research results closer to implementation in classrooms. As an example of a professional conference involvement, the annual Alberta Teachers’ Association Science Council conference was a major annual event in local outreach and research dissemination. Each year CRYSTAL—Alberta shared a display and dissemination table with the Centre for Mathematics, Science and Technology Education (CMASTE). Researchers conducted presentations for classroom teachers and the CRYSTAL—Alberta Outreach Coordinator gave updates on the progress of outreach website resources. In addition the Outreach Coordinator gave multiple presentations to pre-service elementary and secondary teachers in mathematics and science education classrooms.
- 19. CRYSTAL—ALBERTA 7 As another example of outreach activities that were sponsored by all centres, both the CRYSTAL—Alberta Speaker Series and the CMASTE Discussion Group were useful tools in disseminating research results to the local mathematics and science education communities. Visiting scholars and local graduate students were typical presenters, and research papers focused on mathematics and science reasoning were frequently discussed. One of the main advantages of this approach was to involve partners in science education (such as the Telus World of Science, a science centre and museum; and Inside Education, a non-profit environmental education organization), science consultants from surrounding school districts, and Alberta Education personnel with curriculum development and student assessment roles. Internationally, CRYSTAL—Alberta has become known for its work on mathematics and science reasoning—both through dissemination at international education and science conferences and through international outreach projects. For example, resource materials are employed extensively in CMASTE-produced and UNESCO-sponsored Iraqi science teacher education lessons. The teacher education lessons are meant to transform and modernize Iraqi science education. The focus on scientific reasoning also resonates with the CMASTE and Inter Americas Network of Academics of Science (IANAS) partnership and its focus on inquiry- based science education. In this and other ways CMASTE has served as a continuing partner of CRYSTAL—Alberta. The outreach component of CRYSTAL—Alberta mostly involved outreach to K-12 classrooms. An outreach website that communicated work on mathematics and science reasoning was created and called ‘CRYSTAL—Alberta Outreach’ (go to www.crystalalberta.ca, and follow the link). Links from the outreach website direct users to the visualization-based website (www.KCVS.ca). As described previously, the research was classified as either mathematics or science and text or visualization in a two by two matrix, and the outreach website sections were classified in the same way. This consistency between the research and the communication through outreach was a helpful element for the organization of the project. Initially, a graduate student with classroom experience was employed to review the education literature on mathematics reasoning (Metz, 2008). She also searched for requirements about mathematics reasoning in the curriculum framework developed under the Western and Northern Canadian Protocol (WNCP) for mathematics K-9 (WNCP, 2006) and 10–12 (WNCP, 2008), and in National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000, 2006) curriculum documents. The interest in the forms of reasoning invoked in mathematics and in mathematics education is indicated in the abstract for the review: Mathematics has traditionally been defined in terms of deductive logic …. [This view] has been challenged by quasi-empiricist and fallibilistic views of mathematics…. (Metz, 2008) The quasi-empiricist and fallibilist views of mathematics move mathematics reasoning beyond the normal deductive view to the possibility of hypothetico- deductive reasoning (allowing for falsifiability as in science) and inductive
- 20. JENKINS AND NORRIS 8 reasoning. The review of the literature and curriculum documents led to identification of forms of reasoning in mathematics and to the presentation of examples and exercises. The review was mined for outreach resources by an experienced classroom teacher. The resources, including textual introductions to the topic and exercises in text understanding, were posted on the outreach website under Mathematics Reasoning Text. Another section of the outreach website attends to scientific attitudes, habits of mind, and dispositions to act and think in certain ways. Some science educators believe that scientific attitudes are that which remains of science learning after all else is forgotten. Some of the scientific attitudes discussed on the outreach website are: open-mindedness, critical-mindedness, respect for evidence, willingness to suspend judgment, willingness to change ideas, honesty, and tendency to question. This section is accompanied by a downloadable text file and an exercise, which can be found on the outreach website under Science Reasoning Text and Scientific Attitudes. Reasoning can also be communicated through the nature of science (NOS) language used orally in the classroom and written in the resources, including assessment tools. It is impossible not to communicate a view of the nature of science through the language used in the classroom. The outreach materials created for the website include examples of the authority and degree of certainty in a knowledge claim. Examples of expressing authority include: “According to the evidence gathered in Lab 9.4. . .” and “Based upon Newton’s second law. . .”. Examples of the degree of certainty include: “Favourable judgements of the design, materials, procedures and skills indicate high confidence in the evidence and, therefore. . . ”; and “The accuracy of the prediction as a percent difference is. . .”. After professional development sessions, many participants indicated that the language element is one suggestion that they are able immediately to implement in their classrooms. These elements can be found on the outreach website under Science Reasoning Text and Scientific Language. Scientific reasoning and NOS language use can also be understood and promoted through the use of primary literature, adapted primary literature, or hybrid adapted primary literature. The study of adapted and hybrid adapted primary literature produced fruitful collaborative research during the CRYSTAL— Alberta project. Educators and education researchers adapted primary research literature of collaborating scientists for use in elementary and secondary science classrooms. Research often centered on the students’ understanding of the arguments provided by the scientists to gain acceptance of their knowledge claims. For example, scientists often anticipate alternative hypotheses, experimental designs, and procedures that might be suggested by other scientists. They openly write about these alternatives and provide their reasoning for making their selections. When the pedagogic purpose is to identify the scientific reasoning, the adaptation is slanted in that direction—as opposed to adapting the primary literature to promote understanding of the substantive science knowledge. Students can be asked to identify the scientific purpose of the investigation, the nature of science language used, and the line of argumentation. The potential of adapted
- 21. CRYSTAL—ALBERTA 9 primary literature is just starting to be tapped. One example involved helping summer research students in the Women in Scholarship, Engineering, Science & Technology Summer Research Program and in the Heritage Youth Researcher Summer Program to fruitfully read primary literature. These students worked in research laboratories for six weeks in the summer and were required to read primary research. Examples can be found on the outreach website under Science Reasoning Text and Adapted Primary Literature. A text-plus-visualization based example can also be found on the KCVS website under Visualizations and Mathematical Modeling. The application of scientific reasoning for citizenship is another outreach component of the CRYSTAL—Alberta website. What kind of knowledge, processes, skills, and habits of mind do citizens need to evaluate claims to knowledge? Carl Sagan (1997) wrote that “… the tools of skepticism are generally unavailable to the citizens of our society. They’re hardly ever mentioned in the schools, even in the presentation of science…” (p. 77). Some of the concepts presented for evaluating claims to knowledge on the outreach website are: (1) anecdotal evidence, (2) correlational study, (3) cause and effect study, (4) clinical trial, (5) duration of study, (6) sample size, (7) random sample, (8) placebo, (9) placebo effect, (10) double blind, (11) funding agency, (12) peer-reviewed, (13) respected journal, (14) bias, and (15) certainty. These concepts are needed for citizens to critically evaluate health, environmental, and other claims to knowledge. Exercises that apply these concepts are provided on the outreach website for classroom use under Science Reasoning Text and Evaluating Claims to Knowledge. The KCVS website materials are not generally focused on the explicit description of mathematics and science reasoning. The focus rather is on deep understanding through the use of visualizations. Some of the visualizations created with partial support from CRYSTAL—Alberta include 9 global climate change applets, 18 modern physics applets, 9 special relativity applets, 7 chemistry applets, 1 mathematical modeling applet, and 7 elementary science applets. Some of the modern physics applets are accompanied by teacher and student resources created with CRYSTAL—Alberta support that explicitly attend to mathematics and science reasoning of the type described above: for example, the Photoelectric Effect and Rutherford Model applets. Some of the applets also direct teachers and students to classical primary literature for the interactive visualizations available. These applets can be found on KCVS website, and can be used directly from the site or they can be downloaded and used independently in the classroom. Adapted primary literature can also be applied to education research. Typically, teachers do not read the primary literature of education research. CRYSTAL— Alberta undertook to publish much of its research through two issues of the Alberta Teachers’ Association Science Council journal—the Alberta Science Education Journal (Alberta Teachers’ Association, 2009, 2011). Research previously and subsequently published in education research journals was adapted for a teacher audience. Sagan (1997) suggests, “The method of science, as stodgy and grumpy as it may seem, is far more important than the findings of science” (p. 22). A significant part
- 22. JENKINS AND NORRIS 10 of the method of science involves mathematics and science reasoning. If we have managed in some small way to advance this cause, we have succeeded. To become mainstream in the classroom, mathematics and science reasoning must be supported by classroom resources, instructional strategies, assessment tools, and curriculum outcomes. Significant work has been done and significant work remains to be done to complete the implementation of the research conducted by CRYSTAL—Alberta. OUTLINE OF THE BOOK The book is divided into three sections: the first contains this introductory chapter; the second deals with reading for evidence; and the third, covers the work done on visualizations in science and mathematics. Chapter 2, “Reading for evidence”, is by Susan Barker and Heidi Julien, who bring a complementary set of skills to this topic. Susan’s primary research interests are ecological education and biological education and their relationship with science education, particularly through practical work. Heidi focuses on information behaviour, information literacy, and information policy with a primary interest in promoting people’s access to information in any context of their lives. Finding and evaluating information is an integral part of both scientific research and science pedagogies. In this chapter findings are presented from two CRYSTAL—Alberta research projects that examined how high school biology students find and evaluate information and how they make judgments to differentiate between scientific evidence and value statements. The contexts explored by the students were the Canadian seal hunt, climate change, and biomes. Science lends itself very well to discussions about the construction of knowledge and about accuracy of information that students may find on the internet or in textbooks. For example, the tentative nature of scientific knowledge arises frequently in such situations. The term ‘information literacy’ refers to the set of skills required to identify information sources, access information, evaluate it, and use it effectively, efficiently, and ethically. The evidence indicated that students generally possess unsophisticated information and scientific literacy skills yet they believe they are more competent. The authors propose a teaching model based on scientific inquiry that can assist students in being more effective in finding, handling, and evaluating information, as well as furthering their understanding of scientific inquiry. The work builds on Windschitl (2008), who views information- seeking tasks as supporting activities of inquiry that help prepare students to participate more meaningfully in the core activities of inquiry by acquainting them with necessary concepts, ideas, and skills. Barker and Julien argue that more attention to making connections between information literacy, scientific literacy, and science inquiry could promote a better understanding of the nature of science and of scientific reasoning. Marie-Claire Shanahan’s Chapter 3, “Reading for evidence through hybrid adapted primary literature”, examines text pieces that integrate both narrative writing and adapted scientific writing as a way to support students in learning to
- 23. CRYSTAL—ALBERTA 11 read scientific text, specifically reading to identify the uses of evidence. The trend in science education has been to advocate hands-on opportunities for students and move away from teaching practices that rely heavily on textbook reading. Yore, Craig, and Maguire (1998) argue, however, that this emphasis has stifled efforts to use text in a valuable way in the science classroom. Fang et al. (2008) argue that current strategies deny students the opportunity to engage with and learn the specialized language of science and to see concrete examples of scientific reasoning. These researchers contend that to truly engage students in inquiry, the answer lies not in removing scientific text but in supporting students to learn with and from it. This chapter addresses this gap by exploring Grade 5 and 6 students’ ability to recognize, evaluate, and reason with evidence presented in hybrid adapted primary literature. Students’ oral discussions and writing are examined for the appropriate identification of evidence, the connections between this evidence and findings, and the degree of certainty ascribed to findings based on the nature of the evidence. Analyses suggest that the inclusion of narrative writing that explicitly addresses the decisions that scientists make with regards to evidence supports students in better identifying evidence later in the scientific report and demonstrating more complex reasoning with that evidence. Chapter 4 by Jerine Pegg and Simon Karuku examines the ways in which science curricular resources provide students with opportunities to develop evidence-based explanations and the complex reasoning skills required in the coordination of evidence and explanation. Pegg and Karuku present the results of a content analysis of Alberta junior high school science textbooks and associated laboratory materials to determine the nature and extent of opportunities for students to engage in reasoning about scientific explanations. The content analysis was based on a framework that identified opportunities for students to engage in explanatory reasoning, and classified the nature of such opportunities at three levels: (1) the type of explanatory process (constructing, evaluating, or applying claims), (2) the type of explanation (e.g., causal or descriptive), and (3) the supports for the explanation that the text prompts students to include (e.g., evidence or reasoning). Findings of the analysis suggest that although the curricular resources provide multiple opportunities for students to engage in the construction of claims, they rarely require students to evaluate or apply claims. The resources also include limited explicit prompts for students to support claims with evidence or reasoning. Implications for using existing curriculum resources to engage students in the construction of explanations and argumentation are discussed. “Reading the environment as text” is Chapter 5 by Susan Barker and Carole Newton. Comprehension of natural environments is value laden and culturally dependent and thus scientists and educators will construct different understandings of the same habitat. Scientists, for example, often provide us with evidence to understand the complexity of natural systems and educators interpret this evidence to make it relevant to the classroom or informal setting. Literacy is a form of understanding and so the processes by which we make sense of the environment can be seen as text or discourse rather than the environment itself. Stables (1996)
- 24. JENKINS AND NORRIS 12 argues that the environment is at least in part a social construct and that textual studies offer a valid means of studying it. In this chapter Barker and Newton explore how scientists and educators read the environment as text, as part of a collaborative venture in producing a site-specific science education resource. Stables (1996) indicates that traditional scientific approaches can further contribute to an understanding of the environment as text. The context for this chapter is Big Lake at Lois Hole Provincial Park, a Natural Area near Edmonton that has long been used for scientific research, teaching and recreation. Through this case study we explore the notion of reading the environment as text and demonstrate how both scientists and educators views are important when developing site-specific education resources for teaching science. Chapter 6, “Visualizations and visualization in mathematics education”, is by John S. Macnab, Linda M. Phillips, and Stephen P. Norris. The role and effectiveness of visualizations in mathematics is both contentious and ambiguous. The contention arises from the belief by many mathematicians that visualizations tie universal mathematical concepts and thoughts inappropriately to specific objects, misleading students about the significance of the mathematical results. The ambiguity arises because the best mathematicians often are not the best visualizers. In mathematics education, the bulk of the research is aimed at visualization as a computational aid that often leads to the creation of new mathematics. One could use a visualization object to assist students to understand a mathematical object, which could lead to the creation of another object that is mathematically interesting in its own right. For example, a graph might be used to help a student to understand a function. The graph itself, however, is a new mathematical object with its own properties. It is then possible to take an interest in graphs that is independent of the original aim of the graph’s introduction. This chapter reports on select findings from a review of 30 empirical studies of visualization in mathematics education and addresses the following four questions: (1) How is visualization defined and conceptualized? (2) What theoretical perspectives inform the application of visualization in mathematics? (3) What is the research evidence on visualization in mathematics education? and (4) What are some recommendations for the most effective development and use of visualizations in mathematics? Chapter 7, by John Braga, Linda M. Phillips, and Stephen P. Norris, is complementary to Chapter 6: “Visualizations and visualization in science education”. There has been a general consensus amongst science education researchers during the past 20 years that visualization objects assist in explaining, developing, and learning concepts in the field of science. However, the usefulness of visualization in science seems to have much to do with a match between the activity and the desired outcome. Visualization often involves using schematic or symbolic diagrams as computational aids. In these cases, the visual objects tend to be simple and direct. For conceptual understanding, richer objects in combination with verbal or textual instruction offer the possibility of rich experiences for students. The verbal component seems essential, because visualizations rarely can stand alone. This is especially true in science education, where difficult-to-imagine
- 25. CRYSTAL—ALBERTA 13 objects can be depicted dynamically for students to appreciate how these objects change over time. Finally, there appear to be important concepts that cannot be visually clarified leading to great disputes over whether visualizations have any place at all. This chapter reports on select findings from a review of 65 empirical studies of visualization in science education, addressing the following four questions: (1) How is visualization defined and conceptualized? (2) What theoretical perspectives inform the application of visualization in science? (3) What is the research evidence on visualization in science education? and (4) What are some recommendations for the most effective development and use of visualizations in science? In Chapter 8, “Curriculum development to promote visualization and mathematical reasoning: Radicals”, Elaine Simmt, Shannon Sookochoff, Janelle McFeetors, and Ralph Mason describe a project with six high school mathematics teachers who designed curriculum resources for teaching specific content of high school mathematics through inquiry. Through this field-based project teachers wrote, implemented, and evaluated inquiry lessons that promoted visualization and reasoning. In preparing for sharing their materials with others, they recognised that curriculum resources offer spaces for imagining inquiry lessons in a high school mathematics class, not blueprints for building an inquiry classroom. They describe the ways in which a teacher incorporated manipulative materials into her lessons to engage the students’ mathematical reasoning and visualization skills. The chapter is illustrated with a series of lessons on radicals, a topic often treated in high school purely symbolically. In the lessons developed by the teacher a concrete geometric visualization of the radical is offered to learners. The case demonstrates how the use of materials in the high school mathematics classroom affords possibilities for meaning making by using the visible to trigger mathematical reasoning. Brenda J. Gustafson and Peter G. Mahaffy authored Chapters 9 and 10, “Introducing grade five students to the nature of models”, and “Using computer visualizations to introduce grade five students to the particle nature of matter”. The chapters are related and focus on the development and appraisal of six computer visualizations designed to help Grade 5 children (ages 11–12) begin to learn about the particle model of matter, physical change, and chemical change. Chapter 9 begins with an introduction to research literature used to inform the content and design of the visualizations. This background provides the rationale for designing visualizations about small, unseen particles that include ideas about a) the nature of models (all models are ‘good enough’ models that have strengths and limitations), and b) the difficulty of believing in an unseen world. Chapter 10 provides a description of six computer visualizations, and discusses a subset of data gathered from two Grade 5 classrooms that piloted the visualizations. These data provide insight into some children’s thinking as they considered concepts related to small, unseen particles and the nature of models. The discussion and conclusion focus on the relationship between children’s views about the nature of models and their views about matter and how teachers can use this information to inform their teaching.
