Resource Manual Part One

An information and resource book on Tobago’s
environment for teachers and other educators

Principle Authors Contributing Authors
Anoushka Visvalingam Graham Wellfare
Nicole Leotaud Dr Owen Day
Kamau Akili Environment TOBAGO volunteers

Environmental Education in Primary Schools was published in 2003 by
Environment TOBAGO and funded by the BPTT Leader Award.

All pages in this book may be copied without the written permission of
Environment TOBAGO for environmental education use.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Acknowledgements -------------------------------------------------------1

Environment TOBAGO Mission Statement -------------------------- 1

About the Environmental Education in Primary Schools
Programme -----------------------------------------------------------------1

Rationale Behind the Environmental Education in Primary
Schools Programme ------------------------------------------------------2

Overall Goal ---------------------------------------------------------------2

Aims ------------------------------------------------------------------------2

The Philosophical Foundation ------------------------------------------3

The Psychological Approaches ----------------------------------------4

Environmental Education Activities -----------------------------------6

Teachers who took part in the Environmental Education in Primary
Schools Programme 2003 -----------------------------------------------7

Information on Tobago’s Environment

Major Environmental Problems Affecting Tobago -------------------8

Fact Sheets on the Environment
Coral ---------------------------------------------------------------------9
Coastal Sewage Pollution ------------------------------------------- 11

Littering and Solid Waste Disposal ------------------------------13
Sustainable Harvesting of Game Animals ------------------------15
Sea Turtles ------------------------------------------------------------17
Wetlands of Tobago -------------------------------------------------19
The Tobago Forest Reserve ----------------------------------------20

Tropical Rainforests by Graham Wellfare-----------------------------21

Mangroves and Coral Reefs by Dr Owen Day -----------------------36

Wetland Information Pack by Nicole Leotaud -----------------------50

Sources of Information and Resources

Useful Resources and Sources of Information -----------------------72

Field Trips -----------------------------------------------------------------76

Planning a Unit of Lessons

Planning a Unit of Lessons ----------------------------------------------77

Lesson Plans

Using the lesson plans ----------------------------------------------------87
Infant 1--------------------------------------------------------------- 88
Infant 2 --------------------------------------------------------------101
Standard 1-----------------------------------------------------------115
Standard 2 ----------------------------------------------------------130
Standard 3 ----------------------------------------------------------149
Standard 4 ----------------------------------------------------------158
Standard 5 ----------------------------------------------------------173

Glossary -------------------------------------------------------------------184

Acknowledgements

Environment Tobago (ET) wishes to express its thanks and gratitude for the contributions
made by the following organizations and individuals towards the successful
implementation of the Environmental Education in Primary Schools Programme and the
publication of our teachers’ resource book. In particular, ET would like to express its
appreciation to British Petroleum Trinidad & Tobago (BPTT), for their financial
assistance through the BPTT Leader Award, which made this programme and the
development of this teacher’s resource book possible. In addition we would like to thank
the Tobago House of Assembly (THA) Department of Education for their co-operation,
St Josephs RC Convent School for the use of their facilities to host the teacher training
workshops, Vice President of ET, Kamau Akili, who was the main lecturer at the teacher
training workshops, former ET Education Officer, Nicole Leotaud, who devised many of
the lesson plans, Gillian John, Angela Ramsey and Kamlyn Mellville from the THA
Department of Environment and Natural Resources and Dr. Owen Day from Buccoo
Reef Trust who provided information and lectures on Tobago’s ecosystems, field
naturalist, David Rooks and ET volunteer, Graham Wellfare who conducted field trips for
the teachers to observe and learn about Tobago’s rainforest, reefs and wetlands, ET
volunteer, Anoushka Visvalingam who co-ordinated the programme, devised lesson plans
and conducted demonstration lessons and finally, all the teachers who participated in the
programme.

Environment TOBAGO – Mission Statement

Environment TOBAGO conserves Tobago’s natural and living resources and advances
the knowledge and understanding of such resources, their wise and sustainable use, their
essential relationship to human health and the quality of life.”

About the Environmental Education in Primary Schools Programme

In 2001, Environment Tobago succeeded in winning the BPTT “Youth in Education”
Leader Award for an innovative education programme that seeks to improve student
learning and achievement in the academic field. Initially ET developed a pilot
programme in three Secondary Centres in Tobago, using environmental education as a
tool for interdisciplinary hands on teaching across the Secondary Centre curricular. In
2002, the programme was adapted for Tobago’s Primary schools, in order to develop a
methodology and teaching guide for infusing environmental education across the Primary
school curricular. With the current emphasis on the core curriculum subjects, ET felt that
this was the best way of ensuring that environmental concepts were taught. 30 teachers,
from around Tobago attended the teacher training workshops and field trips in order to
learn about Tobago’s ecosystems, environmental issues around the island and how to
plan lessons to infuse this information into the Primary school curricular. ET’s eco-
classroom then visited schools, conducting demonstration lessons for participating
teachers. Finally, this teacher resource book was put together, providing information on
environmental issues and lesson ideas. It has been distributed to all Tobago’s schools,
both Primary and Secondary and all other interested parties.
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Rationale Behind the Environmental Education in Primary Schools Programme

Environmental education is the fundamental strategy used in the fulfillment of
Environment TOBAGO’s mission of environmental conservation and sustainability in
Tobago. At present, there is a great need to raise awareness and concern of environmental
issues on the island, as it faces many problems. Thus, we believe that environmental
education is crucial for the protection of Tobago’s rich and diverse natural heritage. What
better place to start than Tobago’s Primary schools? It is vital that, from an early age,
children acquire a good knowledge and understanding of their surroundings and the
natural resources it provides. Only then can we hope to create and foster a respect for the
environment and a desire to preserve it.

In addition, to increasing children’s knowledge and awareness of environmental issues,
environmental education uses methods of teaching that are very effective for learners of
all abilities. Learning is experiential, inter-active, hands- on, creative and stimulates
interest and excitement about learning. Environmental education is holistic and
interdisciplinary and uses nature as a teaching tool to deepen understanding of curriculum
areas. It therefore provides an important mechanism to support and enhance learning
within the school system, by inspiring students to explore their environment, while at the
same time gaining the knowledge and skills they need for life.

Overall Goal

The overall goal is to help primary school teachers expose their students to important
environmental concepts, principles, problems and issues within the curricula structure.

Aims

For students
• To heighten environmental sensitivity and empathy toward the environment.
• To increase awareness and understanding of the principles, problems and issues
relevant to the interactions and interrelationships between human beings and their
environment.
• To aid in the instillation of a positive environmental attitude or ethic.
• To contribute to the development of positive actions and behaviours towards the
environment.

For teachers
• To provide teachers with lesson plans featuring creative, hands on ways to include
environmental learning into the existing syllabus for each subject, so that learning
about the environmental topics facilitates or enhances learning about the topics in
that subject.
• To provide teachers with background information on environmental topics that
they can use to prepare for these lessons.
2

The Philosophical Foundations

The conservation and protection of the natural environment, in the context of sustainable
development, is recognized as one of the major challenges facing our society today. The
need for appropriate education sector responses has been identified in the Trinidad and
Tobago Education Policy Paper (1993-2003) that proposes the following:

While Environmental Education may not be a new ‘subject’ or ‘concern’, the
immediacy and urgency of environmental issues demand that we address it
anew in our school curriculum.

As a matter of strategy and for effective accommodation within an
overcrowded curriculum, Environmental Education must be pursued by way
of an ‘infusion approach’ thereby giving it added focus and emphasis
appropriate in every subject.

The danger that Environmental Education might become the responsibility
of none can be avoided through training and enabling supervision.

Environment Tobago strongly supports the above stated proposals and in response has
developed an Environmental Education Programme for the formal education sector
based on the following underlying philosophical assumptions:

- A learner-centered approach to education is most appropriate to existing
individual and social needs;

- The school is an open system that is influenced by the external environment and
in turn exerts influences on the external environment;

- The school must be regarded as a learning community in which students, teachers
and other stakeholders are engaged in lifelong learning;

- A flexible curriculum is necessary to allow adaptation to a rapidly changing
environment;

- The curriculum must seek to integrate the various disciplines;

- Environmental education must be infused into all disciplines;

- Cognitive, psychomotor and affective development of the learner is essential for
creating the environmental stewardship necessary for effective environmental
conservation and protection;
3

The Psychological Approaches

Any attempt at education including environmental education must be based on sound
understandings about how children learn. The challenge however is that a number of
different and sometimes conflicting psychological theories of learning exist in the
field of pedagogy. The approach taken in developing this environmental education
guide is eclectic, i.e., a mix of different theories. The major learning theories that
have been applied are behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism and multiple
intelligences.

The application of behaviorism is illustrated by the use of behavioral objectives in the
sample lesson plans and some emphasis on observable behavior. It should be
recognized however that the behavioral approach has limitations including the
difficulties of accommodating all possible learning outcomes for a class.

Cognitivism differs from behaviorism in that the observed behavior is not the primary
objective but rather an indicator of what is going on in the learner’s head. The focus
is on the learning process. In this context this guide has attempted to give significant
attention to cognitive or thinking processes, particularly higher level thinking that can
contribute to the development of the values and attitudes that are critical to
environmental stewardship.

More recent research in cognitive psychology supports the theory of constructivism
which proposes that learners construct knowledge for themselves and each individual
constructs his or her own perspective of the world based on individual experiences
and schema. Constructivism is not a new idea however modern education research
has given it new life. In applying constructivism in this guide significant emphasis
has been given to ‘active’ learning, reflective activity and learning as a social activity
with the major goal of developing problem solving capabilities.

4

The theory that human intelligence has multiple dimensions has also been applied
particularly because of the identification of the naturalist intelligence that is defined
as the ability to understand, relate to, categorize, classify, comprehend, and explain
the things encountered in the world of nature. The development of this intelligence
has significant implications for environmental protection and conservation. Multiple
intelligence theory also offers the opportunity to address many different aspects of the
learner’s development in dynamic situations in which one intelligence can be used to
enhance other intelligences.

In summary, the psychological approach taken has been to apply different learning
theories based on the recognition that all theories have inherent advantages and
disadvantages and all have been applied in the school system to a greater or lesser
degree. Ultimately, it is the teacher who must select the approaches that are most
appropriate to the demands of the specific teaching and learning environment.

5

{ EMBED PhotoSuite.Image } { EMBED PhotoSuite.Image }

Demonstrating how sediment Students examining pond life.
runs off the land to pollute coral
reefs

{ EMBED PhotoSuite.Image
}
Playing “wetland metaphor”
game with students.

Students playing the “food
web” game

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Boat ride at Kilgwyn Wetlands

Field trip to mangrove swamp

6

Teachers who took part in the Environmental Education in
Primary Schools Programme

Teacher School
Jaqui Dillon Scarborough RC
Brigid London Scarborough RC
Eulalie Hills Scarborough RC
Sherla James Scarborough RC
Anne Williams Scarborough RC
Dave Phillips Scarborough RC
Emlyn Charles David St. Andrews AC
Edna McMillan St. Andrews AC
Gareth Gray St. Andrews AC
Rosetta Ross St. Andrews AC
Alison Roberts St. Andrews AC
Patricia Phillips Gregg St. Andrews AC
Winnifred Douglas St. Andrews AC
Patricia Malcom St. Andrews AC
Euestine Beckles St. Andrews AC
Eileen Gregg St. Andrews AC
Carla Kerr Plante Mason Hall Government
Henrietta Caton Joefield Mason Hall Government
Rawle Anderson Scarborough Methodist
Wendy Dalrymple Scarborough SDA
Irwin Benjamin North Regional SDA
Tricia Timothy Castara Government
Milton Eastman Mt St. George Methodist
Lenney Blackman Roxborough AC
Sonia Osmond Golden Lane Government
Marilyn Murray Golden Lane Government
Tress Hilaire St Josephs Convent
Dorothy Campbell St Nicholas
Kerleen Alexander Harmon SDA
Meave Nelson Hope AC

7

Major Environmental Problems Affecting Tobago

Some ideas for environmental themes to be taught

Littering and illegal dumping

Loss of vegetation in built up areas

Wildlife depletion due to over hunting and habitat destruction

Soil erosion due to poor agricultural and land development
practices

Loss of wetlands due to resort development

Noise pollution

Sewage pollution from households, resorts and yachts

Air pollution from motor vehicle emissions

Loss of coral reefs due to sewage pollution, siltation and reef
walking

Mining of beach sand leading to coastline erosion

Mining of river gravel

Over fishing
8

FACT SHEET - No. 1
December 1998

CORAL
These are coral polyps, the animals responsible for building the
beautiful coral reefs that surround Tobago. Over thousands of { EMBED CDraw }
years, billions of these creatures have built the world’s reefs,
some of which are hundreds of miles across. Coral reefs are one
of Tobago’s most precious natural resources.