- 26. JENKINS AND NORRIS 14 SUMMARY Together the chapters attend to the challenges of promoting mathematics and science reasoning and deep understanding. The historical context provided a backgrounder to the need for research on mathematics and science reasoning. The research and dissemination model described some of the CRYSTAL—Alberta attempts to distribute past and present research and outreach resources locally, nationally, and internationally. Also provided were examples of resources, instructional strategies, assessment items, and potential curriculum outcomes that can be used to promote mathematics and science reasoning. The range of the conceptualization in the research indicates the breadth of what might initially be seen as a narrow topic and, again, indicates the difficulty in producing applied education research on any particular topic. Experience in education programs most often shows that at least 10 years are required to move from research through development into implementation. Perseverance with and belief in the goals will decide the eventual outcomes of CRYSTAL—Alberta. REFERENCES Academics’ Committee on Prospering in the Global Economy of the 21st Century. (2007). Rising above the gathering storm: Energizing and employing America for a brighter economic future. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Alberta Teachers’ Association. (2009). CRYSTAL—Alberta [Special issue]. Alberta Science Education Journal, 40(1). Alberta Teachers’ Association. (2011). More CRYSTAL—Alberta [Special issue]. Alberta Science Education Journal, 41(1). American Association for the Advancement of Science. (2001, 2007). Atlas of scientific literacy (Vols. 1–2). Washington, DC: National Science Foundation. The Committee of Ten. (1894). Report of the Committee of Ten on secondary school studies with the reports of the conferences arranged by the Committee. New York: The American Book Company for the National Educational Association. Conant, J.B. (1951). On understanding science. New York: Mentor Books. Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC). (1997). Common framework of science learning outcomes. Toronto, ON: Author. Duschl, R.A., Schweingruber, H.A., & Shouse, A.W. (Ed). (2007). Taking science to school: Learning and teaching science in grades K-8. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Fang, Z., Lamme, L., Pringle, R., Patrick, J., Sanders, J., Zmach, C., et al. (2008). Integrating Reading into Middle School Science: What we did, found and learned. International Journal of Science Education, 30, 2067-2089. doi:10.1080/09500690701644266 Metz, M. (2008). What is mathematical reasoning? CRYSTAL—Alberta, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. Millar, R. & Osborne, J. (1998). Beyond 2000: Science education for the future. London: King’s College London. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). (2006). Mathematics teaching in the middle school. Reston, VA: Author. National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). (2005). Centres for research in youth, science, teaching and learning (CRYSTAL) pilot program: Information for grantees. Ottawa, Canada: Author.
- 27. CRYSTAL—ALBERTA 15 Osborne, J. & Dillon, J. (2008). Science education in Europe: Critical reflections. London: The Nuffield Foundation. Roberts, Sir G. (2002). Set for success: The supply of people with science, technology, engineering and mathematics skills. London: HM Treasury. Sagan, C. (1997). The demon-haunted world: Science as a candle in the dark. New York: Ballantine. Science Council of Canada. (1984). Science for every student (Report No. 36). Ottawa, ON: Author. Select Committee on Science and Technology. (2000). Science and Society (3rd Report). London: The Stationery Office. Sjøberg, S., & Schreiner, C. (2005). How do learners in different cultures relate to science and technology? Results and perspectives from the project ROSE. Asia Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 6, 1–16. Stables, A. (1996). Reading the environment as text: Literacy theory and environmental education. Environmental Education Research, 2(2), 189–206. doi:10.1080/1350462960020205 Western and Northern Canadian Protocol (WNCP). (2006). The common curriculum framework for K-9 mathematics. Edmonton, AB: Alberta Education. Western and Northern Canadian Protocol (WNCP). (2008). The common curriculum framework for 10–12 mathematics. Edmonton, AB: Alberta Education. Windschitl, M. (2008). What is inquiry? A framework for thinking about authentic scientific practice in the classroom. In J. Luft, R.L. Bell, & J. Gess-Newsome. (Eds.). Science as inquiry in the secondary setting (pp. 1–20). Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers Association. Yore, L.D., Craig, M.T., & Maguire, T.O. (1998). Index of science reading awareness: An interactive- constructive model, test verification, and grades 4–8 results. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(1), 27–51. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2736(199801)35:1<27::AID-TEA3>3.3.CO;2-N AFFILIATIONS Frank Jenkins Centre for Mathematics, Science and Technology Education University of Alberta Stephen P. Norris Centre for Research in Youth, Science Teaching and Learning University of Alberta
- 28. II. READING FOR EVIDENCE
- 29. Stephen P. Norris (Ed.), Reading for Evidence and Interpreting Visualizations in Mathematics and Science Education, 19–40. © 2012 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved. SUSAN BARKER AND HEIDI JULIEN 2. READING FOR EVIDENCE INTRODUCTION When we went to school our reading of information was quite different from that of students today. Information we had access to was limited in range and predominantly in print form and there was an implied perception of trust in the information due to the accountability that was attached to print forms. Today we live in a ‘digital universe’ where information is rapidly expanding; it is instantly and continually accessible without having to leave the confines of our classroom or home, and almost immediately available from the time of generation and often with little evidence of source or validity. The information varies from vitally important matters of life and death to the trivial and unimportant, such as what a distant relative ate for supper. The International Data Corporation (IDC) predicts that digital information will grow 47% in 2011 alone to reach 1.8ZB (1.8 × 1021 bytes) and rocketing to 7 ZB by 2015 (IDC, 2010). This enormity of information changes the landscape of how in our everyday lives we filter, select, and read information and how it is shared and used in classrooms. Of particular importance is how students themselves find and evaluate information—tasks that teachers have set for students for generations but now occurring in a rapidly changing digital universe. Within the field of science, the terms ‘information’ and ‘evidence’ carry a meaning that goes beyond the general use of the terms, and thus in science teaching it is more appropriate to use the prefix ‘scientific’. Scientific information and evidence are integral parts of the nature of science itself with scientists relying on scientific information generated through the work of other scientists to lay the ground for new research questions, to substantiate methodology and verify results, and to keep up with new developments and new sources of research data. Indeed scientists spend around two to three months a year retrieving and reading scientific literature, in particular journal articles (King, Tenopir, & Clarke, 2006). However not any old piece of information will do; articles in Wikipedia for example are unlikely to be used to substantiate methodologies by a scientist planning new avenues in stem cell research due to its open source nature and unidentified authorship. The culture of science expects members to use peer-reviewed published work whether it be electronic or print scientific journals. The peer-review process provides a quality control that verifies research methodologies, results and conclusions, and the use of findings as evidence, which policy makers can then utilize to make decisions and form policies. Moreover, the digital universe has precipitated new ways for scientists to share and publish their research, in this case making their research even more accessible to laypeople (Bjork, 2007) with information often being frontier science where consensus has not yet been reached
- 30. BARKER AND JULIEN 20 (Kolstø, 2001). When teaching science, teachers tend to model as much as possible the practices of science but the use of evidence in school science, whether in illustrative or investigative work, is sometimes quite different from evidence used in socio-scientific issues and scientific research (Levinson, 2006; Gott & Duggan, 1995). Current emphases in science curricula around the world are upon scientific inquiry, the nature of science, and scientific literacy. For the most part, peer reviewed articles generated through the process of science are inaccessible to high school students due to specialized vocabulary, although elsewhere in this book adapted primary literature is used to engage students (see Chapter 3). The inaccessibility of scientific literature to those outside the culture of science is a well-documented phenomena (Hayes, 1992) so, traditionally, information given to students to support their learning in science is provided by the teacher in the form of class notes or dedicated textbooks. Such textbooks are usually written by science teachers together with scientists and reviewed for accuracy by scientists and teachers. The textbooks are either school- or teacher-selected and provide the science students with everything they need to know to pass a certain grade in school. However, we now are at an interesting time in science education because students are growing up and living in a digital age, living their lives through technology where print books are rarely part of their lives outside of school. Utilizing habits of students’ life worlds is an important strategy that teachers can adopt to motivate them in school. Yet, even when teachers try to make this possible, such as with technology, there are often obstacles that hamper inquiry- based learning, such as firewalls and filters put in place to protect young people (Farris-Berg, 2008). Our research explored two aspects of information literacy skills of high school science students making judgments about the validity of the information they read, which we have named ‘reading for evidence’. The term ‘information literacy’ refers to the set of skills required to identify information sources, access information, evaluate it, and use it effectively, efficiently, and ethically. In high school it is not unreasonable to suggest that teachers would expect most of their students to already have the basic reading and writing skills to participate in their lessons. Is the same true for information literacy? Just how information literate are high school science students and how do they develop those skills? What exactly do students do when we set them information seeking tasks? How might the outcomes impact on their understanding of science? What implications are there for the teaching of science? These are some of the questions that we have explored through our research and that we consider here. The questions are related to what we can do to improve scientific information literacy—reading for evidence. UNESCO (2009) describes information literacy as follows: Information literacy enables people to interpret and make informed judgments as users of information sources, as well as to become producers of information in their own right. Information literate people are able to access information about their health, their environment and work, empowering them to make critical decisions about their lives, e.g. in taking more responsibility for their own health and education (UNESCO, 2009, para 2).
- 31. READING FOR EVIDENCE 21 This is not entirely commensurate with the notion of scientific literacy that is currently a key focus of science curricula worldwide. “Scientific literacy is the knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts and processes required for personal decision making, participation in civic and cultural affairs, and economic productivity” (National Research Council, 1996, p. 22). Norris and Phillips (2003, p. 225) provide a more helpful detailed analysis of concepts of scientific literacy: – Knowledge of the substantive content of science and the ability to distinguish science from non-science; – Understanding science and its applications; – Knowledge of what counts as science; – Independence in learning science; – Ability to think scientifically; – Ability to use scientific knowledge in problem solving; – Knowledge needed for intelligent participation in science-based issues; – Understanding the nature of science, including its relationship with culture; – Appreciation of and comfort with science, including its wonder and curiosity; – Knowledge of the risks and benefits of science; and – Ability to think critically about science and to deal with scientific expertise. We also have a host of other types of literacy such as digital literacy, technology literacy, critical literacy, media literacy, etc., and whilst some have their own specific contexts and definitions there is also some redundancy of terms (Sensenbaugh, 1990). Yet they all share the goal of making sense of the ever expanding universe of information. Given that information literacy transcends curriculum areas, it is important to ensure that any skill development is contextualized within the discipline. This is particularly important in science where evaluating information is an integral part of the nature of science. A new literacy is thus emerging that addresses this concern and that is scientific information literacy. Our work presented here contributes to an understanding of what this form of literacy might look like in the classroom. There is a some research already in this field and our review of the literature on finding information shows that science students are challenged by evaluating the veracity and objectivity of information (Adams, 1999), and that they demonstrate significant preference for the internet and electronic resources over print resources (Barranoik, 2001; Jones, 1999; Shenton, 2007). In addition most students demonstrate poor search skills (such as difficulty selecting search terms, appropriately citing sources) (e.g., Barranoik, 2001; Fidel, Davies, & Douglass, 1999; Scott & O’Sullivan, 2005). Moreover, when working with information on the internet, high school students are unable to distinguish credibility in websites, that is, demonstrate insufficient higher level thinking when credibility or accuracy is being assessed (Brem, Russell, & Weems, 2001). When they do find information deemed to be relevant, high school biology students’ read scientific documents superficially (Brill, Falk, & Yarden, 2004) with minimizing effort as a key driver of students’ information seeking (Jones, 1999). Students also seek the ‘right’ answer and tend to judge relevance on the basis of convenient access and
- 32. BARKER AND JULIEN 22 superficial criteria (Heinström, 2006). A number of papers have also explored how students make judgements about the evidence in media reports of scientific research (e.g., Kolstø, 2001; Norris & Phillips, 1994; Phillips & Norris, 1999; Ratcliffe, 1999). These papers show that students learn significantly about the nature of science from considering such reports but the criteria they use are based more on the processes of science than on the facts or content knowledge. These are particularly important observations given that much information on the internet about scientific topics lacks this contextual information and explains why more superficial criteria are being used by students. Our research took place in the province of Alberta, Canada. The Alberta curriculum clearly identifies the importance of information seeking skills both from the Focus on Inquiry curriculum document (Alberta Learning, 2004) as well as within subject areas. For example, in our study we worked with students studying Biology 20 which has the following goals: “Students will be encouraged to seek and apply evidence when evaluating alternative approaches to investigations, problems, and issues; e.g., question arguments in which evidence, explanations or positions do not reflect the diversity of perspectives that exist” (Alberta Education, 2007, p. 16). Again, these skills are consistent with standard information literacy skills. Further, the biology curriculum includes the following expectations for high school students’ experiences and learning: – understand that scientific language is precise and specific terms may be used in each field of study; – research, integrate and synthesize information from various print and electronic sources regarding a scientific question; – apply given criteria for evaluating evidence and assess the authority, reliability, scientific accuracy and validity of sources of information; – research, integrate and synthesize information from various print and electronic sources relevant to a practical question; – research, integrate and synthesize information from various print and electronic sources relevant to a given question, problem or issue; and – select information and gather evidence from appropriate sources and evaluate search strategies (Alberta Education, 2007, pp. 8–10). Moreover, the Alberta curriculum supports development of information and communications technology (ICT) skills (Alberta Education, 2008), which are absolutely consistent with information literacy skills as understood more broadly. We thus see an interesting paradox where the Alberta high school curriculum emphasizes the need to develop information literacy skills that are integral to the process of science, yet in science subjects little emphasis is given to information literacy or connection to science inquiry and the nature of science. Full details of the research methodology from our study can be found in Julien and Barker (2009). The context of the research was a class task on finding information on Biomes rooted in the Biology 20 program of studies. We asked students as part of this task to reflect on the information seeking task in addition to interviewing students about the process.
- 33. READING FOR EVIDENCE 23 The two key areas that we want to explore in this chapter are the use of textbooks and the internet as sources of information for students. The research literature suggests that many students are motivated to choose strategies that ensure they can complete the task in the shortest possible amount of time. Indeed students in our study expressed similar views about not wanting to waste time, and as a result the internet was the favourite method for finding information, followed by class textbooks. We suspect that this is because it is easier to cut and paste digital information into an assignment, but no one admitted to this possibly because of plagiarism issues! CLASS TEXTBOOKS In Alberta, there is a heavy dependence on the use of textbooks in science classrooms. Textbooks used in schools are approved by the province on the basis of a match with outcomes described in the Program of Studies. Schools and teachers then select specific books from the list of approved textbooks; students usually have access to one textbook in a subject area. In the development of these authorized textbooks, content is reviewed for accuracy and appropriateness by scientists and teachers and these experts are listed at the front of the book. So here we have an interesting situation of information in the form of a textbook which already has had several stages of evaluation, validation, and approval before getting to the classroom. In our study, a number of students expressed a desire to use the class textbook as the main source of information despite not finding it easy to use. These students were making a crude cost-benefit analysis based on the fact that they assume that all the material presented in the textbook is relevant so they don’t need to evaluate it and sift through irrelevant material, which wastes time. Students told us that they had absolute confidence in everything in the textbook because their teachers and schools recommend it to them and they have faith in the teacher and in the school. Andy said, “Well I used it [a textbook] because I knew it would be reliable. If the school would give it to us and it not be reliable...then that would kind of be defeating a bunch of purposes.” So this presents an interesting issue for science teachers. The evaluation is vicarious having assumed to have been done by teachers, the province, and experts who have reviewed the material for accuracy and relevancy. Whilst many students are not aware of the behind-the-scenes evaluation, they are basing their trust in the textbook on the trust they have in their teachers. Here is an example of students accepting knowledge without question because of unconditional trust in the textbook, in the teacher, or in both. Teachers could ask their students: “Would a research scientist studying antibiotic resistance in bacteria use a school textbook as a source of information to plan their work and, if not, why not?” While this question might seem quite ridiculous and the answer obvious, it will facilitate a discussion about information literacy, the differences between information and evidence, the rapidly changing nature of scientific knowledge, thus the nature of science. Clearly the purpose for using the information is a key factor in determining the level of evaluation given.