Within the world's oceans, the greatest variety of life (bio-
diversity) is found on coral reefs. These fragile reefs play a
critical role in sustaining a thriving ocean habitat, especially in
tropical oceans. They also provide many benefits to humans as
well.

Nearly 400 million years ago, before there were any animals on
land, the primitive ancestors of coral reefs formed in the seas. Today's coral reefs were built up during the last 10,000
years, as the last Ice Age ended and the glaciers receded. Coral reefs are the oldest complex natural communities or
ecosystems existing on Earth.

Buccoo Reef is the largest and most famous reef in Tobago, but there are also reefs at Speyside, Arnos Vale,
Englishman’s Bay, Charlotteville and many other bays all around Tobago.

The seas around Tobago support rich coral growth because of adequate temperature conditions (between 23°C and 28°C),
and relatively clear water, with little suspended matter.

Much like their relative the sea anemone, coral polyps have sticky tentacles with stingers to catch passing prey for food.
At night, the polyps feast on small floating organic material called plankton, which populate the oceans. But their primary
source of food are microscopic plant cells called zooxanthellae (pronounced “zoh - an – thell – eye”) that actually live
within the tissue of coral polyps. These plant cells also provide the coral's wide variety of colors.

Coral polyps grow in colonies, which means that each individual animal is attached to another, and then another. Food can
be passed from one polyp to another through tubes connecting the polyps called coenosarcs. A colony can grow to be
quite large. In the reef at Speyside is one of the largest brain corals known worldwide, over 10 feet in diameter! It contains
many thousands of individual coral polyps all living together.

Reef-building is a very slow process. Staghorn coral, for instance, grows at approximately one centimetre per year. It is
estimated that present-day Buccoo Reef represents ten thousand years of coralline growth and reef formation. There are
about 735 species of reef-building corals the world over of which 39 are known to exist in the waters around Tobago.

LIFE ON THE REEFS
Tobago’s reefs boast an array of brightly-coloured fish including, among others, parrot fish, wrasses, spot-fin and other
butterfly fish, trumpet fish, toadfish and angel fish. Reef fish feed on smaller organisms found within the confines of reef
waters and, in some instances, on the coral themselves. Fishes however, are not the only colorful components of the reef
ecosystem.
In addition, there are the flambouyant sea whips, fans, brittle stars, molluscs and different varieties of sea urchins (sea
eggs), some of which are transparent, and of different shapes and sizes. To say nothing of the sea anemones and sponges
and various algae (sea weeds) which abound in the coral reef habitat.
9

THREATS TO THE REEFS
A wide variety of human activity has damaged almost all of the world's coral reefs in recent years. Human damage also
weakens the reefs' ability to recover from natural disasters (see Coral Bleaching). Some experts predict that unless
changes are made soon, most of the world's coral reefs will be dead in just 20 to 40 years from human causes. This would
be a major catastrophe for life in the world's oceans, and for the human communities dependent upon the reefs for food,
income, medicine, and coastal protection.

• Pollution poisons coral polyps. Pollution takes on many forms including oil and grease, pesticides and other
chemicals, sewage and garbage. Fertilizer runoff and untreated sewage introduce added nutrients to coastal
ecosystems. These elevated nutrient levels promote algae growth. Unfortunately, high concentrations of algae or solid
sewage can overwhelm and smother the polyps. Under normal conditions, herbivores, fish and some invertebrates
keep the algae population in check.

• Deforestation degrades more than just land habitats. When tropical forests are cut down to clear land for agriculture,
pasture, or homes and roads, topsoil washes down rivers into coastal ecosystems. Soil that settles on reefs smothers
coral polyps and blocks out the sunlight needed for corals to live.

• Coastal development and dredging ravages reefs. This development includes building seaside homes, hotels, and
harbors.

• Besides fishes, fishermen harvest a variety of exotic seafood from the reef including conchs and lobsters.

Visitors to Buccoo Reef can view the reef through glass-bottomed boats. The practice of allowing tourists to leave the
boats and walk over the reef has severely damaged areas of the reef and this practices continues today, even after Buccoo
Reef was designated a restricted area in 1973.

CORAL BLEACHING
Every coral species maintains a symbiotic (meaning both species benefit) relationship with microscopic organisms (algae)
called zooxanthellae.

The zooxanthellae provide the coral with oxygen and some organic compounds they produce through photosynthesis.
When stressed, coral expels its zooxanthellae. The polyps of the coral are left without any pigmentation (zooxanthallae
give coral its beautiful colours) and appear nearly transparent on the animal's white skeleton. This is what scientists mean
when they talk about coral bleaching.

Numerous laboratory studies have shown a direct relationship between bleaching and water temperature. A two or three
degree rise in temperature (above 28°C) can trigger the bleaching effect.

Corals can recover from bleaching unless high water temperatures persist for too long a period or become too warm to
permit recovery. The coral's ability to feed itself in the absence of zooxanthellae seems to be a key to survival.
Reestablishing the symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae can take from two months to a year. When the level of
environmental stress is high and sustained however, death of the coral may result. This will go on to affect the rest of the
ecosystem in a highly negative way.

Coral bleaching is a global phenomenon. Since the 1980s nearly all of the world’s coral reefs have been affected. Many
scientists attribute bleaching to global warming caused by the green house effect. Some experts predict that if a global
warming trend continues coral mortality could reach 95%.

Coral bleaching was reported in the reefs around Tobago for the first time in 1998. The THA Marine Affairs Section
conducted a Coral Disease Survey in 1998 as part of CARICOM’s Caribbean Coastal Marine Production project. Reefs at
Buccoo, Speyside and Pigeon Point were studied and bleaching was seen at each location. At one particular area 50% of
the coral was affected. Water temperatures as high as 30 degrees C were recorded. Reports of bleaching have been
received by Environment TOBAGO at many other bays.
10

FACT SHEET - No. 2
December 1998

Coastal Sewage Pollution
In nature, nothing exists alone. Living things relate to each other as well as to their non-living but supporting
environments. These complex relationships are called ecosystems. Each bay in Tobago is a delicately balanced
ecosystem in continuous interaction with the surrounding air and land.