- 34. BARKER AND JULIEN 24 A useful extension task would be to compare the peer-review process in the development of textbooks, where secondary information is reviewed for accuracy and appropriateness, with peer review in scientific research journals. The future of textbooks in science classrooms is unclear. Farris-Berg, who reported for Project Tomorrow on the next generation in science education, indicated only one in five students saw a role for textbooks in future science classrooms (Farris-Berg, 2008). There is no doubt that the trend for using electronic textbooks instead of print will continue, but it is unclear whether there will be any radical change in how the information is reviewed and selected. In addition, how a textbook is used in science class is a pedagogy that is under-researched, despite its implications for our work. From our own observations of science classrooms we regularly see teachers ask students to read chapters silently or out loud in round- robin style without any consideration of the nature of the information. Neither of these strategies will help students better understand scientific concepts (Walker & Huber, 2002) or read for evidence. What is clear is that we need to get students to be critical of textbooks and print information irrespective of authorship and explore what we mean by scientific evidence. A useful activity is to compare old textbooks with new on a specific topic to demonstrate just how much (or little) scientific understanding has changed over the years. INTERNET Findings from the in-class task in which students had to find information on Biomes were generally consistent with previously published research. Overall, even though students were given access to a wide range of information sources, the internet was the most frequently used source for the students’ research (59% of sources identified). Google™ was the most used search engine to access either specific sites, such as Wikipedia, or in general searching. The dominance of Google™ in students’ responses was noticeable. Students regarded Google™ as being ‘the’ internet and used the two terms interchangeably. In addition, Google™ as a source of information was used indiscriminately for all sources of information for school and home (i.e., for academic and for personal information seeking) and great confidence was placed in the web sites that Google provided, with many students simply using the first site listed from the search. Chandra stated, “I just Googled it and then I compared between different pages to see how accurate it was and then I went with the one that showed up the most”. The largest proportion of students’ responses to why they turned to the internet most often (35%) focused on perceived relevance of information found (i.e., answers the task questions). Accuracy of information was identified by comparing multiple resources for consistency in information provided (42%). Students mostly looked at the first three sites from a Google™ search and, if the information in these three sites was comparable, then this gave the students a measure of validity. Carrie noted, “I usually just click the first one and read it, and then I’ll click a couple more and if they all say kind of the same thing then I’ll keep that, because you’re getting it from multiple sources, so chances are it’s real.” Repeatedly, credibility was judged
- 35. READING FOR EVIDENCE 25 by noting that references were provided (48% of respondents). Relevance was assessed according to whether the information found answered the task question to be addressed, that is, by topical relevancy (41% of responses). Students reported skimming information for relevant key terms in order to assess relevancy. Students in our study indicated that they preferred to use the internet because it is convenient and familiar, and that searching by key word is easy. As Natasha states, “Well, I’m – it’s more reliable than going to the library and trying to find a book..., ‘cause it takes less time.” Robert noted, “Well it’s much more convenient than, you know, you want to do something else with your time. If you get the information right here, you can finish the task quicker.” Kendra stated that the internet is “a lot more easy to access whereas the library and the textbooks we have to go to the library.” However, their searching skills are quite unsophisticated. In general, students search by pasting the assignment question or task directly into the search box. They scan the first three or four web sites that appear for matching key words, and the content of these top sites are compared for consistency. Interestingly, Wikipedia is used and liked by many of the students, although there was an uneasy tension as students commented that Wikipedia is often the first webpage listed from a Google™ search, but it is widely judged by them as not being a valid source of information. Jimmy said, “Wikipedia was just another place to compare because Wikipedia is an open source. And then so, being an open source it is not exactly always reliable.” Head and Eisenberg (2009) also found that students like to go to Wikipedia first as this collaborative, community-based online encyclopaedia gave students the big picture and language contexts. Their students described Wikipedia as their “first go-to place” because Wikipedia entries offer a “preview” and provide “a simple narrative that gives you a grasp” and “can point you in the right direction,” and “helps when I have no idea what to do” (Head & Eisenberg, 2009, p. 11). The trustworthiness of information that students accessed was predominantly viewed in terms of the site or resource including domain name rather than by evaluation of the content. For example, university sites were mentioned as being accurate, with some students viewing university sites as reputable and reliable using information from these sites for school purposes. However, examples given of university sites were from the U.S. rather than local Alberta institutions. For example, Allison said, “I use the University of Berkeley site cause they’re a generally trusted university name and you can assume that you can trust the research they’ve done.” However domain names such as “angelfire.com” were considered by one student to suggest unreliability. Evaluating information on websites by examining domain name only is a risky practice; students need to be better equipped at evaluating content. If you draw comparisons with making judgments about the accuracy of information in a book based on the title of the book then the basis for making that judgment is more obviously flawed. DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION LITERACY SKILLS IN SCIENCE The largest proportion of participants stated that they learned how to select information for science classes by experience with non-science school projects
- 36. BARKER AND JULIEN 26 (38%), and through non-academic personal experience (29%). Friends and family were frequently mentioned as those from whom the students had learned their skills. Overall, when asked directly, students expressed confidence in their information-finding and evaluation skills. Eva stated, “I guess just basically from years of experience I can tell whether or not something is reliable or not reliable.” Robert said, “If Wikipedia’s not first, then I just go with the first site Google™ gives me.” This concurs with Head & Eisenberg (2009) who found that most students have developed strategies, techniques, and workarounds through trial and error and designed their own methods that sometimes, but not always, help them find content when searching for information. Students reported that their primary search strategy is keyword searching. While this approach is useful for new vocabulary (e.g., “podcasting”), when there is no thesaurus, when searching is resulting in few hits, or when a known item is sought (e.g., specific author), there are significant limits to the value of keyword searches. The students in this study are unfamiliar with the benefits of searching by controlled vocabulary to improve comprehensiveness and precision. In addition, these students are apparently unaware of how search engines identify potentially relevant sources. Thus, the limitations of searching by Google™, and of searching with only one search engine, are not understood. The school in the research study was a very multicultural school with a Mandarin language program. One student for whom English was not his first language and who was a recent immigrant to Canada could not easily articulate what he had done to find information but had used the internet using English key words rather than in his native Mandarin language. Overall, the students revealed unsophisticated evaluation skills. Understanding of critical evaluation criteria such as authority, accuracy, objectivity, currency, and coverage, was not evident from the students’ comments. Not one student used language that was commensurate with the nature of science, for example, ‘evidence’, ‘reliability’, or ‘validity’. STRATEGIES FOR TEACHERS TO HELP STUDENTS FIND INFORMATION It is clear that despite the unambiguous curricular mandates to develop information literacy skills, actual skill levels in the students in the study were underdeveloped. The “Focus on Inquiry” document (Alberta Learning, 2004), which explicates sound information-searching skills, is clearly insufficient to ensure that students are developing these skills. Actual classroom practices and teachers’ understandings and attitudes were not explored in this study, so their relationship to the results reported here remain uncertain. It is possible that teachers believe that students already have these skills, or perhaps that they themselves lack sophisticated skills and are therefore unable to provide guidance to their students. One reason for the lack of emphasis is that information-seeking skills are not directly assessed in the provincial exams. So, even when such objectives are listed in the curriculum they are unlikely to be taken seriously by teachers. This observation was pointed out by an Alberta science teacher at a
- 37. READING FOR EVIDENCE 27 science council professional development workshop where this study was discussed. Such assessment-led teaching is not confined to Alberta and is a common phenomenon worldwide. In order for content or skills to be taken seriously they need to be assessed. However, we do believe that this is a missed opportunity, particularly for science teachers. Science lends itself very well to discussions about the construction of knowledge, accuracy of information, and evidence the students may find on the internet. For example, the tentative nature of scientific knowledge is a critical issue to address when developing information-seeking skills in science. A student in our sample who used his “grandmother’s encyclopaedia” to find information for all school tasks and personal interests irrespective of the topic, had not considered why he might need to use more contemporary resources. The 11th edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica published in 1911 presents quite a different view of the world than we see today. The word ‘Biome’ (the topic of the students’ science task) is not even included, and older books contain many descriptions of biological phenomena which would today be considered incorrect, for example, in pre-1980 books, the structure of the cell membrane. In order to counter these concerns, teachers could present relevant scientific information from historical and contemporary resources to demonstrate how knowledge and understanding have changed and why recent resources have the potential to be more accurate. An excellent example of such a task is presented by Warren (2001) who uses scientific knowledge about scurvy from a number of periods in history. This role play requires several students each to act out the role of a medical doctor at a specific time in history. They have to make a diagnosis and prescribe treatment for scurvy based on the scientific information and evidence that would have been available to them at that particular time in history. The survival rate of their patients is clearly linked to the scientific information demonstrating that we need to use the most recent evidence we have available to us. As students are unaware of how search engines work and the way in which websites are ordered it would help if teachers drew attention to this. Of concern is the dominance of Google™, which is revered as the way to find information without any question or concern about underlying marketing strategies and economics filtering information. A simple task would be to present a search to the class using two or more different search engines to demonstrate just how serendipitous (or not!) the process is and to provoke discussions about the activities of information brokers such as Google™. Google™ ranking is based on popularity as determined by internal links (so Wikipedia is highly ranked). Some sites pay to be indexed (and pay for ranking), for example, the right column list in Google™, and students need to be alerted to the impact of this on the information they obtain. Other points to alert students to are that every word is indexed and order matters. Ranking algorithms are secret but first lines, titles, metadata tags, top of page, linked words, number of links to page are part of the process. It is widely known that abuse and manipulation are possible and that the domain (geographic location) matters—and that there is
- 38. BARKER AND JULIEN 28 censorship in some countries. Some other advice that could be provided to students for searching: – Look for the name of the author or organization – Go to the home page of the host site to find out about the organization – Use a search engine to find more information about the author – Check for date of last modification (on page or using browser’s “Document Info” or “Properties”) – Use the URL as a clue to authority – a ~ indicates a personal page – note domains (edu, gov, com, net, org, etc.) We also found that students become overwhelmed when faced with 3 million webpages from their search term. Most students were unaware of Boolean Operators named after George Boole a 19th Century Mathematician. The main Boolean operators are: – AND, which finds only those pages with both terms; – OR, which finds pages with any one or any combination of search terms; – NOT, which finds articles that exclude one or more terms (see Cohen, 2011). Finally a common misunderstanding is that searching occurs on live sites but this is not so: the searches are of indexes, so information can be dated. We see that overall students gave less emphasis to the process of finding information than the end product of the search. Indeed, Barranoik (2001) too found that biology high school students showed that they were more concerned with the content than the process. In our study many students found it hard to recall precisely what they had done or why, despite specific questions addressing the process in their assignment. Rarely are such questions asked of students despite increasing evidence of the benefits of metacognition (Brem et al., 2001). The ultimate goal was for ‘information to go’, finding precise information in the easiest way possible and in the shortest amount of time. Thus, we recommend that teachers give more emphasis to the process of finding information by perhaps assigning marks for process as was done in the task set for this research. Students’ primary search strategy was through the use of natural language (keyword) searches and this strategy is particularly useful: – for new vocabulary (e.g., “podcasting”); – when there is no thesaurus; – when you’re getting few hits; or – when a known item is sought (e.g., specific author). However, students should also be helped to go beyond keyword searching by using controlled vocabulary, which are subject terms used to identify records in a uniform manner. For example, in the ERIC database, “library instruction” is the
- 39. READING FOR EVIDENCE 29 official subject term used for “bibliographic instruction” and “library orientation.” The advantages of controlled vocabulary are: – Facilitates gathering like items (brings together documents about similar concepts even if those concepts are identified by synonyms); – Improves comprehensiveness of search (missing a critical synonym is less likely); – Improves precision of search (e.g., search for “students, medical” will exclude all other students. – Gives insight into ambiguous terminology: MERCURY (Roman mythology) vs. MERCURY (element); – Broadens understanding of available terminology. INFORMATION LITERACY AND SCIENCE INQUIRY The connections between information literacy, scientific literacy, and science inquiry seem to be under-utilized and we argue that more attention to making these connections could help promote a better understanding of the nature of science. However an important point here is that finding, evaluating, and using information are critical parts of how a scientist conducts research inquiry. Thus, if school science inquiry models the practices of scientists, then emphasis on this part of the process could also enhance an understanding of the nature of science. Science inquiry is often misunderstood as being the same thing as the nature of science. Much of the confusion can be attributed to the variety of approaches advocated for science inquiry. For example, Crawford (2000) emphasized that teachers’ ideas and practice about inquiry are varied and complex. The starting point of inquiry is also ambiguous. For some teachers, a problem or question is given to students. With only a question or problem to go by, the students may begin science inquiry with sparse and disorganized background knowledge. Therefore, they should first conduct background library or internet research (Windschitl, 2008). Windschitl views such information-seeking tasks as being ‘supporting activities’ of inquiry, which help prepare students to participate more meaningfully in the core activities of inquiry by acquainting them with necessary concepts, ideas and skills (Windschitl, 2008). Whether the information seeking is seen as part of the inquiry process or supplementary to it, science classrooms where students follow an inquiry model of learning are ideal in which to develop and refine information literacy. In a science context, the parallels of information seeking with science inquiry could be to the benefit of teachers and students, each one having the potential to reinforce the other with the additional bonus of helping to understand the processes of science. The whole process of information seeking is remarkably similar to the stages of science inquiry, despite being considered by Windschitl (2008) to be a subset or complementary activity to science inquiry. Introducing information-seeking tasks in the context of the work of scientists may be a helpful strategy. For example, would scientists working in stem cell research use their grandmothers’ encyclopaedia to find information to help them plan a new
- 40. BARKER AND JULIEN 30 experiment? This sort of question could lead to useful discussions about the nature of scientific knowledge. Presenting the task as a scientific question or encouraging students to pose a question to answer is a good way to start. Teachers might consider using a constructivist approach, eliciting students’ prior understanding about the topic. One of the possible ways in which information seeking may be related to science inquiry is presented in Table 2.1. Such a side-by-side comparison helps reinforce the processes of scientific inquiry in addition to information seeking. Alternatively highlighting the role of information seeking as a pre-cursor to scientific inquiry (Windschitl, 2008) would be equally as useful. Table 2.1. Links Between Information Seeking and Scientific Inquiry Information Seeking Task Science Inquirya Goal: Finding credible information to meet an identified need Goal: Developing defensible explanations of the way the natural world works Elicit prior knowledge Elicit prior knowledge and organize what we know and what we’d like to know. Plan search strategy (identify key words, appropriate synonyms and combinations, identify possible credible sources) Generate hypothesis Execute search strategy (iteratively, according to results) Seek evidence to support or refute the hypothesis Evaluate information found according to standard criteria Construct an argument Communicate or present results as required Communicate findings a Partly adapted from Windschitl (2008). Cultural Context We also need to consider that evidence is constructed through a western world view of science. As we begin to recognize and value the role of traditional knowledge systems in our curriculum, we know that some cultures value the written word less than oral traditions. For such cultures, reading for evidence is likely to be an alien concept. What is more relevant is the notion of reading the environment that is considered in Chapter 5. Given the multicultural context of many of the world’s classrooms, a useful strategy would be to encourage students to search for information in their first language rather than the language that is predominantly used in the classroom. This opportunity could be used to highlight any differences that may arise from searching in different languages, and to
- 41. READING FOR EVIDENCE 31 consider the significance this has for science. Searching in their first language may help students improve understanding in specific content areas and would give the students a break from the constant demands of having to translate everything. In addition, such an approach may enable inclusivity of parents or guardians in the students’ school work. Moreover a focus on written information is also restrictive with regard to inclusion of traditional knowledge and aboriginal world views where much of the information is visual or oral. As oral and visual traditions are integral to an understanding of traditional knowledge, it is useful to discuss similarities and differences in recording of knowledge and information between western world science and traditional world views. Indeed the Alaska Native Science Commission (ANSC, 1994) website provides such a comparison. Textual Scientific Inquiry The fact that students evaluate information superficially led us to develop a teaching prototype for use in secondary classrooms that facilitated a science inquiry approach on a piece of textual information. The rationale was to enhance students’ understanding of science inquiry, to broaden the range of inquiry approaches that might be considered in the science classroom, and to develop more sophisticated scientific information literacy skills in students. Researchers such as Kolstø (2001), Ratcliffe, (1999) and Norris and Philips (2003), who have worked with young people dealing with media reports of science, have indicated that some of the criteria students use to make judgments about information are based on the ways in which the research was conducted and by whom. These criteria are more to do with the processes and nature of science than with the information per se. Levinson’s (2006) work with teachers and controversial socio-scientific issues highlighted a need for: “facts; the reliability and validity of evidence; and the contrast between facts and values” (Levinson 2006, p. 247). We wanted to focus on the information itself and not necessarily on how it was constructed, so we focused on the distinction between scientific facts, misconceptions and values and how these are used to inform and educate students about a range of socio-scientific issues. We initially provided students with some broad descriptions of what facts, misconceptions and values are. We indicated that factual statements attempt to describe. Thus, a fact is a verifiable statement of what is true. For example, the estimate of North Atlantic Harp Seal population in Canada in 2011 is 9 million based on population estimates. Another definition is that statements are facts if they “remain stable when challenged” (Bingle & Gaskell 1994, p. 197). Factual statements (which can be specific, general and even theoretical) attempt to describe, but not evaluate the worth of a thing or action. (Note that some theorists believe that scientific facts are not completely value free, but this refinement was not considered for the purposes of this study.) Also we encouraged students to think about the difference between a scientific fact that is verified by the scientific method, and descriptions which are a ‘matter of
- 42. BARKER AND JULIEN 32 fact’ but are based on informal evidence such as a personal observation. We proposed to the students that a misconception (sometimes referred to as a myth) is sometimes treated exactly the same as fact because a myth is what people think is fact. How they arise is unclear but it may be based on incomplete evidence, partial truths, or being misled through advocacy groups or the media. Finally, we suggested that values are opinions about how things should be and place value (positive or negative) on the way things are (or were, or could be). Values cannot be proven right or wrong by scientific methods. An example of such a value is, Seals should not be hunted. We also encouraged students to recognize that scientists who have studied the issue, have scientific qualifications, and may even be described as ‘expert’, do not necessarily have values superior to anyone else. There are often no right or wrong answers to public issues and more often than not scientists will not make value statements when doing science because they are stepping outside the boundaries of science. Our prototype teaching method used content analysis, which has a long history as a research method used to measure and analyze textual material. Content analysis is used in media studies to measure some aspect of the content of written, spoken or published communication by systematic, objective, and quantitative analysis. It is a means of trying to learn something about people or organizations by examining what they write. Neuendorf (2002) provides a helpful definition: Content analysis is a summarizing, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the scientific method (including attention to objectivity, intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity, generalizability, replicability, and hypothesis testing) and is not limited as to the types of variables that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented (p. 10). It assumes that what is written reflects the behaviour and attitudes of the author or the organization. In our teaching prototype, we used it as a teaching tool rather like we use scientific method as a teaching tool in scientific inquiry. Essentially, it follows an inquiry model so the strategy has the potential to reinforce students’ skills in scientific inquiry. Text or images are used as a source of data that can be measured using a series of parameters recorded in a table known as a coding frame. The parameters in the coding frame can be provided by the teacher or developed by the student depending on the type of inquiry approach being used. To differentiate between levels of textual inquiry we proposed a model based on Bell, Smetana, and Binns (2005). As can be seen from Table 2.2 and Table 2.3, the amount of information provided to students decreases as the inquiry level increases from level 1 to level 4. The idea was to introduce the activity to students at a level matching their previous experience of science inquiry and ability and to provide progression through increasing sophistication of the technique. To familiarize students with the approach, we suggested starting with level 1 then moving through the levels as
- 43. READING FOR EVIDENCE 33 students gain confidence in the approach. The model can also be used as a differentiation tool in the classroom to provide different tasks for a range of abilities. Table 2.2. Levels of Textual Inquiry Inquiry Level Description 1. Confirmation Teachers present a question, a coding frame and results. Students interpret the results and make conclusions. 2. Structured Inquiry Teachers present a question and a coding frame. Students collect data, interpret the results, and make conclusions. 3. Guided Inquiry Teachers present a question. Students collect data using coding frames that they have developed. They interpret results and make conclusions. 4. Open Textual Inquiry Students investigate questions that they have formulated. Students collect data using coding frames that they have developed. They interpret results and make their own conclusions. Table 2.3. Information Given to Students in Textual Inquiry Level of Inquiry Question Coding frame Data 1 2 3 4 Selecting Appropriate Materials The first step was to collect some contrasting pieces of information that address a socio-scientific issue that was being explored in class. Two is the minimum number so that comparisons can be made. In our pilot studies some teachers used three pieces of information. As confirmation that teachers and students are swamped by too much information we found that this was one of the most difficult parts of the task. We encouraged teachers to use materials they had selected so that they would be relevant to the context of their schools and be appropriate for their students. We found that the majority just wanted to use materials we had provided. They could find lots of information but it was discerning the contrasting material that proved to be too big a challenge and too time consuming. We thus provided three sources of information for two contexts (Edmonton Sun, 2006; Fink, 2007; Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 2006): the Seal Hunt and Climate Change. Considering the seal hunt case, we asked the students: How are scientific evidence and opinions/values used to promote or reject the seal hunt? The focus was to get students to think about the types of scientific evidence and
- 44. BARKER AND JULIEN 34 facts used in the discussion of the issue and the range of value statements. To help them on their way we asked them to brainstorm both pro-hunt and anti-hunt reasons (See Table 2.4). Table 2.4. Examples Provided by the Students Pro-hunt Anti-hunt Too many seals Cruel/inhumane Provides jobs for people Hunt is unsustainable and seal populations will fall Food for local people Most people don’t want the hunt To allow more cod Seals don’t eat much cod Provides pelts for lucrative fur industry Synthetic clothes are better Provides penises for traditional herbal medicine There’s no scientific evidence in support We then set the context by asking the students to think about types of scientific evidence that would support of refute these arguments: data on seal populations; data on cod population; research on pain and suffering by seals; and opinion surveys. We set three sequential tasks using content analysis. For the purposes of the pilot we provided coding frames (data tables) for them. Task 1 Quantifying facts and opinions. We instructed the students as follows: You are provided with 3 different sources of information found on the internet on the Canadian Seal Hunt. The sample materials represent newspapers, Canadian government, and anti-hunt groups (International Fund for Animal Welfare, IFAW). With your knowledge of the seal hunt and knowledge of what facts and opinions are, do you think that there would be a difference in the number of facts and opinions in each of the different sources. Method- Examine each document and count the number of science facts and opinions in each. Choose a method which allows you to count facts and opinions separately. For example, underline the facts and circle the opinions or use coloured highlighter pens. You can use a coding frame such as the one below. Item 1 (Gov) Item 2 (IFAW) Item 3 (News) Number of facts Number of opinions Significance? What do your results show? Conclusion? Can you make any conclusions based on the data and small sample? Further studies? What would you need to do in order to confirm or refute your hypothesis?
- 45. READING FOR EVIDENCE 35 This task clearly focused on differentiating between facts and opinions. There are some challenges with this approach given that ‘facts’ that inform socio-scientific issues can be drenched in values, highlighting that presenting such a dichotomy might distort students’ understanding of the way in which evidence is generated and interpreted (Levinson, 2006). However, in our follow-up work with students, the task of differentiating between facts and opinions seemed to be incredibly satisfying leading us to believe that this is an important step upon which to build more discriminating and specific scientific information literacy skills. For example this grade 10 student still had naïve understandings of fact, opinions, and proof: The most useful activity is reading through 3 articles and deciding on whether the information is a fact or opinion. This helped me decide if there is proof or not. If there is a noted source, it was considered fact but if not was an opinion. Task 2 Same story, different facts. For this task, students were instructed as follows: Now examine in the table how the scientific facts or evidence vary in the different documents. Evidence Item 1 (Gov) Item 2 (IFAW) Item 3( News) Population data Harp Seals 2004 5.8 million 5.82 million 6 million Number of Harp Seals killed 2005 No information 389,512 No information Government quota 2006 No information 335,000 559,000 Value of seals 2005 $16.5 million $51,710,145 $6 million Pelt value No information $13 jacket pelt $22–55 beater pelt $7 adult pelt $70 Population change Triple population size of the 1970’s No evidence of rising population Currently stable No information Opinion polls Ispos Reid 60% favour Environics 69% opposed No information Questions to consider: Do some of the facts vary across the three categories? If so, why might this be so? Students found this exercise the most surprising. They learned that what might appear to be exact statistics (e.g., government quotas) could have different figures depending on the source. They also connected the activity with how they may present their own data in traditional labs in school and the importance of accuracy. One Grade 10 student said, “My labs will be more valid because I will be comparing my findings to more accurate data.”
- 46. BARKER AND JULIEN 36 Task 3 Informal evidence. Students were guided as follows: Some of the articles may use what would be regarded as ‘informal evidence’, that is, considered as a common sense view of the issue or individual observations. These could not be counted as scientific evidence because they have not been tested or thoroughly investigated but have slightly more value than pure opinions because they are based on reality. Evidence Item 1 (Gov) Item 2 (IFAW) Item 3( News) Helping cod stocks No information There is no evidence that culling harp seals will benefit commercial fisheries No information Population change The harp seal population size is healthy and abundant There is no scientific reason to cull Harp Seals “Seals aren’t out here” “Hunters hunt for scarce animals” “High mortality due to climate change” Cruelty The club or hakapik is an efficient tool designed to kill the animal quickly and humanely Canada’s commercial seal hunt is unacceptably cruel “Several seals shot and left to die on the ice” “A number of pans …were empty and stained with blood” We found from using the prototype in schools that students really enjoyed doing something active with the text rather than reading and discussing. They were motivated by highlighting, counting and entering data into a table or spreadsheet and they also enjoyed the fact that it was quick to do and they had something tangible to show for their consideration of the material. Reading and discussing does not leave students with any record of their analysis, leaving them feeling that nothing has been achieved. Most students were surprised that facts might be different in different sources particularly when they might have been previously deemed credible by using superficial criteria such as type of organization. They liked using web-based resources and working collaboratively on the tasks. One of the greatest benefits commented on by virtually all of the students and teachers was that the activities enhanced an understanding of scientific inquiry. In all honesty, this exercise was the most useful as it forced us to critically analyze the truth in each and every sentence. We did something similar in English class and it really widens your eyes and makes you notice that not everything you read in an article is 100% true. We learned that it’s much more difficult to prove opinions than facts. (Grade 10 student) The topic has greatly improved my understanding of scientific inquiry because it gave me clear information in sorting out if the statement is a fact, misconception, or opinion. It also made me understand that comparing issues with a few other articles is necessary for scientific inquiry to see if it’s valid. (Grade 10 student)
- 47. READING FOR EVIDENCE 37 Before the topic I didn’t know what scientific inquiry was but now I do. (Grade 10 student) The teachers involved in the activities also recognized the contribution of the analysis to an understanding of scientific inquiry and thus reinforced an understanding of the nature of science. However they did not believe that an inquiry approach generally helped students score better in the provincial exams. Using the activity as an open-ended inquiry was too time-consuming for a classroom-based task, but teachers thought that it was a very helpful scaffold for developing critical thinking skills. I think it helped them understand science inquiry. I think it did for some of them. It makes them a little bit more thoughtful and makes them think a little bit more about what they are doing in science rather than just information overload. Especially on topics such as this that they are going to see again in social studies down the line and maybe further down the line. (Teacher Science 10) So when reading for evidence, science students should be encouraged to read and count! Reading as a task is unlikely to develop critical thinking skills and a science inquiry approach using content analysis helps students really differentiate between facts, myths, and values and thus read for evidence. However, whilst it is helpful to highlight the distinction between facts and values what is more important is to focus on examining all sources of knowledge critically (Levinson, 2006). CONCLUSION It is perhaps inappropriate to expect teachers to deliver and interpret curriculum in areas where their own skills require significant development. The complex task of supporting the interpretation of evidence in controversial issues needs to be part of a teacher’s repertoire. Yet, teachers give priority to day-to-day functions of teaching over reflection about the nature of evidence in controversial issues (Levinson, 2006). Indeed, Levinson goes on to cite Bartholomew, Osborne, and Ratcliffe (2002) who found that teachers, when teaching controversial issues in science perceive their primary function as dispenser of knowledge and provider of factual information (Levinson, 2006). Moreover, Williams and Coles (2007) interviewed teachers in the United Kingdom and found that teachers lack information literacy skills, especially searching and evaluation skills. Asselin (2005) found that a lack of time to teach information literacy is a significant barrier for teachers. We are at a curious point in time when many students have better ICT skills than their parents or teachers and this can be intimidating. There are some resources for teachers already. Some science resources, for example, Ebenezer and Lau (2003), fail to address the information literacy skills highlighted in this chapter including the necessity to explore the nature of scientific evidence when reading scientific information. Undoubtedly, information literacy needs to be explicitly addressed in the classroom. In scientific disciplines, scientific literacy and information literacy are inextricably linked. Teaching students skills in searching for and evaluating information within a science inquiry framework has the
- 48. BARKER AND JULIEN 38 potential to help them understand better the nature of science and the nature of scientific knowledge. In addition, it will help them learn more widely applicable information literacy skills for use in daily life. The value of these skills is unchallenged, but significant challenges to inculcating them remain. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to research assistants Sarah Polkinghorne, Heather Kenney, Jeff Baker and David Merredew. REFERENCES Adams, S.T. (1999). Critiquing claims about global warming from the World Wide Web: A comparison of high school students and specialists. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 19, 539. doi:10.1177/027046769901900610 Alaskan Native Science Commission (ANSC). (1994). What is traditional knowledge? Traditional knowledge systems in the Arctic. Anchorage, AK: Author. Retrieved from http://www.nativescience. org/issues/tk.htm Alberta Learning. (2004). Focus on inquiry: A teachers guide to implementing inquiry-based learning. Alberta, Canada: Author. Alberta Education. (2007). Biology 20–30: Program of Studies. Alberta, Canada: Author. Alberta Education. (2008). ICT Outcomes, Division 4. Alberta, Canada: Author. Asselin, M. (2005). Teaching information skills in the information age: An examination of trends in the middle grades. School Libraries Worldwide, 11(1), 17–35. Barranoik, L. (2001). Research success with senior high school students. School Libraries Worldwide, 7(1), 28–45. Bartholomew, H., Osborne, J. & Ratcliffe, M. (2002). Teaching pupils ‘ideas about science’: Case studies from the classroom. A paper presented at the National Association for Research in Science Teaching Conference, New Orleans. Bell, R.L., Smetana, L., & Binns, I. (2005). Simplifying inquiry instruction. The Science Teacher, 72(7), 30–33. Bingle, W.H., & Gaskell, J. (1994). Scientific literacy for decision making and the social construction of scientific knowledge. Science Education, 78(2), 185–201. doi:10.1002/sce.3730780206 Björk, B.-C. (2007). A model of scientific communication as a global distributed information system. Information Research, 12(2) paper 307. Brem, S.K., Russell, J., & Weems, L. (2001). Science on the Web: Student evaluations of scientific arguments. Discourse Processes, 32(2–3), 191–213. doi: 10.1080/0163853X.2001.9651598 Brill, G., Falk, H., & Yarden, A. (2004). The learning processes of two high-school Biology students when reading primary literature. International Journal of Science Education, 26, 497–512. doi:10.1080/0950069032000119465 Cohen, L.B. (2011). Boolean searching on the Internet. Retrieved from www.internettutorials.net Crawford, B.A. (2000). Embracing the essence of inquiry: New roles for science teachers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37, 916–937. doi:10.1002/1098-2736(200011)37:9<916::AID- TEA4>3.3.CO;2-U Ebenezer, J.V., & Lau, E. (2003). Science on the Internet (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. The Edmonton Sun. (2006, March 26). Fur flies at the seal hunt. The Edmonton Sun, News, p. 3. Farris-Berg, K. (2008). Inspiring the next generation of innovators: Students, parents and educators speak up about science education. Irvine, CA: Project Tomorrow. Retrieved from http://www.tomorrow.org/speakup/scienceReport.html
- 49. READING FOR EVIDENCE 39 Fidel, R., Davies, R.K., & Douglass, M.H. (1999). A visit to the information mall: Web searching behavior of high school students. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50, 24–37. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4571(1999)50:1<24::AID-ASI5>3.0.CO;2-W Fink, S. (2007). Seals and sealing in Canada. Guelph, ON: International Fund for Animal Welfare. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. (2006). Atlantic Canada seal hunt: Myths and realities. Ottawa, ON: Government of Canada. Gott, R. & Duggan, S. (1995). Investigative work in the science curriculum. Buckingham: Open University Press. Hayes, D.P. (1992). The growing inaccessibility of science. Nature, 356, 739–740. doi:10.1038/ 356739a0 Head A.J. & Eisenberg, M.B. (2009). Finding context: What today’s college students say about conducting research in the digital age. Project Information Literacy Progress Report: University of Washington. Heinström, J. (2006). Fast surfing for availability or deep diving into quality: Motivation and information seeking among middle and high school students. Information Research, 11. Retrieved March 8, 2008, from http://informationr.net/ir/11-4/paper265.html International Data Corporation (IDC). (2010). IDC predictions 2011: Welcome to the new mainstream. (Filing Information IDC #225878). Retrieved from http://www.idc.com/research/predictions11/ downloads/IDCPredictions2011_WelcometotheNewMaiWelcome.pdf Jones, B. D. (1999). Conducting Internet inquiry projects: Comparing the motivation and achievement of two groups of high school biology students. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 60(12-A), 4317. Julien, H. & Barker, S. (2009). How high school students find and evaluate scientific information: A basis for information literacy skills development. Library & Information Science Research, 31(1), 12–17. doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2008.10.008 King, D. W., Tenopir, C., & Clarke, M. (2006). Measuring total readings of journal articles. D-Lib Magazine, 12(10). Retrieved from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/october06/king/10king.html Kolstø, S.D. (2001). To trust or not to trust,... ‘pupils’ ways of judging information encountered in a socio-scientific issue. International Journal of Science Education, 23(9) 877–901. doi:10.1080/ 09500690010016102 Levinson, R. (2006). Teachers’ perceptions of the role of evidence in teaching socio-scientific issues. The Curriculum Journal, 17(3), 247–262. doi:10.1080/09585170600909712. National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: Academy Press. Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Norris, S.P., & Phillips, L.M. (2003). How literacy in its fundamental sense is central to scientific literacy. Science Education, 87(2), 224–40. doi:10.1002/sce.10066 Norris, S.P., & Phillips, L.M. (1994 ). The relevance of a reader’s knowledge within a perspectival view of reading. Journal of Reading Behavior, 26(4), 391–412. Phillips, L.M.. & Norris S.P. (1999). Interpreting popular reports of science: What happens when the reader’s world meets the world on paper? International Journal of Science Education, 21(3), 317–27. doi:10.1080/095006999290723 Ratcliffe, M. (1999). Evaluation of abilities in interpreting media reports of scientific research. International Journal of Science Education, 21(10), 1085-1099. doi:10.1080/095006999290200 Scott, T. J., & O’Sullivan, M.K. (2005). Analyzing student search strategies: Making a case for integrating information literacy skills into the curriculum. Teacher Librarian, 33, 21–25. Sensenbaugh, R. (1990, July). Multiplicities of literacies in the 1990’s. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills. Shenton, A. K. (2007). The information-seeking behavior of teenagers in an English high school. School Librarian, 55, 125–127.