Whatever occurs on the land and in the air also affects the water. If man-made pollutants enter the sea, the water
can purify itself biologically but only to a degree. The water can absorb only so much. It reaches a point where
the natural cleaning processes can no longer cope.

Types of Pollution
There are many types of pollution that can negatively effect Tobago’s coastal waters and the marine life they
sustain. Among these are fertiliser run-off, siltation from erosion and construction, garbage, gray water from
homes, schools, hotels and other establishments, chemicals (paints, oil, grease, cement, etc.) from construction,
gasoline and diesel fuel from service stations and sewage. Sewage is the waste (faeces and urine) from humans
and animals.

Sewage Pollution and Disease
Sewage pollution is of special concern because it can carry disease-causing micro-organisms called pathogens.
Pathogens usually come from land-based carriers. If a person or animal is carrying a disease then the waste
from that person or animal will contain the pathogens that cause that disease and if this waste is not treated
properly the disease carrying pathogens may enter the sea.

A range of diseases can be carried by pathogens, including gastroenteritis, dysentery and hepatitis. The
consequences of these diseases can be more severe for children, the elderly and those with weakened immune
systems. Bathing in water contaminated with sewage can cause skin infections, rashes and infections of the eye,
nose and eyes.

Sources
In Tobago sewage pollution can come from:

1. Non-functioning sewage treatment plants. The Environmental Management Authority reports that there
are 13 non-functioning treatment plants in Tobago (1996 State of the Environment).

2. Domestic and commercial pit latrines and septic systems. The combined effluent from pit latrines and
septic systems of homes and small commercial establishments can leach through the soil and enter storm
drains, gullies and rivers and flow to the sea.

11

3. Yachts. Yachts usually have no on-board waste treatment systems. Raw sewage is held in tanks and then
expelled into the sea.

4. Animal farms. Many people in Tobago raise pigs, goats, chickens and cows. Often the waste from these
animals is washed into the surrounding environment and can enter storm drains and road gutters to be
carried to the sea.

Tobago Community Water Watch Network
With the participation of school students and community volunteers, Environment TOBAGO is testing the
water quality of several bays in Tobago, as well as the drainage systems of several coastal villages, an area
where yachts moor and commercial and residential treatment plants. The results of these tests indicate that in
some areas dangerous amounts of sewage are entering Tobago’s coastal waters.

Historical Perspective
The problem of sewage pollution in Tobago is a very good example of how environmental concerns are so often
overlooked as a developing society strives to raise its standard of living. Limited resources are used up
providing basic necessities such as health and social services, infrastructure and food with no thought as to how
the environment may be effected by these activities.

In the case of sewage disposal, negative effects may not be noticeable as long as population levels are low.
Nature can absorb man-made pollution to a degree. As development increases, this natural limit is passed.

The Present Situation
The situation in Tobago is now critical. With the rapid expansion of the tourist industry added to our already
overloaded and insufficient commercial and residential waste treatment facilities, sewage pollution has reached
a point where we can no longer ignore the consequences.

Recommendations
Regulations must be put in place to ensure that all sewage is properly treated before being released into the
environment.

An island-wide water quality-monitoring programme must be implemented. Regular testing of rivers, drains and
beaches will provide the data needed to begin the process of reducing sewage pollution. A monitoring
programme will also show us where dangerous levels of pollution exist so that these areas can be avoided by
bathers.

Serious efforts and adequate resources must be directed towards the elimination of coastal sewage pollution in
Tobago.

12

FACT SHEET - No. 3
December 1998

Littering and Solid Waste Disposal
Littering is the improper disposal of bits of trash by individuals. When you drop an empty bottle on the ground
you are littering.

All man-made waste except sewage is considered solid waste. Solid waste is everything that we no longer want
and need to get rid of. It may be composed of glass, metal, plastic, wood, paper or cardboard. Chemicals and
vegetable material also form part of our solid waste.

In Tobago, there is only one place where solid waste is supposed to end up: the Studley Park Integrated Waste
Facility. Here, garbage of all kinds is dumped and covered with soil. It is called a land fill.

Dumping any kind of garbage anywhere else in Tobago is illegal. Littering is also illegal.

Littering becomes a serious environmental problem when the practice is widespread. Even though one person
may only drop a single bottle or candy wrapper on the ground per day, if thousands of people are doing this,
then the resulting garbage on our streets and in our countryside becomes an eye-sore and a health problem.
Trash thrown in our rivers will be carried to our beaches and into our coastal waters.

Plastic bags floating in the sea can be eaten by sea turtles (they mistake the plastic for a jelly fish, which is their
main diet). Many sea turtles have been found dead after choking on plastic material.

Illegal dumping of garbage is far too common in Tobago. There are many areas where people can dump truck
loads of their garbage without being seen. Any undeveloped area a little way off the main road will do. It is also
easy to dump garbage off of steep hillsides, either into thick bush or into the sea.

Historical Perspective
In days gone by, most waste was made of wood or cardboard. There wasn’t as much glass, metal, plastic or
concrete as there is today. And there weren’t as many people. Wood, cardboard and plastic could be burned.
Small quantities of glass and metal and could be buried. As our population grew and our island became more
modernised, more products came on the market made of, or packaged in, glass, metal and plastic. Reinforced
concrete became the preferred building material. At some point it became necessary to implement a system of
solid waste disposal. The objective of this system was, and still is, to gather all solid waste and transport it to a
location where it can be safely dumped and covered.

Garbage Is Ugly
In Tobago, before each Christmas, Tobagonians spend several days fixing up their homes. They buy new
curtains, wash or repaint their walls, sweep and mop their floors and generally make their home look as shiny
and new as possible. In fact, cleaning our homes is a daily chore all year round. We wouldn’t think of letting
trash and old food build up in our kitchen or parlor. And yet it seems that many people on Tobago have no
objection to seeing (and smelling) garbage all around them as they walk or drive around our island. The same
13

litter that is ugly and unwanted in our homes and yards is OK on our beaches and streets. Many people also
think the system works like this: we throw it down, others pick it up. These attitudes need changing!

Garbage Equals Disease
Garbage is a breeding ground for flies and mosquitoes. Flies lay their eggs in wet organic garbage. Mosquitoes
lay their eggs in standing water. Water collects in thrown away bottles or any bit of garbage that can hold water.
Flies and mosquitoes carry diseases. Dengue fever is carried by mosquitoes. At the Studley Park Facility, bull
dozers are used to cover garbage with soil to ensure that no garbage is exposed to the air and no flies or
mosquitoes can reach the garbage.

Bio-degradable vs. Non-bio-degradable
Some material will degrade biologically in nature. If vegetable matter is buried, it is broken down by bacteria
and soon becomes part of the soil and in fact adds nutrients to the soil which is good for plants. Many gardeners
create compost heaps in which they combine soil and vegetable matter which over time becomes an effective
fertiliser for their crops. Paper and cardboard are made of wood and will eventually decompose and become part
of the soil. This is why bio-degradable matter can be buried and will pose no problem.

Other materials are non-bio-degradable. Iron-based metal degrades very slowly by rusting. Glass and most
plastics degrade even more slowly – over tens or even hundreds of years. If you look at our river mouths and
our beaches, you will see mostly old objects made of glass and plastic or rubber. Non-bio-degradable objects do
not disappear when thrown away.

Recycling
In most developed countries solid waste disposal became so expensive and problematic (they were running out
of places to put it) that people began to look at waste from a different angle. They reasoned that instead of
spending more and more money to properly dispose of garbage, they should find ways to use the garbage again.
Glass bottles were one of the first things to be “recycled” on a mass scale. Instead of throwing bottles away,
they are collected and sterilised and used again. Old paper is made into pulp and mixed with new wood pulp to
make into new paper. Metals are melted down and made into new products. In China, you must return your old
toothpaste tube before you can buy a new tube of toothpaste! By recycling, we can greatly reduce the amount of
garbage needing disposal. In Tobago, several attempts have been made to introduce glass recycling but they
have all failed. Bottles and jars have to be collected. Glass has to be crushed and shipped to Trinidad. In order to
succeed, recycling must provide a profit for those doing the work. So far, this has not been possible in Tobago.

Recommendations
Littering and illegal dumping must stop.

To stop littering, people’s attitudes must change. Litter must be put into litter bins. More litter bins must be
provided and they must be emptied regularly. Stores must become responsible for transporting their garbage to
Studley Park instead of dumping it on and around overflowing litter bins.

People’s attitudes to illegal dumping must change as well. Laws against illegal dumping must be enforced to
stop those whose attitudes cannot be changed. Only the concerted effort of each and every Tobagonian with the
support of the relevant public agencies will result in a litter free Tobago.
14

FACT SHEET - No. 4
December 1998

Sustainable Harvesting of Game Animals
A Strategy for the Conservation and Restoration of Tobago’s Wildlife

“Game animals” are animals living in the wild that are hunted and killed (“harvested”) by man for their meat,
fur, feathers or shells. In Tobago, the wild pig (peccary), the agouti, the manicou (possum), the iguana, the
tattoo (armadillo), the sea turtle (leatherback, green and occasionally the hawksbill) and their eggs, the pelican
and other sea birds and their eggs are all harvested.

“Sustainable” means that something can be continued indefinitely. If something is done in a manner such that
sooner or later it can no longer be done, then it is unsustainable. For example, if a lumber company cuts down
all the available trees and doesn’t plant any new ones, eventually it will go out of business.

If hunting is to be allowed in Tobago, then our game animals must be managed wisely to ensure that they are
not over-hunted and killed off completely.

Many people believe that our wild animals are not being managed wisely and that we are in danger of losing
them. No wild animal population surveys have ever been done in Tobago, so there is no scientific proof that
populations are declining. But if we look at the historical record, we can see that it is certainly possible for
entire species to be wiped out by over-hunting.

Almost four centuries ago there were twenty-four land-based mammals, two water-based mammals and two
macaws native to Tobago. Hunting for food, fur and feathers destroyed fourteen of these mammals and both
macaws. Among those exterminated were the monkey, fox, musk rat, ocelot, deer, manatee and river otter. It is
reported that the last member of the Tobago deer population was shot in the 1970’s at Lowlands.

{ EMBED CDraw } Historical accounts tell of beaches in Tobago covered with nesting
The Red brocket deer, one of many sea turtles. Today we find far fewer. Older hunters will tell you that
ex-Tobagonians when they were younger the species left today were far greater in
number. The Tobago House of Assembly Forestry Division agrees
with these hunters. The Assistant Conservator of Forests has stated
that “the numbers of game species are much less than they should
be.” He said that “the catch per hunting effort is steadily decreasing.”
In some cases “such as the agouti and tattoo, their numbers may be
too low to be viable.” When he says “too low to be viable” he means
that even if all the agoutis, for example, are not killed, the agouti
population can become so small that the remaining animals will die
out naturally. They become so scarce and separated that males and
females cannot find each other to mate.

To achieve a sustainable harvesting of game animals, limits must be placed on the number of animals taken
each year. These limits are determined by the animals’ growth rates, or their ability to increase their numbers.
Very simply put, the number of animals taken each year should not exceed the number of young born each year.
15

First, we must be sure that our game animal populations are allowed to grow to their maximum levels, which is
determined by the size of their habitat (area where they live) and the availability of food. To achieve maximum
population levels, a complete ban or moratorium on hunting may be necessary for one or more years.

Next, we must ensure that hunters do not kill too many of each species of animal each year. Either the hunters
must do this voluntarily or hunting laws must be effectively written and strictly enforced. One way of
controlling the number of animals harvested is to impose “bag limits”, so that only a certain number of each
species can be taken each year.

Finally, we must ensure that hunting seasons correspond correctly with the animals’ mating seasons. Females
must be allowed to have their young and the young must be allowed to grow.

At present, hunting in Tobago goes on year around. There are not enough game wardens to patrol our forests.
Hunting laws are not well-written and are largely un-enforced. There is a serious lack of concern among the
general public to the over-exploitation of our wildlife. Sea turtles and sea birds and their eggs, although
protected by national laws and international treaties, are nonetheless poached. Churches continue to sponsor
village harvest festivals where wild meat, including turtle meat, is featured.

In the future, if sustainable harvesting of game animals can be achieved and if hunting is controlled, animals
that once graced our island could be reintroduced. Our wildlife would become more diverse and Tobago would
become more beautiful.