- 50. BARKER AND JULIEN 40 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2009). Information literacy. Retrieved from http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=27055&URL_DO=DO_ TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html Walker, B.L., & Huber, R.A. (2002). Helping students to read science textbooks. Science Scope, 26(1), 39–40. Warren, D. (2001). The nature of science: Understanding what science is all about. London: Royal Society of Chemistry. Williams, D., & Coles, L. (2007). Evidence-based practice in teaching: An information perspective. Journal of Documentation, 63, 812–835. doi:10.1108/00220410710836376 Windschitl, M. (2008). What is inquiry? A framework for thinking about authentic scientific practice in the classroom. In J. Luft, R.L. Bell, & J. Gess-Newsome. (Eds.). Science as inquiry in the secondary setting (pp. 1–20). Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers Association. AFFILIATIONS Susan Barker Department of Secondary Education University of Alberta Heidi Julien School of Library & Information Studies University of Alabama
- 51. Stephen P. Norris (Ed.), Reading for Evidence and Interpreting Visualizations in Mathematics and Science Education, 41–63. © 2012 Sense Publishers. All rights reserved. MARIE-CLAIRE SHANAHAN 3. READING FOR EVIDENCE THROUGH HYBRID ADAPTED PRIMARY LITERATURE INTRODUCTION In making a case for adapted primary literature (APL) in science classrooms, Brill, Falk and Yarden (2004) outline a wide range of opportunities afforded to students, including: understanding the rationale for research designs and procedures, exploring the important connections between chosen research methods and research questions, increased familiarity with scientific communication and the language of science (e.g., expressions of uncertainty and appeals to authority/evidence), practice in questioning and critiquing the methods and findings of researchers, exposure to common designs and procedures used in different areas of science, and an introduction to the ongoing nature of scientific research. These opportunities are seen to arise because scientific texts, such as APL, contain both a) substantive scientific content and b) a reasoning structure meant to represent elements of the underlying reasoning structures of science. These scientific texts both illustrate and require: analysis, interpretation, comprehension, and critique. To read and understand scientific texts, is to read and understand something of the ways in which scientific knowledge is generated (e.g., Norris & Phillips, 2003). In particular the social norms, including acceptable communication practices and argumentation, are strongly represented in text and largely inaccessible to students without it (Fang et al., 2008). Authentic scientific texts, in particular, can provide an important opportunity for students to develop a nuanced understanding of epistemological aspects of science. To explore these relationships further, this chapter examines the particular value of hybrid adapted primary literature (HAPL) (writing that integrates adapted primary literature with narrative writing about science and scientists) for extending the benefits of APL beyond high school science and into the elementary classroom, in particular exploring the possibilities for representing and teaching about epistemological practices related to evidence in Grades 5 and 6. TEXT AND THE INQUIRY SCIENCE CLASSROOM The message at the core of most English language science curricula is that science education should actively engage students in meaningful inquiry. The way this is communicated can give the impression that inquiry science education means predominantly hands-on active work. For example, the Pan-Canadian Science Framework states, “Students learn most effectively when their study of science is rooted in concrete learning experiences, related to a particular context or situation,
- 52. SHANAHAN 42 and applied to their world where appropriate” (Council of Ministers of Education, 1997, p.7). Reading is frequently referred to only in the context of textbook reading and content learning, where it is placed in opposition to inquiry science: “Science teaching must involve students in inquiry-oriented investigations in which they interact with their teachers and peers. …The perceived need to include all the topics, vocabulary, and information in textbooks is in direct conflict with the central goal of having students learn scientific knowledge with understanding” (National Research Council,1996, pp. 20–21). At best, especially in elementary science, reading about science is often seen as a pathway to literacy (e.g., students need to learn to read informational text), but it still is seen as something extra or other to inquiry science. At worst, reading can seem antithetical to inquiry, where reading is characterised as only textbook or worksheet reading. Reading and text are, however, essential for inquiry, offering access to social norms and epistemological practices of science. Because of the forms that scientific text takes, it should be central in encouraging and supporting student inquiry in school science. Textual Representations of the Evidence Practices of Science From Dewey and Schwab to contemporary science educators, there’s been recognition of tight interconnections between understanding that science itself is inquiry and approaching student learning of scientific concepts from an inquiry perspective. Flick and Lederman, in their introduction to the volume Scientific Inquiry and Nature of Science, are clear to emphasize the intertwined nature of these two goals and how a thorough understanding of the latter depends on the former. They argue that “It is one thing to be able to focus on a scientific question [e.g., to do inquiry to learn scientific concepts], for example, where does salt go when dissolved in water, and quite another to recognize that question as part of a much larger process of building scientific knowledge” (Flick & Lederman, 2004, p. xi). In the context of this example, there will be no definitive single piece of evidence to support the desired concept that the salt is distributed, on a particle level, throughout the water. Understanding the value of different forms of evidence and the processes of making decisions based on the weight of several different types of evidence are needed to make this a valuable student inquiry. An important scaffold therefore is an epistemological understanding of science—of which evidence is acceptable for creating an explanation and how different pieces of evidence come together to support a broad and underlying explanation like the particulate nature of matter. If this is the case, though, why not stop at explicitly teaching concepts related to the nature of science? Why is text important? Authentic scientific texts are important because, as a complement to the explicit lessons that teachers can provide about nature of science related ideas, they can provide a window into and immersion in the social and cultural practices of science (Norris & Phillips, 2003). In making comparisons between the discourse patterns of different academic disciplines, including physical and biological sciences, Hyland (2004) makes a very strong case for the importance of the text itself for
- 53. HYBRID ADAPTED PRIMARY LITERATURE 43 what it says about the priorities, beliefs and values of those who write it and the communities to which they belong. The writing conventions and practices are themselves a window into the culture: “The rhetorical conventions of each text will reflect something of the epistemological and social assumptions of the author’s disciplinary culture” (Hyland, 2004, p. 11). He goes even further to say that the texts and the communities are co-constitutive—not only do disciplines shape their ritual texts, the texts (and the values embedded in them) also make the disciplines what they are. Scientific texts therefore have a lot to say to students about the epistemological culture of science, of science as inquiry. This is not of course to say that texts are a direct representation of what scientists do. Schwab (1962, p. 81), somewhat famously described them as “unretouched specimens of enquiry” but research has repeatedly shown that scientific texts instead reflect norms of scientific writing rather than direct descriptions of research processes (Elam, 2004; Myers, 1992). But those norms themselves represent epistemological values, beliefs, and ideals. Which Elements of Scientific Text? I am focusing on the elements of text that represent practices related to scientific evidence, referring specifically to two types of language: epistemological language and metalanguage. Epistemological language is used by scientists to construct and describe their meaning and reasoning. This definition is based on that used by Barosi, Magnani, and Stephanelli (1993) to describe the reasoning of physicians during diagnosis. This language often expresses the connections between evidence and hypotheses, justifications for procedures, and the tentativeness of findings. It is the language used for constructing knowledge and making firsthand accounts of that knowledge and its foundations (Anderberg, Svensson, Alvegard, & Johansson, 2008). For example, a statement such as “the carbon dioxide measurements support our initial assertion that…” expresses the researchers’ understanding of what evidence is useful (in this case, quantitative measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations), the relationship to the claim made (here the implication is specific measurements were taken to test a proposed relationship), and the degree of certainty that this type of evidence can provide (support but not confirmation, as would be typical for much scientific evidence). Epistemological language is the language of scientific conferences, journal articles, and the language spoken and written in internal communications within labs and research groups and is integral not only to communication of scientific findings but also to their construction. In describing a cognitive model of science, Izquierdo-Aymerich and Adúriz-Bravo (2003), emphasize the importance of model and theory construction to science and their inherent dependence on language: “The propositional language that defines a theory is not then used to describe the world but to construct a mental model of it, which is a structural analogue of the real situation” (p. 31). This statement illustrates the epistemological function of language: The language is not to describe the process but is instead itself needed to create the mental model.
- 54. SHANAHAN 44 In addition, the scientific community, science journalists, science teachers, and scientists themselves also engage in metalanguage—second level language used to analyse and describe the generation of scientific knowledge. This definition is drawn from the linguistic tradition and the language use of language learners (e.g., Basturkmen, Loewen, & Ellis, 2002) who not only engage is using the technical terms of a new language but also use specialized terms to communicate about what they are learning with their peers and teachers. Note that scientific metalanguage is not considered a second-level to epistemological language. It is not language about language but instead language about science. It might more properly be called metascientific language, were that term not already associated with the idea of metascientific theories (e.g., Collins, 2007). As an example of scientific metalanguage, words such as ‘evidence’ and ‘claims’ (used above to explain the quote from a research article) are not themselves necessarily part of the scientific research process but they are often used to help students and teachers analyse the work of scientists (e.g., see Klentschy, 2005, who advocates the use of these terms for helping students to frame their own scientific writing). Metalanguage is what is needed to support students in deconstructing and critiquing scientific knowledge as it is presented in scientific text. It is the language that they must understand in order to recognize and appreciate critique in others’ writing about science. It is the language that helps establish what is acceptable evidence or acceptable practice and allows readers and others to discuss these aspects of science. The word ‘experiment’ in particular illustrates this function of metalanguage and the difference between metalanguage and epistemological language. The word carries with it a large number of social norms (e.g., controlled variables, blind- tests, and randomization) but does not specify exactly which of these were applied in a particular situation. It is a word that allows speakers and writers to refer generally to acceptable scientific practices without describing them specifically or in detail. This allows the speaker or writer to move on to discussing, for example, the outcomes while establishing with a quick word that whatever the experimenters did was considered a scientific approach. It is a word for talking about science: it is metalanguage. Because of its general nature and the attached and often implicit social baggage it carries, it provides little to a scientist as a reasoning resource. One can imagine a researcher reasoning aloud saying, “Now because we controlled the temperature and air pressure carefully and changed the flow rate only incrementally, I am surprised that...”, and that such reasoning may lead him or her to conceptualizing their results. One cannot, on the other hand, imagine saying that “Because we experimented with the flow rate, I am surprised that...” would provide the same resources for detailed thinking and meaning making. The word ‘experiment’ therefore likely has little value as an epistemological word but as metalanguage is valuable as a carrier of norms and expectations of one particular type of acceptable scientific practice. There are of course words that perform both functions depending on the context in which they are used. Note that there is a distinction to be made here between the terms ‘a metalanguage for science’ and ‘scientific metalanguage’. Tseitlin and Galili
- 55. Another Random Document on Scribd Without Any Related Topics
- 56. (f) The topic should be worth spending time upon. The genealogy of Ellen Douglas will hardly linger long in the average memory. Use made of the material by the child. Suppose the topic to be good and suitable material to have been found; for older children there are two good ways of using it—one to read through and make notes on the substance, the other to copy in selection. Children need practice in doing both. The first method suits broad description and narration, the second detailed description. There seems to be a prevailing tendency to copy simply, without sufficient neglect of minor points, a process which should be left to the youngest children, since it furnishes little mental training, uses a great deal of time, keeps the writer needlessly indoors, and fosters habits of inattention, because it is easy to copy with one's mind elsewhere. The necessity for using judgment after the article has been found is illustrated by the case of some children who came for the life of Homer. Champlin, in about a column, mentions the limits within which the conjectures as to the time of Homer's birth lie, the places which claim to be his birthplace, and tells of the tradition of the blind harper. The children, provided with the book, plunged at once into copying until persuaded just to read the column through. "When you finish reading," I said, "come to me and tell me what it says." They came and recounted the items, and only after questioning did they at all grasp the gist of the matter, that nothing is known about Homer. Even then their sense of responsibility to produce something tangible was so great that they would copy the details, and from the children who came next day I judged that the teacher had required some facts as to time and place and tradition. While it is true that we learn by doing and it is well that children should rely upon themselves, it is evident that young pupils need some direction. Even when provided with sub-topics, they often need help in selecting and fitting together the appropriate facts, since no article exactly suits their needs. About half of the reporting librarians are of the opinion that it is the teacher's business to instruct pupils in the use of books; they consider the library to have done its share when the child has been helped to find the material. The other half believe such direction as is suggested above to be rightly within the librarian's province; several, however, who express a willingness to give such help, add that under their present library conditions it is impracticable. We can easily see that time would not permit nor would it be otherwise feasible for the teacher to examine every collection of notes made at the library, but there ought to be some systematic work where the topics are thoughtfully chosen, the librarian informed of them in advance, and the notes criticised. A moderate amount of reference work so conducted would be of greater benefit than a large quantity of the random sort which we now commonly have. Five librarians state that they are usually given the topics beforehand. Several others are provided with courses of study or attend grade meetings in which the course is discussed. Systematic instruction in the use of the library. While a general effort is being made to instruct children individually, only a few libraries report any systematic lessons. In Providence each visiting class is given a short description of books of reference. In Hartford an attempt at instruction was made following the vacation book talks. In Springfield, Mass., last year the senior class of the literature department was given a lesson on the use of the library, followed by two practice questions on the card catalog. In one of the Cleveland branches talks are given to both teachers and pupils. At the Central High School of Detroit the school librarian has for the past three years
- 57. met the new pupils for 40 minutes' instruction, and test questions are given. A detailed account of similar work done in other high school libraries is to be found in the proceedings of the Chautauqua conference. Cambridge has given a lecture to a class or classes of the Latin school. In the current library report of Cedar Rapids, Ia., is outlined in detail a course of 12 lessons on bookmaking, the card catalog, and reference books. The librarian of Michigan City, Ind., writes: "Each grade of the schools, from the fifth to the eighth, has the use of our class room for an afternoon session each month. Each child is assigned a topic on which to write a short composition or give a brief oral report. When a pupil has found all he can from one source, books are exchanged, and thus each child comes into contact with several books. At these monthly library afternoons I give short talks to the pupils on the use of the library, the reference books, and the card catalog, accompanied by practical object lessons and tests." At Brookline our plan is to have each class of the eighth and ninth grades come once a year to our school reference room at the library. The teacher accompanies them, and they come in school hours. The school reference librarian gives the lesson. For the eighth grade we consider the make-up of the book—the title-page in detail, the importance of noting the author, the significance of place and date and copyright, the origin of the dedication, the use of contents and index. This is followed by a description of bookmaking, folding, sewing and binding, illustrated by books pulled to pieces for the purpose. The lesson closes with remarks on the care of books. The ninth grade lesson is on reference books, and is conducted largely by means of questioning. A set of test questions at the end emphasizes the description of the books. In these lessons the pupils have shown an unexpected degree of interest and responsiveness. The course brought about 400 children to the library, a few of whom had never been there before. These were escorted about a little, and shown the catalog, charging desk, bulletins, new book shelves, etc. Every one not already holding a card was given an opportunity to sign a registration slip. The following year the eighth grade, having become the ninth, has the second lesson. With these lessons the attitude of the children towards the library has visibly improved, and we are confident that their idea of its use has been enlarged. Bibliographical work. The inquiry was made of the reporting libraries whether any bibliographical work was being done by the high school. The question was not well put, and was sometimes misunderstood. Almost no such work was reported. At Evanston, Ill., one high school teacher has taught her class to prepare bibliographies, the librarian assisting. At Brookline we have ambitions, not yet realized, of getting each high school class to prepare one bibliography a year (we begin modestly) on some subject along their lines of study. Last May the principals of two grammar schools offered to try their ninth grades on a simple bibliography. The school reference librarian selected some 60 topics of English history— Bretwalda, Sir Isaac Newton, East India Company, the Great Commoner, etc. Each bibliography was to include every reference by author, title and page to be found in the books of the school reference collection of the public library. The pupils displayed no little zest and enjoyment in the undertaking, and some creditable lists were made. Observation of the work confirmed my belief in its great practical value. Pupils became more keen and more thorough than in the usual getting of material from one or two references on a subject. Such training will smooth the way and save the time of those students who are to make use of a college library, and is even more to be desired for those others whose formal education ends with the high or grammar schools.