16

FACT SHEET - No. 5
December 1998

Sea Turtles
Turtles are among the most ancient of all living reptiles. Their history reaches back more than 200 million years
-- before the Dinosaurs! Today we share our planet with many species of turtle, including seven species which
spend their entire lives in the ocean. These turtles are known as "sea turtles", and all are classified as
Endangered or Threatened with extinction. This is certainly true of sea turtles in the Caribbean Sea, where older
fishermen remember the days when there were more (and larger) turtles in the sea than there are now.

The most common species in Tobago (at least on the nesting beaches) is the Leatherback turtle, known to
scientists as Dermochelys coriacea -- the "skin turtle." At the right time of year, generally between April and
July, you may encounter a leatherback turtle. These giant "soft-shelled" turtles can weigh as much as 2000
pounds. Leatherbacks must travel to the Caribbean to nest because they reside in cooler latitudes of the United
States, Canada and the eastern Atlantic Ocean. These areas are far too cold to provide adequate nesting
conditions. Thus, Caribbean islands, including Tobago, are very important to the survival of these ancient
creatures. Sadly, many of the leatherbacks that come to Tobago laden with eggs are killed when they come
ashore. When an adult female is killed, thousands of eggs (which would have been laid in future years) are also
lost. Green turtles and hawksbill turtles also nest in Tobago and are also hunted. The hawksbill turtle has
become very rare. Although the loggerhead turtles once nested in Tobago, in recent years none have been
reported.

It is because we have killed so many of the adults that sea turtles of all species are Endangered throughout the
Caribbean. Each female must lay many thousands of eggs in order for her species to survive. Did you know that
only a few hatchlings in 1000 will survive to maturity and lay eggs of their own? When sea turtles are 20-35
years old, depending on the species, they are old enough to breed. Many are killed, especially by man, before
they reach this age. Sometimes we do not kill them directly, but still they perish from our activities. For
example, turtles breath air and can drown when they become entangled in fishing nets. Also, turtles are very
sensitive to light. When the nesting beach is well lit by hotels and other developments, the baby turtles are
attracted by these artificial lights and crawl inland. These hatchlings never find the sea and they often die in the
morning sun. Finally, turtles can mistake plastic bags for jellyfish and die when their stomachs become packed
with plastic.

What can we do to protect sea turtles in Tobago?
Don't sell or purchase sea turtle products. Selling and purchasing these products encourages the harvest of sea
turtles. Nearly all countries of the world, including Trinidad and Tobago, prohibit the import and export of
endangered species products.

Don't discard plastics and other refuse at sea.

Watch for sea turtles at sea, they can be struck and killed by boat propellers and wind surfers.

Check fishing nets frequently so that sea turtles are not ensnared and drowned.
17

Don't harass sea turtles at sea or on land. Don't disturb turtles in feeding areas, shine lights on nesting turtles, or
ride turtles.

Encourage regulations requiring that lights not shine on nesting beaches. Use structural shields or vegetation
hedges.

Don't drive vehicles or ride horses on potential nesting beaches. These activities crush incubating eggs, and tire
ruts trap hatchlings as they crawl to the sea.

Don't leave lounge chairs, sailboats, and other obstructions on nesting beaches at night.

Don't litter sandy beaches. Discarded cans and bottles are unsightly and can cause injury to nesting turtles.

Remember, it is illegal not only to kill, but to pursue or molest any sea turtle (that is, any egg, hatchling or
adult) on land at any time. It is also illegal to capture at sea or offer for sale any sea turtle (or turtle product)
during the closed season under the Fisheries Act: 1 March - 30 September.

Leatherback Facts
Leatherbacks are the largest of the sea turtles. Females nesting in the Caribbean typically weigh 300-500 kg
(650-1100 lb). The largest leatherback on record is a male that stranded on the coast of Wales in 1988 and
weighed 916 kg (2015 lb). The species is easily distinguished from other sea turtles because it lacks a bony
shell, having instead a slightly flexible skin-covered "shell." The smooth, black skin is spotted with pale yellow
or white. The tapered carapace is raised into seven prominent ridges.

Leatherbacks are sustained almost entirely on a diet of jellyfish and related animals. To find their prey, they
travel thousands of miles throughout the Atlantic Ocean, preferring to feast on enormous cold water species,
such as Cyanea, off the coasts of Canada and northern Europe. Leatherbacks love to eat the deadly Physalia, or
Man-O-War jellyfish. Leatherbacks have thick layers of fat to keep them warm, as well as a circulatory system
which is unique among reptiles but shared by some marine mammals. In this system, the veins and arteries are
bundled together in what scientists call "counter-current circulation", an arrangement which prevents body core
heat from being radiated and lost to the surrounding environment. Because of their ability to survive in cold
water, leatherbacks have the broadest distribution of any reptile on Earth. They are also the deepest divers!
Females nesting in the Caribbean have been tracked using transmitters and satellites and have been recorded
diving to depths exceeding 4000 feet.

Where are the juveniles? There are no local records of immature leatherbacks, although injured juveniles have
been rescued in recent years in the waters of Barbados and Puerto Rico. The paths taken by hatchlings leaving
their natal beaches are not known. There are no data on growth rate or age at sexual maturity for wild
leatherbacks. Most hard-shelled sea turtles require at least 20 years to reach sexual maturity, and this is likely to
be true of leatherbacks, as well. Once mature, females return to the beaches of their birth, laden with eggs, every
2-5 years, on average. Thousands of eggs are laid over the course of a lifetime. The temperature of the sand in
which the eggs incubate determines the sex of the hatchlings! Warmer temperatures result in females, whereas
cooler temperatures favor males. This is true for all sea turtles, and is the reason why incubation in buckets or
styrofoam coolers is not a suitable conservation option.

Source: Karen L. Eckert, Ph.D. 1998.
Environment Tobago Newsletter (Issue 2.2) (pages 2-4).

18

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FACT SHEET - No. 6
March 1999

Wetlands of Tobago
What are Wetlands?
As the name suggests, wetlands are land areas that are heavily saturated with water on a permanent or semi-
permanent basis. Wetlands are usually found alongside rivers and lakes and in coastal areas. A wetland
develops in an area where the level of the land is low, such that water accumulates for most or all of the year. A
variety of names have been used to identify wetlands. These include mangrove swamps, estuaries, marshes,
river bottomlands, bogs and delta lands. In Tobago the term “swamp” is usually used to designate a wetland
area.

The Importance of Wetlands.
Historically, wetlands were regarded as nuisances by man. Seen as breeding grounds for mosquitoes and
producing miasma, wetlands were actually considered to be dangerous to humans. At one time it was believed
that the air from swamps would cause disease and death if allowed to enter homes at night. Today, we know
better. Wetlands are known to be prolific producers of life. Wetlands rival rain forests in biological
productivity. They absorb and store large amounts of carbon thereby preventing it from entering the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide and which is the principal agent in global warming. They also release large
amounts of oxygen. Wetlands provide feeding, spawning and nursery grounds for many species of fish and
shellfish. It is estimated that sixty to seventy percent (60-70%) of our coastal fishes depend upon wetlands.
They also serve as habitats for many types of birds. In Trinidad and Tobago, one hundred and fifty seven (157)
species of birds are known to depend upon wetlands for their survival.

Wetlands also provide more direct benefits to humans. Coastal wetlands protect coastal towns and villages
from storm tides. They provide oxygen, lumber and food. Wetlands also function as biological filters to
remove harmful pollutants before they reach the sea. The use of wetlands for the tertiary treatment of sewage
is now being adopted in many parts of the world. Tourism also benefits from wetlands since these serve as
attractions for thousands of birdwatchers annually.

Saving Tobago’s Remaining Wetlands.
The wetlands of Tobago are disappearing. Over the past three hundred and fifty years, from the start of
European colonization to the present, the wetlands of Tobago have declined significantly. Since most of our
wetlands are located in coastal areas they have been seen as prime areas for development. Most of lower
Scarborough now occupies an area that was once swampland. Other wetland areas in Lowlands, Bon Accord
and Roxborough were drained and used to establish coconut or cocoa plantations. Part of Kilgwin swamp was
filled in for the expansion of the Crown Point Airport. Those wetlands that have not been totally reclaimed
have suffered significantly from the indiscriminate cutting of mangrove, the dumping of garbage, the release of
raw sewage, the over harvesting of crabs and other activities that have reduced their biological and economic
values.

Tobago cannot afford the loss of any more wetlands. At a time when our coastal fisheries are declining, coastal
pollution is increasing, ocean levels are rising and we are seeking to boost eco- tourism, our wetlands are
needed now, more than they ever were. We now have remaining four major wetlands at PetitTrou, Kilgwin
Bon Accord and Buccoo and ten smaller ones at other locations around Tobago. Let us resolve that there
should be no further loss of wetlands and that we will do all that is necessary to maintain and restore our
remaining wetlands so that we can gain the maximum benefits that they can provide.

Environment TOBAGO - Phone: 868-660-7462 - Fax: 868-660-7467 - E-mail: envirtob@tstt.net.tt - Internet: http://www.scsoft.de/et
Post: PO Box 503, Scarborough, Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies - Office: 2nd Floor, Rollocks Building, Robinson Street, Scarborough
19

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FACT SHEET - No. 7
March 1999

The Tobago Forest Reserve
In the mid 18th century there was an English scientist, Stephen Hales, researching the circulation of sap in green
trees and the relationship between green plants and the atmosphere. Results of his research displayed the
intimate relationship between trees and rainfall.

Hales explained this to his close friend, Soame Jenyns, Member of Parliament for Cambridge and one of the
Lord’s Commissioners for Trade and Plantations, the organization responsible for settling Tobago after the
Peace of Paris in 1763. At this conference the island was ceded to Britain.

This era was the height of the sugar trade in Europe. British settlers were arriving in Tobago with land grants
from the Crown. They cut down the forest rapidly, replacing it with sugarcane. So successful were they that by
the end of that century filthy rich people were said to be “as rich as a Tobago planter”.

Jenyns, understanding the ominous reality of Hales’ scientific breakthrough, declared all the area now known as
the Main Ridge Reserve as Crown Reserve. It originally totaled approximately 10,000 acres but later another
4,000 acres were added.

Jenyns tried to have this protection made law. He suffered strong opposition in Parliament as many of his
colleagues were owners of plantations in Tobago and viewed the forest as “timber”. They thought that after
harvesting and marketing this valuable resource, they would have more land for planting sugar. Jenyns
explained to them that if they continued along that course they would turn Tobago into a desert. Their sugar
crop would fail. It took him another eleven years to convince enough of them that he was right. The Governor,
Sir William Young, signed the ordinance on the 13th of April, 1776. This, according to Scientific American, left
Tobago with the oldest legally protected forest reserve of its kind in the world*.

This act itself was marvelous but the words that made it law are incredible. In part it says:

Did also in pursuance of your said Instructions remove to Your Majesty a tract of Wood Land lying in
the interior and most hilly parts of this island for the purpose of attracting frequent Showers of Rain upon
which the Fertility of Lands in these Climates doth entirely depend.

William Young

Assented to by his Honour the Commander in Chief this Thirteenth day of April One Thousand Seven
Hundred and Seventy Six.

The forest is mainly Lower Montane Rain Forest. This type of forest is prevalent in the Amazon. In effect our
legacy is tiny sample of the Amazon in tiny Tobago.

Note - Kings and Emperors throughout history have had forests and parks protected for the purpose of royal
hunting and other pleasures. Tobago’s Forest Reserve is unique in the world because it is the first forest legally
protected to preserve the watershed.

Environment TOBAGO - Phone: 868-660-7462 - Fax: 868-660-7467 - E-mail: envirtob@tstt.net.tt - Internet: http://www.scsoft.de/et
Post: PO Box 503, Scarborough, Tobago, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies - Office: 2nd Floor, Rollocks Building, Robinson Street, Scarborough
20

{ EMBED Unknown }
CONTENTS

1.What is a rainforest?

TROPICAL
2. Where are rainforests found?

3.The history of Tobago’s rainforest

RAINFORESTS
4.The structure of a rainforest

5. The structure of Tobago’s rainforest

6.Why are rainforests so important – functions.
A GUIDE TO THE RAINFORESTS OF THE WORLD
AND TOBAGO’S MAIN RIDGE FOREST RESERVE 7. Functions and services of Tobago’s rainforest

8.Biodiversity- The variety of life

{ EMBED MSPhotoEd.3 } 9. Biodiversity in Tobago’s rainforest

10.Using Biodiversity- The key to the rainforests survival?