- 58. The practice of sending collections of books from the public library to the schools is becoming general. When these collections are along the lines of subjects studied, it would seem as if the reference use of the library by pupils might be somewhat diminished thereby. No doubt it is a convenience to both teacher and pupils to have books at hand to which to refer. The possession of an independent school library also tends to keep the reference work in the school. But in neither case ought the reference use of the public library or its branches to be wholly or materially overlooked, since it is on that that pupils must depend in after years, and therefore to that they must now be directed. We recognize that the people of modest means need the library. As for the very well-to-do, the library needs them. Other things being equal, the pupil who has learned to know and to know how to use his public library ought later so to appreciate its needs and so to recognize the benefits it bestows that he will be concerned to have it generously supported and wisely administered. Even we librarians claim for our public collections no such fine service as is rendered by those private treasures that stand on a person's own shelves, round which "our pastime and our happiness will grow." Books for casual entertainment are more and more easily come by. But so far as our imagination reaches, what private library will for most readers supplant a public collection of books for purposes of study and reference? Is it not then fitting that we spend time and effort to educate young people to the use of the public library? Do not the methods for realizing this end seem to be as deserving of systematic study as the details of classification and of cataloging? We have learned that to bring school authorities to our assistance our faith must be sufficient to convince and our patience must be tempered by a kindly appreciation of the large demands already made upon the schools. Have we not yet to learn by just what lessons and what practice work the reference use of the public library can best be taught to children? VITALIZING THE RELATION BETWEEN THE LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL. I. THE SCHOOL. By May L. Prentice, City Normal School, Cleveland, O. Years ago a little girl ran down a country road to meet the light wagon returning from town with the purpose of climbing into the back and so getting a ride. Without turning, the wise elder brother spoke from the driver's seat: "I wouldn't undertake that if I were you." And over his shoulder a breathless but dignified voice answered, "But I have already undertooken it!" A similar answer might reasonably be expected from the library to any well-meant but tardy advice from the school-side in regard to the vitalization of the relation between the school and the library. It has already been accomplished, and comparatively small thanks are due to the school for its doing. Graded lists of books, special lists of materials for occasions, library league work, the establishment of school branch libraries, all these have been the work of the library in a much larger measure than of the school.
- 59. However, there are many teachers who share the library's buoyant faith in the blessing which books bring. These have been first to appreciate all which the library has offered them. They have accepted all that has been offered them and asked for more. They have circulated library books through their own schools, sometimes at considerable cost and trouble to themselves, and for years have done all in their power to make their pupils wise and discriminating patrons of the library. That the children of their care and love might have life and have it more abundantly—that is why they have done these things. These teachers are comparatively few. That it is any function of the school to give joy to its children is an idea of slow growth. A child's school-time is usually thought of as preparation for living and not as living itself. Hence the rebuke of the teacher to the child who interrupts the "nature-lesson" to blow the thistle-down which waves over his head, or to watch the bee which booms against the window-pane, or the hawk which floats lazily against the blue sky. Life is such a wild, wilful, irregular thing. Quietude, prudent inaction, is so much safer. So with books. It is the old search for life, life, more abundant life—for knowledge of it, for entrance into it—which sends the child to the fairy-story, the boy to the tale of adventure, the young girl to the story of romance, the older man and woman to the realistic novel. And it is the instinctive feeling of the teacher and parent that life is a dangerous force and difficult of control which has made school and home look askance upon reading which the child finds too enjoyable. There is another feeling or belief which lies back of our doubt of work or study or reading which is too enjoyable. It is in regard to the part which love of ease plays in human enjoyment. Love of ease is strong in human nature, and the man who tries to get his knowledge of human life mainly through the novel has indeed sought a short-cut to his end which will bring him but a short distance on his way. This is not the time nor place for the discussion of the value of fiction, but undoubtedly we are inclined to believe that man's indolence is a strong factor in man's enjoyment of certain lines of reading, and indolence is a bad thing. Therefore, we distrust the value of such reading. Whether we like or dislike it, however, we are obliged to admit that fiction is a permanent form of literature, that our children will read it, and that the question for us to settle is shall it be good or poor. What, then, has the teacher to do? Two things: To be the atmosphere from which the child breathes in love for and delight in good books. This is first. All things in the way of learning are possible after this. Second, to be the pupil's guide and director in what may be called his "laboratory practice" with books. The Autocrat, mellowest of men of ideas, once suggested that every college and university should have a professorship of books. The Autocrat was an ingrained aristocrat, although one most mild and kind. The true democratic idea is that a professorship of books should be established in every school-room. But how shall the blind lead the blind? How shall the teacher who herself never has learned to know, to enjoy, and to choose good books guide others to do so? The library is a storehouse of great thought, an unfailing source of healthful recreation, but also the library is the mine in which the practical man and woman, the lawyer, the machinist, the scientist, the teacher, must dig deep for information, if he is to keep near the head in his own line of work.
- 60. So far, as I have said before, nearly all organized effort to teach the teachers along these lines has come from the library. Certain normal school and college librarians have done much, but to a large extent the work has been on sufferance. Odds and ends of the students' time and attention have been given to it. The desirable thing is that the study of juvenile literature and the use of the library shall take equal rank with other studies in the preparation of prospective teachers; that the normal school, the pedagogical department of the college and university, the teachers' summer-school and institute, shall recognize this subject in their curricula. The practical side of library use—its use for information—is easily seen by the public, and schools for teachers can quite readily be induced to make room for the course of study suggested. In the Cleveland City Normal Training School an attempt to carry out such a course of study has been made. A term's work is given in juvenile literature and the use of the library. Moreover, this subject is placed upon an equality with the philosophy of teaching, history of education and psychology. As yet the work is not thoroughly organized. We feel, however, that some things of value have been already accomplished. In a twelve-weeks' term a class of 116 prospective teachers (the junior class of the school) have taken notes on a series of talks on reference books. They have learned something of the comparative value of various standard encyclopædias, gazetteers, dictionaries and indexes, and they have been sent to the public library a half-day at a time to do work which required the use of these. For instance, a study of the life of Robert Louis Stevenson was made for the purpose of giving a talk on the subject to fifth-grade pupils. The students were required to look up all the available material in the library, looking not only in the printed and card catalogs for individual and collective biography, but in the various indexes—Poole's, the Annual, the Cumulative—for magazine articles. They were required to select the four or five articles found most valuable and to estimate their comparative value for the purpose in hand, making definite statements of the points of value. They were required to make careful and well-worded notes from the best material available, either books or periodicals, always giving the source, and to read these notes in class subject to the criticism of their instructor and school mates. And, lastly, they were required to write the story of Stevenson's life as they would tell it to the children. Careful instruction in the use of the printed and card catalogs and of indexes had preceded this assignment. We were fortunate in possessing quite a large number of issues of the Cumulative index unbound. It was thus possible to place one of these in the hands of each student during instruction on the subject. This was a considerable aid. There was too much work with the less-used ready-reference books. Next year the number will be largely reduced. A study of fairy stories was made. An attempt was made to find a philosophical basis for the love of children for fairy stories. An attempt was made to discriminate between the good and the bad fairy story. Felix Adler's "Moral instruction of children" was helpful here, but the study of the fairy stories at first hand is still more helpful.
- 61. The following books were read by the whole class: (1) Alcott's "Little Women." Lessons were given on reading it with the children. (2) Mara L. Pratt's "History stories," vol. 3. (3) Eggleston's "First lessons in American history." The Pratt and Eggleston books were read in succession for the purpose of contrasting them. A yet better contrast would have been Baldwin's "Fifty famous stories." (4) Frau Spyri's "Heidi." Some of our girls read this story in the original German but most in the translation published by Ginn & Co. It is a charming story of a breezy little maiden whose home was in the Swiss Alps, and one of the rather scarce desirable books for the fourth grade. (5) Mrs. Burnett's "Sara Crewe." This was read as a type of the "child novel" and for the sake of a study of the charms, dangers and benefits of this class of books. (6) Howard Pyle's "Men of iron" was read as a study of the worthy historical story. The following outline was given the students as an aid in judging the books read: Outline to aid in estimating a juvenile book. 1. Written when? By whom? For children or adults? [e.g., "Robinson Crusoe" and "Gulliver's travels" were written for adults.] If for children, of what age? (Consider both manner and matter.) 2. Essential purpose of the book: Recreative? Instructive? Moral? Is the recreation afforded wholesome? The instruction reliable? The moral lessons sound? 3. Style: Is it clear? Correct? Beautiful? Suitable? 4. If a story, What is the strongest character in it? The most effective passage? Give reasons for thinking so. Is it true to life? 5. Is the book a creator of ideals? How so? Along what lines? An effort was made that there should be no formal adherence to this outline. Papers on the books read were required in which the outline could not be used. For example, after reading "Men of iron" the students were required to write, in class, a paper on "The education of a boy in chivalry" based on the story of Myles Falworth. The oral discussions of these books were often very animated. Each student was also required to hand in an annotated list of at least 20 books actually read by the student and judged by her suitable for the grade in which she is to train. An oral discussion of these lists took place, and the student in many cases was required to justify her judgment, and to answer questions in regard to the books read. Some of these lists were very cheering. One excellent list for the sixth grade, with very original annotations contained 60 instead of 20 books actually read, and 30 more which the student had listed to be read at her convenience. Not all of the lists were of that character. A list for the third grade recommended "Gulliver's travels, by Gulliver" as a valuable aid in geography.
- 62. The instance is eloquent of the value of a course of study which results in the illumination or the elimination of such a student. Much remains to be worked out, but a beginning has been made. Ours is one instance of the awakening of the school to the value of the privileges which the library gives it. And as the reward of doing work well is invariably to have more work to do, from the school fully awakened the library shall receive its exceeding great reward in more work to be done. Except for the hearty co-operation of the Cleveland Public Library the little experiment here outlined could not have been undertaken. VITALIZING THE RELATION BETWEEN THE LIBRARY AND THE SCHOOL. II. THE LIBRARY. By Irene Warren, Librarian University of Chicago School of Education. The establishment of the Library Section of the National Educational Association was proof that the thoughtful librarians and school men of this country believed that an effective co- operation between public schools and public libraries was possible. In many states library sections of the state teachers' associations have been formed. Many public libraries have for some time past systematically sent both books and lists of books to the public schools. No sooner had this been done than librarians and teachers both saw that they had made but a beginning, and the next steps, and, indeed, the present needs, are to bring about a more intelligent use of both books and libraries and to place larger and better arranged collections within easy access of the pupils. Rarely do the teachers find the libraries adequate to the reference work or the collateral reading they wish the pupils to do. The funds are seldom sufficient to keep the libraries up to date. There is no one person in the school who knows how to organize and administer the library, and therefore whatever work the teachers do in this line is at a greater expense of both time, energy and material than it would be were it done by one having had a library training. The school buildings are frequently closed to the students shortly after the school session, usually by five o'clock, and always on holidays and during vacations. Most of the pupils' reading and research must therefore be done in the one or two books which he carries home with him. The Buffalo Public Library made another step in organization when it offered to take the collections of books from any of the public schools in the city and in return mend, rebind, catalog, classify them, furnish such schools as agreed to this arrangement with the books they needed, either from their own collections or from that of the public library, and appoint two attendants to look after the school work. The public school began with the one central school in the community, but it soon found that it must establish branches if it reached all of the children of the city. To-day there is no town of any considerable size but has its central school with a high school usually, and its branches on the north, east, south and west sides. The public library, following the public schools, has found that it cannot reach the people of the community unless it delivers
- 63. books to the various parts of the town, and moreover establishes branch reading rooms where at least reference books may be consulted and magazines read. As in the history of the schools, so in the history of the libraries, provision was first made for the mature student. Educators have been slow to see that they should begin with the child before he has established habits of thought and action. Not until the public library is considered a vital factor in the educational scheme of a city can it hope to secure its best results, nor is this possible when the central library and its few branches are removed, as at present, from the public schools. The libraries and the schools should be housed in close proximity to do the most effective work. It is with keen interest that the experiment in New York City is being watched. It certainly seems as if the most economical arrangement would be to have the branch of the public library so placed in a school building that the students would have free access to it, and the public also, not only during school hours but public library hours. It seems the logical duty of the board of education to furnish the few necessary reference books that are in continual demand in every school room and also the sets of books which are used for supplementary reading. It does, on the other hand, seem that the public library can furnish a larger general collection, in better editions and keep them in better condition for less money and with better results than can the public schools. The already crowded curriculum in most of our public schools made many an educator hesitate when a course in library economy was suggested. One can indeed see a time not far distant, it is hoped, when such a course will not be thought necessary. Such a time will be when instructors have awakened to a much greater appreciation of the value and use of bibliography and the need of training students in this line. Along with this will develop a desire in the student to keep his own references and material so arranged that he will be able to use them easily. There will still be considerable of a general bibliographical character, handbooks, etc., which would be of value in all subjects and yet perhaps be overlooked by the specialists, that could be called to the students' attention through such a pamphlet as was recently compiled by Mr. Andrew Keogh, of Yale University Library, under the title, "Some general bibliographical works of value to the students of English." There is a phase of library economy that every teacher should know, and which it seems must always have its proper place in the curriculum of the normal school. That is the knowledge of how to obtain books. Every teacher should know what the laws of his state are regarding the establishment and maintenance of the public library and the public school library, and how these laws compare with those of other states. He should know what aid he can gain through the travelling library system, should he be in a village or country district, and the possible co-operation between the public library and the public schools should he be assigned to a city. Just as the public schools are finding that they must adapt their curriculum to the needs of the children of a certain district or class, so the public library has the same lesson to learn. The Carnegie Public Library of Pittsburgh has been one of the first to recognize this in the establishment of home libraries. It has thus reached a class of children that could be reached in no other way, and why should not the public library as well as the public school aim to reach these less fortunate children? The subject of children's literature should be a serious one with every teacher of children. The best writers for children, best illustrators, and best editions should be part of the normal school student's knowledge when he completes his course and goes out to teach. It
- 64. is a great problem with him now how he shall keep this information up to date, when there are hundreds of books coming out every year and his school-room duties absorb so much of his time. Here is the librarian's opportunity to be of great aid to the public school teacher by issuing lists of the best children's books on various subjects, exhibiting them in the library from time to time, and to the schools for trial, as so many libraries are now doing. In the country districts the library commissions must supply this information through annotated lists. It has been shown in a number of schools that children love to make books, and that the making of books quite successfully lends itself to the constructive work as carried on in the schools of to-day. The materials for this work are not so costly as to make it impossible for the average school. Every child at the completion of the graded schools should know the value of a title-page, the use of the preface and introductory notes, the difference between the table of contents and the index, the best books in the several subjects which he has studied, and where and how he can obtain more books on these subjects later, should he wish them. It would doubtless be a great surprise to one who has not tried the experiment to ask the pupils in our graded and high schools even, for such simple information as the author, title and date of the text-books they are using daily. If the suggestions in this paper be accepted, and most of them have already been successfully tried, it will be seen at once how great is the importance of having trained librarians in our normal schools and institutions of higher learning. The time has now come in a number of cities which we hope is prophetic of the future, when the public library stands equally important as an educational institution with the public school, each supplementing the other in work and still distinct in function and administration. It is therefore necessary that our teachers should be trained to use libraries, and that our librarians should be acquainted with the great educational movements of the day. OPENING A CHILDREN'S ROOM. By Clara Whitehill Hunt, Newark (N. J.) Free Public Library. In writing this paper on the opening of a children's room, I am presupposing the following conditions: That in a library whose work with the children has been confined to the general delivery desk, and the divided attention of clerks whose time an adult public would monopolize, there is to be set aside a commodious apartment to be known as the Children's Room; that, considering this work of enough importance to demand such a department, the trustees are prepared to support it by a reasonable outlay for new books, necessary and convenient furnishings, and especially by placing in its charge one who, by natural fitness and special training they believe to be so thoroughly capable of supervising the work, that she is to be given a free hand in deciding both how the room is to be made ready for opening, and how managed after it is opened. This being the case, I imagine the children's librarian, with opening day a few weeks or months ahead, planning her campaign with such wise foresight and attention to the smallest detail that, in the rush of the first weeks, there may be the least possible wear and tear on nerves and temper from petty inconveniences which assume gigantic proportions when one is hurried and tired, and the smallest amount of undoing and beginning over again as time goes on.
- 65. It is difficult to be clear in speaking of furnishings without something more than verbal description for illustrating mistakes and excellences, but so much power can be lost by not having the parts of the machine properly fitted and well oiled that how to furnish the children's room becomes one of the most important topics under this subject. To begin with, the children's librarian must cultivate, if she does not already possess, the architect's faculty of seeing a completed structure in a flat piece of paper marked off by lines labelled 20 ft., 50 ft., etc. If 20 ft. does not mean anything to her she would do well to take a tape measure to an empty lot and measure off the exact dimensions of her room to be, until she can see its floor space clearly. She should live in her room before its existence, locating every door and window, the height of the windows from the floor, every corner and cupboard, the relation of her room to the other departments of the library. In proceeding to furnish the room she will learn what to adopt and what to avoid by visiting other children's rooms and asking if the tables and chairs are the correct height, if the exit is satisfactorily guarded, what working space is necessary for a certain circulation, whether the electric light fixtures are easily broken, and many other things. If she cannot make such visits, her knowledge of children and a study of conditions in her own library will answer. Limited to a small space the children's room is nevertheless a circulating department, a reading room, a reference room, perhaps a repair room, and a cataloging department all in one; and if the children's librarian has not had actual work in each of these departments of her library, she should serve an apprenticeship at the receiving and charging desks, the registration desk, the slip rack, not only for the sake of knowing the routine of each department, but for studying improvements in planning her furnishings. The registration clerk will tell her that she has not enough elbow room, that the application drawers are too narrow or too heavy; the attendants at the charging desk find every present arrangement so satisfactory that they advise exact reproduction. Armed with pad and tape measure the children's librarian notes all these points. The problem how with a minimum of help to "run" all departments, to see all parts of the room, to keep your eye on the entrance so as to nip in the bud any tendency to boisterousness as the children come in, and to watch the exit so that no book goes out uncharged, how to keep all unfinished work out of the children's reach but to give them perfectly free access to the books, in short, how to arrange your working space so that one person on a moderately busy day can attend to all these things, may be answered, I think, in this way. All wall space will sooner or later be needed for books. Taking an oblong floor space (dimensions proportionate to size of room and circulation) and surrounding this by a counter 30 inches high and two feet wide, is a simple way of accomplishing these things. The counter opposite the entrance is the receiving and charging desk; at another place it is the registration desk; books after "slipping" are piled in another part ready for return to shelves; books waiting to be marked occupy a fourth section; the catalog case, notices to children, call-slip holders, etc., stand on the counter. The space under the counter is available for supply cupboards and drawers. The height of the counter is such that a grown person sitting in an ordinary chair works comfortably behind it, but it is so low that no small child feels frowningly walled out in standing on the other side. Thus all the work of the room is concentrated and supervision is easy. A few details are worth noticing. First, don't let the carpenter give you drawers instead of cupboards. Drawers are wasteful of room for packing supplies, and of time in hunting for them. Next, have the cupboard doors slide, not swing, open, for economy of your working floor space. Underneath registration
- 66. and charging desks leave space empty for your feet. Just under counter near the registration desk have a row of drawers, sliding easily but fastened so they cannot fall out, made of the exact size to hold your application blanks and cards, with guide cards. A work table within the counter will be necessary. In addition to this working space, every large children's room should have a locked closet, or better still, a work room opening from it. In busy times things will accumulate which must be kept out of reach, and it would not be sensible to take valuable space out of the children's room to hold such accumulations until you have time to attend to them. The height of the children's chairs and tables seems to have reached a standard in children's rooms—tables 22 and 28 inches high, with chairs 14 and 16 inches to go with them. I think it best to have very few tables of the smaller size, for tall boys take the strangest delight in crouching over them, snarling their long legs around the short table legs and trying, apparently, to get a permanent twist to their shoulders. Small children do not stay long, and it is less harmful, if necessary, for them to sit in a chair a little too high than to compel large children to spend a holiday afternoon with bodies contorted to fit a small chair and table. By all means have the electric light fixed in the center of the table so that each child gets an equal share of light, and have the connections so made that jarring the table and the movements of restless feet will not put the fixtures out of order. Be very careful not to have the shade so high that the glare of the lamp instead of the restful green shade is opposite the child's eyes. When you see a chair that you like, find out before purchasing whether it is very easily tipped over. You will know why, if you are not wise, on some rainy day, when the room is full of readers and the reports of chairs suddenly knocked over sound like a fusillade of cannon balls. Leaving this hasty and most unsatisfactory discussion on getting the place ready for opening, I would say a word about getting the books ready—not about buying a large quantity of new, and putting the old into the best possible condition of repair and cleanliness, for that will naturally be done. But from experience I know that the moment is golden for weeding out, never to return, authors you think objectionable. Suppose a girl reads nothing but the Elsie books. Very likely one reason is that she knows little about any other kind. In a printed catalog with a scattering "j" between many titles of adult books it is easier to make lists of numbers from the long sets of prolific writers, and those excellent authors who have produced only a few books for children are oftenest overlooked. Suppose in the process of moving the Elsie books are left behind. The little girl comes into the beautiful new children's room. She sees the shining new furniture, the pictures, the comfortable tables and chairs and book cases so planned that any child can reach any book. She finds that there is perfect freedom for every child in this room—that no stern Olympian comes and says, "Don't do this," and "You can't have that," and "Those books aren't for you," but that among all these hundreds of fresh new covers she may take her pick, may sit anywhere, or stand or kneel as she chooses. Do you imagine that, as these unaccustomed delights sink into her mind, any child is going off in a huff when she finds one author is lacking, if the children's librarian uses any tact in introducing her to others adapted to her tastes? I have been asked for Alger and Optic and Elsie, of course,
- 67. though much less often than I anticipated, but I am perfectly certain that I have never lost a "customer" because I did not display these wares. One little girl exclaimed in doleful tones, "Oh, haven't you the Elsie books? Oh, I'm terribly disappointed! I think those are grand books!" But in spite of this tragic appeal her curiosity and interest proved stronger than her disappointment, and I have the satisfaction of seeing a more wholesome taste develop in a child who must have been on the high road to softening of the brain and moral perversion from association with the insufferable Elsie. If you once put these books on the open shelves, however, and later attempted the weeding out process, a howl would arise which would not be silenced without consequences which I, for one, would not like to face. Furniture and books are comparatively simple matters to make ready, but to prepare your assistant or assistants for opening day and the time that follows is harder. The external preparation for the rush of the first weeks consists in drill in the routine to be observed. Assigning a place and certain duties to each person, foreseeing as far as possible all questions that may arise and making sure that each attendant understands what to do in any case, having a place for everything, and everything in its place, and every person knowing what that place is, so that there will be no frantic search for an extra set of daters when a long line of people stands waiting—this also requires only foresight and firmness. But so deeply to imbue your chief assistant with your spirit and principles of management that she will not simply obey your directions, but be inwardly guided by your desires, and there may be no break in the steady march to a definite end—this demands that rare species of assistant who is born, not made, for the position, and a leader who possesses strength, tact, contagious enthusiasm, a likeable personality, and other qualities difficult to attain. This brings us to the consideration of what the guiding principles of the new department are to be—a question which must be pondered and settled by the children's librarian before making the external preparations. If the senior members of the American Library Association, the librarians-in-chief, would consider the children's room of enough importance to give us their ideas of what it should stand for, what its scope should be, the result might be more uniformity of thought among members of the library profession in this regard, and a more sensible attitude toward the children's room in the library. Between those who, on the one hand, take themselves so very seriously, pondering with anxious care what probable effect on the child's future career as a reader the selection of a blue or a green mat for mounting the picture bulletin would have, and those who look upon the children's room merely as an interesting plaything, driving the big boys away in disgust by encouraging visitors who exclaim, "Oh, what cunning little chairs and tables! Why, you have a regular kindergarten here, haven't you?"—from either point of view, the discussions on children's rooms in libraries seem almost to lose sight of the very word library and all it carries with it. The children's room is only one room in a great dignified library. As the newspaper room, the catalog room, and all the rest are fitted up with furnishings suited to their peculiar needs, so the children's room is furnished with tables and chairs and books suited to its constituents. Apart from this, all its management and spirit should correspond as closely as possible to that of the other departments. The same dignity, the same freedom, the same courteous attention to every want without fussy attentions which by grown people would be called intrusiveness should prevail. Make the selection of books what it should be,
- 68. provide guides and catalogs, perfectly clear but not patronizingly written down, show the children that you are always willing to respond in every way to their questions, and then— let them alone! Some one has asked me to speak on the question of discipline. After the first two or three weeks, if one begins properly, there will be no such question. Allowing something for the noise of small feet which have not learned to control themselves as they will later on, and expecting more "talking over" an interesting "find" than is common with adults, one should aim for library order. Teach the children what a library reading room means. If in the first days there is a disposition on the part of any boy to be rough or unruly, or if a group of girls make a visiting-and-gum-chewing rendezvous of your tables, don't waste any time in Sunday-school methods of discipline, trying to keep a hold on the child at any cost to the library. A sentence in a report of Pratt Institute children's room is worth adopting as a guiding principle. "The work of the children's room should be educative, not reformatory." Give one decided warning and then if a child does not behave, send him out at once. Do not be afraid of seeming stern at first. The fascinations of the room are such that a child who has been turned away for disobedience comes back a subdued and chastened young person and your best friend forever after; then with your aim and your firmness early settled, you will have no more thought of discipline than the reference librarian with his tables full of studious adults. After the first a little care about the way a child enters the room will be all that is necessary. Your courteous manner, low tones, a little reminder about caps and clean hands while discharging his book, will give him the cue as to what is expected, and he will have a pride in living up to what is expected of him as a gentleman, not demanded of him as a child under authority. Many other points will engage the thought of the children's librarian, for example, what shall be the attitude of the children's room toward the other departments—whether it is to encourage the children to make use of the adults' reference room, to take out cards in the main delivery department, and get into the way of reading standard works from suggestions of the children's librarian; or whether the line of separation is to be rigid and she will be jealous of their "graduating" from her care. How to prepare the public, especially the school-teaching public, for the opening, so as to secure their hearty co- operation from the beginning is worth constant effort. The question of blanks and forms for the children's room is a minor matter which is after all not a small thing. To make as few changes as possible in the forms already in use, so that any assistant from the main delivery room can in emergencies quickly take up the clerical work of the children's room without needing to learn a new routine may save much confusion should the children's staff all happen to be stricken with grippe at the same time! Beginning early to plan, profiting by other people's mistakes, getting the routine of each department at one's finger tips, foreseeing every probable obstacle and removing each in imagination, beforehand, proceeding with calmness and common sense, thus the new machinery will move as smoothly during opening weeks as if it had been running for years, and, as "well begun is half done," every thought given to preparation while the room exists only on paper will have a far-reaching effect on the permanent influences of the children's room.
- 69. REPORT ON GIFTS AND BEQUESTS TO AMERICAN LIBRARIES; 1900-1901. By George Watson Cole. The period covered by this report is from June 1, 1900, to July 1, 1901, and includes all gifts and bequests of $500 or more, as well as all gifts of 250 volumes and over, given by any single individual. A few gifts have been included which fall below these figures where the importance or value of the gift seemed to require mention. This report has been increased by the addition of over 50 gifts, information of which was received too late to be inserted before its presentation to the Waukesha conference. A few others, which have been announced since July 1, have also been inserted. Much of the information here given has been obtained by a careful examination of the Library Journal and Public Libraries. Communications were sent to all the state library commissions, several state library associations and clubs, and to the librarian of libraries known to have 50,000 volumes or more. The responses to these communications have been quite general, and the information contained in the replies has been embodied in this report. The thanks of the compiler are herewith extended to all who have assisted him in collecting the material for this list. It was suggested by Miss Hewins in 1896 that it would be desirable to have the library commission of each state appoint some librarian, or library trustee, who should be responsible for the collection of information regarding the gifts and bequests made within his state. Judging from the replies received this year the suggestion has never been carried out. Following the example of my predecessor, I wish to emphasize the importance of the suggestion, and would further recommend that the information so gathered be divided as nearly as possible into the following classes: 1. Buildings, giving value or cost; 2. Sites, giving value or cost; 3. Cash for buildings, with accompanying conditions, if any; 4. Cash for sites, with accompanying conditions, if any; 5. Books, pamphlets, periodicals, prints, maps, etc., giving number of each kind, with value or cost of the whole, if known; 6. Cash for books, etc., with accompanying conditions, if any; 7. Cash for endowment funds, giving purpose for which income is to be expended; 8. Cash to be expended, with specified purposes for which it is to be spent; 9. Cash given unconditionally; 10. Miscellaneous gifts, specifying their nature and value. It will be observed that the first four of the above headings relate to gifts of real estate, which should also include gifts for fixtures of any kind, such as plants for lighting, heating, and ventilation; mural decorations, such as frescoes; furniture, so constructed as to be an essential part of the building; landscape gardening, etc. The remaining headings include books, endowment funds for various purposes (excepting building funds and the other objects just mentioned), and gifts of money for administration, current expenses, etc., etc.
- 70. Then, too, information should be given as to whether a gift has been offered, accepted, or received. It seems desirable that information relating to such old and moribund libraries as have been absorbed or merged with newer and more vigorous institutions should somewhere find a record. As such transfers are usually made as gifts, there seems to be no more suitable place for such a record than in the annual report of Gifts and Bequests. It is to be hoped that, in the future, the tables of statistics issued from time to time by the state library commissions, the U. S. Bureau of Education, and others will contain a record of the final disposition of such libraries. In the report of Gifts and Bequests made by Mr. Stockwell, a year ago, covering a period of two years, there were given 458 separate gifts, amounting to over $10,500,000, and distributed among 36 states and the District of Columbia. This report, covering 13 months, includes 482 separate gifts, amounting to $19,786,465.16, and is distributed as follows: 468 in 39 of the United States, 10 in the British provinces, and three in Scotland. To that princely philanthropist, Mr. Andrew Carnegie, we are indebted, during the past year, for gifts reaching the enormous aggregate of $13,704,700, over $12,500,000 of which was given for the erection of library buildings. In every case the gift, except where otherwise specified, was made upon the condition that the city or town receiving it should furnish a site for the building and appropriate yearly for the maintenance of the library a sum equivalent to 10 per cent. of the gift. The most notable gifts of the year are due to the ever-increasingly generous hand of Mr. Carnegie. That to the city of New York of $5,200,000, for the erection of 65, or more, branch libraries, is probably the largest library gift ever made at one time to a single city. His gift of $1,000,000 to the city of St. Louis for library buildings and an equal sum, placed in trust as an endowment fund, for the Carnegie libraries at Braddock, Duquesne, and Homestead, Pa., occupy the second and third positions, by reason of their amounts. His recent gifts of $750,000 each to the cities of Detroit and San Francisco, though announced since July 1, have been included in this report. Mr. Carnegie's gifts during the year number 121; 112 in the United States, six in Canada, and three in Scotland. One hundred and seven of these gifts in the United States were for library buildings. Of the remaining five, amounting to $1,028,000, one of $25,000 will probably be used for a building. The transfer of the John Carter Brown Library to Brown University by the trustees of the estate of the late John Nicholas Brown, recently announced, is one of the most important library events of the year. This library contains, if not the finest, at least one of the finest collections of early Americana in this country, and possesses many books not to be found in any other library on this side of the Atlantic. Its collector, after whom it is named, was a competitor with Lenox, Brinley, and other early collectors of Americana for many a choice nugget which Henry Stevens and other European dealers had secured for their American patrons. The library is estimated to be worth at least $1,000,000, and the gift carries with it two legacies, one of $150,000 for a library building, and another of $500,000 as an endowment fund for its increase and maintenance. The gift of four public-spirited citizens of St. Louis, who have jointly contributed $400,000 to lift an incumbrance on the block to be used for the new Carnegie library in that city, is a noble example of public spirit, and one of which the friends of that city may justly feel proud.
- 71. The collection of Oriental literature of Yale University has been enriched by the gift of 842 Arabic manuscripts, many of which are extremely rare. The collection covers the whole range of Arabic history and literature, dating back to the 12th and 13th centuries. This collection, formed by Count Landberg, was purchased by Mr. Morris K. Jesup, of New York, at a cost of $20,000, and was presented by him to the university library. This library has also received, as a bequest, the private library of the late Prof. Othniel C. Marsh, consisting of about 5000 volumes and 10,000 pamphlets, dealing mainly with palæontological subjects. The New York Public Library—Astor, Lenox, and Tilden foundations—through the generosity of Mr. Charles Stewart Smith, has come into possession of a large and valuable collection of Japanese engravings and chromo-xylographs, formed by Captain Brinkley, of the Japanese Mail. I regret that I do not have the pleasure to record any addition, during the year, to the Publication Fund of the American Library Association. The Publishing Board is much hampered by lack of funds from carrying on its important work. If some philanthropically inclined person would present a fund, say $100,000, upon condition that all publications issued from its income should bear the name of the fund, it would not only be of inestimable benefit to the cause of libraries, but would also be a most enduring monument to its donor. An examination of the following list will disclose other gifts worthy of special mention if space permitted. The main list has been arranged alphabetically by states, as being the most convenient for reference. A tabulated summary, arranged by the geographical sections of the country, will show how widely scattered have been the benefactions of the year, extending from Alabama in the south to Montreal in the north, and from Bangor in the east to "where rolls the Oregon" in the far west. ALABAMA. Montgomery. Public Library. Gift of $50,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. — Gift of books forming its library, from the Montgomery Library Association. Tuskegee. Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute. Gift of $20,000, for a library building, from Andrew Carnegie. The building will be erected entirely by student labor. CALIFORNIA. Alameda. Public Library. Gift of $35,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Berkeley. University of California. Gift of $10,000, as a fund for the purchase of books for the law library, from Mrs. Jane Krom Sather, of Oakland, Cal. — Gift of $1000, from Col. E. A. Denicke. — Gift of about 2500 volumes, being the private library of the late Regent, A. S. Hallidie, from Mrs. M. E. Hallidie.
- 72. Fresno. Public Library. Gift of $30,000 for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Napa. Public Library. Gift of $20,000, for free public library building, from George E. Goodman. San Francisco. Public Library. Gift of $750,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. — Gift of building and fixtures for Branch Library, No. 5, estimated to cost $20,000, from Hon. James D. Phelan, Mayor of San Francisco. San Jose. Public Library. Gift of $50,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Stanford University. Leland Stanford University. Gift of $2000, $1000 for books on sociology and $1000 for books on bibliography, special gift from Mrs. J. L. Stanford. COLORADO. Grand Junction. Public Library. Gift of $8000, increased from $5000, for a library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Leadville. City Library Association. Gift of $100,000, for a public library, from Andrew Carnegie. Ouray. Walsh Library. Gift of a library building, costing $20,000, from Thomas F. Walsh. CONNECTICUT. Branford. Blackstone Memorial Library. Bequest of $100,000, from Timothy B. Blackstone, of Chicago, founder of the library. Danielsonville. Edwin H. Bugbee Memorial Building. Bequest of $15,000, for the erection of a building, also the donor's private library and cases, from Edwin H. Bugbee. Derby. Public Library. Gift of a fully equipped public library building, by Col. and Mrs. H. Holton Wood, of Boston, the city to agree to maintain the library and raise a book fund of $5000, to which sum the donors will add an equal amount. — Gift of $12,000, raised by popular subscription, towards book fund, from interested citizens. Nearly $75 was given by public school children. — Gift of $5000, towards a book fund, from Col. and Mrs. H. Holton Wood. — Gift of 900 volumes, from Derby Reading Circle. Greenwich. Public Library. Gift of $25,000, as an endowment, from wealthy New Yorkers. Hartford. Case Memorial Library, Hartford Theological Seminary. Gift of $2000 towards fund for purchase of periodicals, from Mrs. Charles B. Smith. — Gift of $500 for book purchases, from Miss Anna M. Hills.
- 73. — Gift of 365 volumes, pertaining to missions, from Rev. A. C. Thompson, D.D. — Public Library. Gift of $5000, from F. B. Brown. Kensington. Library Association. Gift of $10,000, for a new library building, from S. A. Galpin, of California. Litchfield. Wolcott Library. Bequest of $1000, from ex-Governor Roger Wolcott, of Boston, Mass. Middletown. Wesleyan University. Gifts of $3604, to be added to Alumni Library Fund. — Gift of $483, to be added to the Hunt Library Endowment. This addition has been increased to $1000 by the reservation of the income of the fund. New Haven. Yale University. Gift of $10,000, for a fund for the Seminary library in the department of Philosophy, from Mrs. John S. Camp, of Hartford, Conn. — Gift of $1500, a contribution towards an administration fund, from Charles J. Harris. — Gift of $1300, for purchases in the department of Folk-music, from an anonymous donor. — Gift of $1000, for purchases in department of English literature, from Edward Wells Southworth, of New York. — Gift of $500, a contribution towards an administration fund, from the Hon. William T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Education. — Bequest of about 5000 volumes and 10,000 pamphlets, forming the private library of the testator, from Prof. Othniel C. Marsh. — Gift of 842 Arabic manuscripts, collected by Count Landberg; bought for $20,000 by Morris K. Jesup and presented by him to the University. Many of these Mss. are very rare. The collection covers the whole range of Arabic history and literature, dating back to the 12th and 13th centuries. — Gift of a collection of musical manuscripts, number not stated, from Morris Steinert. Norwalk. Public Library. Gift of $50,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. South Norwalk. Public Library and Free Reading Room. Bequest of $1000, for permanent fund, from R. H. Rowan. Southington. Public Library. Gift of $5000, towards a library building, from L. V. Walkley. Torrington. Library Association. Bequest of $100,000, by Elisha Turner. From this amount is to be deducted the cost of the library building, about $70,000, which was being erected by the testator at the time of his death. Wallingford. Public Library. Gift of library building, cost value not stated, from the late Samuel Simpson, as a memorial to his daughter. Windsor. Library Association. Gift of $4000, towards a library building fund, from Miss Olivia Pierson.
- 74. GEORGIA. Atlanta. Carnegie Library. Gift of $20,000, for furnishings and equipment of new building, from Andrew Carnegie. Travelling Libraries for Schools. Gift of 960 volumes for 16 travelling libraries for country schools, for that number of counties in the state, from the Hon. Hoke Smith. It is planned to have each library remain in a school for about two months. ILLINOIS. Aurora. Public Library. Gift of $50,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie, the city to furnish a site and guarantee $6000 a year maintenance. Centralia. Public Library. Gift of $15,000, for public library building, from Andrew Carnegie, the city to provide a site and $2000 yearly for maintenance. Chicago. John Crerar Library. Bequest of $1000, from the late President, Huntington W. Jackson. — Rush Medical College. Gift of 4000 volumes of medical and surgical books, from Dr. Christian Fenger. This gift contains a practically complete collection of German theses for the past fifty years. — University of Chicago. Gift of $30,000, to endow the history library, from Mrs. Delia Gallup. Decatur. Public Library. Gift of $60,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. — Young Men's Christian Association Library. Gift of $500, from Miss Helen Gould, of New York. Dixon. Dodge Library. Gift of a valuable and extensive collection of art books, value and number not stated, from George C. Loveland. Evanston. Northwestern University. Gift of $750, for the purchase of books in political economy, from Norman Waite Harris, of Chicago. — Gift of $543.50, to be known as the "Class of '95 Library Fund," the income of at least 4 per cent. to be used for the increase of the university library, from the class of 1895. — Public Library. Gift of $5000, toward library site fund, from William Deering. Freeport. Public Library. Gift of $30,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Galesburg. Knox College. Gift of $50,000, for a library building, from Andrew Carnegie. — Public Library. Gift of $50,000, for public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. The city already appropriates $6000 for library maintenance. Grossdale. Public Library. Gift of $35,000, for public library building, from Andrew Carnegie.
- 75. Havana. Public Library. Gift of $5000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Jacksonville. Public Library. Gift of $40,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Kewanee. Public Library. Gift of $50,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Lake Forest. Lake Forest College. Gift of the Arthur Somerville Reid Memorial Library building; cost about $30,000, from Mrs. Simon Reid. Lincoln. Public Library. Gift of $25,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Maywood. Public Library. Gift of $100, being surplus campaign funds remaining after the election, from Republican Committee of that town. Pekin. Public Library. Gift of $10,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. The city has appropriated $1500. — Gift of a site for the proposed Carnegie library building, value not stated, from George Herget. Rock Island. Public Library. Gift of $10,000, for book stacks and furniture, from Frederick Weyerhauser, of St. Paul. Rockford. Public Library. Gift of $60,000, for a new public library building, from Andrew Carnegie, the city to furnish site and "not less than $8000" yearly for maintenance. Springfield. Public Library. Gift of $75,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. The City Council appropriated $10,000 annually in hope that the gift might be increased to $100,000. The library will be known as the "Lincoln Library." Streator. Public Library. Gift of $35,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Sycamore. Public Library. Gift of a library building, to cost about $25,000, from Mrs. Everill F. Dutton, as a memorial to her late husband, Gen. Everill F. Dutton. Waukegan. Public Library. Gift of $25,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. The city already appropriates $2000 for library maintenance. INDIANA. Crawsfordsville. Public Library. Gift of $25,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. — Wabash College Library. Gift of the original manuscript of "The prince of India," from General and Mrs. Lew Wallace. Elkhart. Public Library. Gift of $30,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. The city, in advance, has pledged $3500 yearly for maintenance. Elwood. Public Library. Gift of $1000, through the local Women's Club, from President Reid, of the American Tin Plate Co., of New York.
- 76. — Gift of $200, the results of a benefit, from The Women's Club. Fort Wayne. Public Library. Gift of $75,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Goshen. Public Library. Gift of $25,000, for a library building, from Andrew Carnegie, the city to furnish $2500 yearly for maintenance. Indianapolis. Butler College. Gift of $20,000, for a library building, also a site for the same, from Mr. and Mrs. Edward C. Thompson, in memory of their daughter. — Public Library. Gift of 275 volumes on music, in memory of her son, Harry S. Duncan, deceased, from Mrs. Ella S. Duncan. This collection includes musical scores of the most famous operas and oratorios, as well as the best critical works on music. Lafayette. Public Library. Gift of property, valued at $15,000, from Mrs. Robert R. Hitt, of Illinois. Logansport. Public Library. Gift of a fine library of historical material relating to the Mississippi Valley, collected by the late Judge Horace P. Biddle. This collection was the result of 60 years of historical research, and contains originals of maps, drafts, etc., of great value. Madison. Public Library. Gift of $20,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Marion. Public Library. Gift of $50,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. A site was purchased some time ago, and the offer was promptly accepted. Michigan City. Public Library. Gift of $500, for books, from Mrs. J. H. Barker. Muncie. Public Library. Gift of $50,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. — Gift of $6000, from the heirs of an estate, name not given. New Harmony. Workingmen's Institute Public Library. Bequest of $72,000, from Dr. Edward Murphy. In the final settlement the amount may exceed these figures. Peru. Public Library. Gift of $25,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. The city already appropriates $2700 yearly for library maintenance. Portland. Public Library. Gift of $15,000, for public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Wabash. Public Library. Gift of $20,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. — Gift of 5000 volumes, from Woman's Library Association. The library has been turned over to the city to be maintained as a public library. Washington. Public Library. Gift of $15,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. IOWA. Burlington. Public Library. Gift of $20,000, from Philip M. Crapo.
- 77. Cedar Rapids. Public Library. Gift of $50,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Centerville. Public Library. Gift of $25,000, for a public library building and site, from ex-Governor F. M. Drake, on condition that a two mills tax be laid for the perpetual and proper care of the property. Davenport. Public Library. Gift of $25,000, for a public library building, thereby increasing former gift to $75,000, from Andrew Carnegie. Dubuque. Carnegie-Stout Free Library. Gift of $50,000, from Andrew Carnegie, on condition that the Young Men's Library Association be made the nucleus of a free public library, and that the city furnish a site and maintain the institution. — Gift of a suitable site for the library building offered by Andrew Carnegie, valued at $17,000, from F. D. Stout, given in memory of his father. Fayette. Upper Iowa University. Gift of $25,000, which will be devoted to library purposes, probably for a new building, from Andrew Carnegie. Fort Dodge. Public Library. Gift of $30,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Grinnell. Stewart Library. Gift of a new library building, costing $15,000, from Joel Stewart. — Gift of a site for new library building, value not stated, from The Congregational Church. — Gift of $4000, for books, raised by popular subscription by the citizens of Grinnell. Iowa Falls. Public Library. Gift of a public library building, if the city will provide a suitable site, from E. S. Ellsworth. Mt. Vernon. Cornell College. Gift of $40,000, for a library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Conditions, if any, not stated. Muscatine. Public Library. A new library building, to cost about $30,000, by P. M. Musser, provided the city vote to establish and maintain the library. KANSAS. Dodge City. Railroad Library and Reading Room. The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé Railroad Co. are fitting up a library and reading room at this place for its employés. Fort Scott. Public Library. Gift of $15,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Kansas City. Public Library. Bequest of about $6000, from Mrs. Sarah Richart. Lawrence. Public Library. Gift of $25,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. KENTUCKY.
- 78. Lexington. State College. Gift of $50,000, from President James K. Patterson. LOUISIANA. New Orleans. Public Library. Gift of $10,000 and a valuable collection of books, from Abram Holker. MAINE. Bangor. Public Library. Bequest of $18,347.26, towards the building fund, from A. D. Mason. — Gift of building site, costing $7500, from Nathan C. Ayer. Belfast. Free Library. Gift of $3000, as a fund for the purchase of books on history and biography, in memory of Albert Boyd Otis, from Albert Crane. Brunswick. Bowdoin College. The new library building, given by Gen. Thomas H. Hubbard, of New York City, reported last year, at over $150,000, will cost over $200,000. — Bequest of $2000, from Captain John Clifford Brown, of Portland. — Gift of $1200, from an unknown donor, through a Boston friend. Fairfield. Public Library. Gift of a library building, to cost between $8000 and $10,000, from E. J. Lawrence. Farmington. Public Library Association. Gift of $10,000, for a public library building, from Hon. Isaac Cutler, of Boston, Mass. Lewiston. Public Library. Gift of $50,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. MARYLAND. Cumberland. Public Library. Gift of $25,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Hagerstown. Washington County Free Library. Gift of $50,000 and accrued interest $1250, from B. F. Newcomer, of Baltimore, the town to furnish a site for building, which will cost about $25,000. MASSACHUSETTS. Amherst. Amherst College. Gift of $500, to form a fund for the purchase of Spanish books, from Hon. John S. Brayton, of Fall River, Mass. Bolton. Parker Library. Devise of a dwelling house and one-half acre of land, on condition that within one year from the allowance of the will the town shall establish a free public library to be known as the Parker Library, from Louisa Parker.
- 79. Boston. Lang Memorial Library. Gift of a free public library of musical scores, founded by B. J. Lang, as a memorial to Ruth Burrage. — Public Library. Bequest of $4000, from Abram E. Cutter. — Gift of 599 volumes of text-books used in the public schools of Boston, from the Boston School Committee, in co-operation with the publishers. — Gift of 597 volumes, relating to music, scores, etc., from Allen A. Brown. — Gift of 576 volumes, relating to music, including operas, oratorios, collections of school and college song books, etc., from The Oliver Ditson Co. Cambridge. Harvard University. Bequest of $10,000, to increase fund, already established by him, for purchase of works of history, political economy, and sociology, from ex-Governor Roger Wolcott. — Gift of $1250, for purchase of books relating to the history of the Ottoman Empire, from Prof. A. C. Coolidge. — Gift of $800, for the purchase of books on ecclesiastical history in the Riant Library, from J. Harvey Treat, of Lawrence. — Gift of $500, for purchase of books relating to Scandinavian subjects, from Mrs. Emil E. Hammer. — Bequest of 1920 volumes, mainly English and French literature, from Edward Ray Thompson, of Troy, N. Y. — Gift of 700 volumes from the library of James Russell Lowell, to form the Lowell Memorial Library for the use of the Romance Departments of the University, from various subscribers. — Gift of 549 volumes, the library of Alphonse Marsigny, from The J. C. Ayer Company, of Lowell. — Gift of 317 volumes, belonging to the library of her late husband, from Mrs. John E. Hudson. — Bequest of 250 volumes of Sanskrit and other Oriental works, from Henry C. Warren, Esq. — Public Library. Bequest of 550 volumes, consisting chiefly of Maine and New Hampshire local histories, genealogies, etc., from Cyrus Woodman. — Gift of a collection of art works, valued at about $500, from Nathaniel Cushing Nash. Clinton. Public Library. Gift of $25,000, for a public library building, from Andrew Carnegie. Conway. Field Memorial Library. Gift of a library building to cost $100,000, as a memorial to the donor's father and mother, from Marshall Field, of Chicago. It will also be endowed by Mr. Field. Fairhaven. Millicent Library. Gift of Fairhaven Waterworks, valued at from $100,000 to $125,000, and producing an annual income of about $8000, from Henry H. Rogers.
- 80. Groveland. Public Library. Bequest of $5000, from J. G. B. Adams. Hinsdale. Public Library. Bequest of $5000, to be known as "Curtice fund," the income to be used for the purchase of books, from John W. Curtice, of Washington, D. C. Lynn. Free Public Library. Gift of a library building, erected largely from the bequest of Mrs. Elizabeth Shute. —Gift of large mural painting, by F. Luis Mora, from Joseph N. Smith. — Gift of copy in marble of the Venus of Milo, from Charles W. Bubier, of Providence, R. I. — Gift of a bronze bust of the late Charles J. Van Depoele, from his family. Malden. Public Library. Gift of $125,000, to be known as the Elisha and Mary D. Converse Endowment Fund, from Hon. Elisha D. Converse. "The income from this fund will be 'used freely in any direction in which it may conduce to the welfare of the library.'" Milton. Public Library. Bequest of $2000, from ex-Governor Roger Wolcott, of Boston, Mass. Newburyport. Public Library. Gift of $20,000, for the purchase of books, from John Rand Spring, of San Francisco. — Bequest of $4500, from Stephen W. Marston, of Boston. — Bequest of $3000, from E. S. Moseley. North Adams. Public Library. Gift of furnishings and decorations of children's room, value not stated, from William Arthur Gallup, as a memorial to his children. Petersham. Public Library. Bequest of $12,000, from Lucy F. Willis. Plymouth. Public Library. Gift of a new library building, to cost about $20,000, from the heirs of the late William G. Russell, of Boston, as a memorial to their father and mother. Salem. Public Library. Bequest of $10,000, from Walter S. Dickson. Somerville. Public Library. Gift of $4000, from Mrs. Harriet Minot Laughlin, in memory of her father, Isaac Pitman, the first librarian of the institution, the income to be used for the purchase of "works of art, illustrative, decorative, and otherwise." Springfield. City Library. Bequest of about $70,000, from the estate of David Ames Wells, of Norwich, Conn., his son David Dwight Wells having died June 15, 1900, without issue. One-half of the income is to be expended for publications on economic, fiscal, or social subjects. — Gift of 450 volumes, from Miss Frances Fowler. Sunderland. Public Library. Gift of $10,000, for a library and its equipment, from John L. Graves, of Boston. Swansea. Public Library. Bequest of a library building, cost not stated, from Frank Shaw Stevens.
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