11. Tobago’s medicinal cabinet- secrets waiting to be unlocked

12. Relationships in the rainforest

13. Plant life on the trees

14Nutrient recycling in the rainforest

15. Threats to the rainforest- Deforestation, hunting and climate change

16 Hunting in Tobago’s Rainforest

17. Closing thoughts

18. References

21

WHAT IS A RAINFOREST? WHERE ARE RAINFORESTS FOUND?

A rainforest is “a tree covered This booklet gives you an Rainforest are found in 3 main You might ask yourself why
area in warmer regions of the introduction to the wonders of areas of the world: South East a small place like Tobago has
world where rainfall averages the rainforest and why they Asia, Central Africa and a rainforest when it is not in
over 200 cm per year, are so important to our future. Central and South America. any of these regions? Even
allowing for year round By focusing on Tobago’s Existing in a narrow band more remarkable is how this
growth ” The Green unique forest reserve this North and South of the rainforest is still standing
Encyclopedia. complexity begins to unravel. equator and occupying less when all around the world
This rather brief, dull Rainforests are not just about than 1% of the earths surface, deforestation is so rampant?
description of a rainforest trees and wildlife, they they have the greatest Well this is a story of plate
doesn’t do justice to these perform many functions concentration of wildlife of tectonics and of one man who
wondrous places. essential to the earth’s and our any ecosystem. had the vision, over 200 years
When you think of what a own well being. However, The map below indicates ago, to realise the importance
rainforest is what comes to they are still threatened, with where rainforests are naturally of the rainforests to Tobago’s
mind? Heat, humidity, noise, repercussions that continue to found but much of this has livelihood.
claustrophobia, danger, be disastrous for everyone. been lost, particularly in
beauty, rain, biodiversity, Perhaps if the world looked to South East Asia. Huge tracts
deforestation, birds, Tobago and its rainforest still exist in Amazonia and
snakes…..the list is almost reserve the tide may turn on central Africa but even these
endless. This is truly what a their fate. are constantly under threat.
rainforest is.

{ EMBED MSPhotoEd.3 }

When is a rain forest not a rain forest?
Other forests exist within the tropics that do not receive
enough rainfall to be considered true rainforests. There
is generally a dry season that limits growth and causes
some trees to shed their leaves. These are known as
‘monsoon forests’, ‘seasonal evergreen forests or
‘deciduous seasonal forest’. While they perform many of
the functions of the rainforest they do not have the
diversity of life.
The forested areas outside of the reserve in Tobago are
generally seasonal evergreen forests while Little Tobago
is a deciduous seasonal forest.

22

as many other MP’s were Hurricane Flora
THE HISTORY OF TOBAGO’S plantation owners and viewed In 1963, hurricane flora
RAINFOREST the forest as timber. Jenyns swept through Tobago
explained to them that if the devastating 75% of the forest.
forest was cut down then Many of the birds and animals
Tobago would be turned into starved as a result -their food
Tobago’s rainforest is unique Protection a desert and their crops would supply had suddenly
in the Caribbean for two For millions of years the fail. vanished. But we should not
reasons. Firstly, it used to be rainforest here was After 11 years of persuasion, think this was a tragedy,
connected to South America undisturbed except for maybe an act was finally passed on hurricanes are natural events
and so has much of its flora the odd natural disaster and 13th April, 1776 to protect the that cleanse forests of disease.
and fauna. Secondly, it has some small scale hunting by forest for ever. In the last 40 years the
been legally protected since the Caribs and Arawaks. In This story is remarkable and it rainforest has begun to grow
1776, making it the oldest the 18th century the British constitutes what many back, so when you visit the
protected forest reserve in the arrived. This was the era of consider to be the world’s first reserve what you see is almost
western hemisphere. the sugar trade in Europe. environmental act. But it is totally natural. Something
Settlers arrived with land also a tragedy, this knowledge very rare indeed for such a
grants from the crown and has been known for two small place.
Plate Tectonics began to replace the natural centuries but deforestation
Plate tectonics, or the still continues apace
forest with sugarcane. At the
movement of the earths crust, worldwide
same time, an English
causes continents to move and
scientist Stephen Hales, was
mountains to form. Between
researching the circulation of
225 and 65 million years ago,
sap in trees and the Main Ridge Forest reserve is in dark shading
land that eventually became
relationship between these
Trinidad and Tobago, was
green plants and the
much further west than it is { EMBED MSPhotoEd.3 }
atmosphere. Results of his
today. This land was
research displayed the
periodically connected to
intimate relationship between
mainland South America,
trees and rainfall. If you cut
through sea levels falling,
down trees rainfall will
allowing for migration of
decrease.
plants and animals. Sea levels
A friend of Hales, Soame
rose and Tobago became an
Jenyns, an MP in England,
island about 11,000 years ago.
understood the enormity of The rainy season should not deter visitors. If it rains,
Tobago is believed to have
this discovery and tried to get rain usually falls in short sharp bursts, often at night,
been connected to Venezuela
what is now known as the so the island may be enjoyed all year round. There is a
as there are some species that
Main Ridge Forest Reserve range of accommodation to suit all tastes. Many hotels
exist here and Northern
protected in law.
Venezuela but not in Trinidad. offer full air conditioning, choice of menu and arranged
He suffered strong opposition

23

THE STRUCTURE OF A RAINFOREST LAYERS IN A RAINFOREST

Depending on its history and This rainforest structure is
location, rainforests typically relatively stable as there is
have 4 layers: little light for seedlings to take { INCLUDEPICTURE "C:My
The emergent layer where the hold. This is known as a DocumentsGrahamLayers of a
giants of the forest occur. climax community. However Rainforest_fileswhlay1.gif" *
Trees here can grow in excess as soon as a large tree falls, EMERGENT
MERGEFORMATINET }
of 50m. LAYER
light becomes available on the Giant Trees { INCLUDEPICTURE "C:My
The canopy layer this is forest floor. Almost
where the majority of trees DocumentsGrahamLayers of a
immediately this space is
exist as well as most of the filled by herbaceous plants Rainforest_fileswhlay2.gif" *
wildlife as this is where and climbers. Through this MERGEFORMATINET }
sunlight is most abundant. mess pioneer trees make their { INCLUDEPICTURE "C:My
The under story layer where way toward the sunlight. In CANOPY DocumentsGrahamLayers of a
tree ferns, palms and slow turn, these trees provide LAYER
growing trees predominate Abundant Rainforest_fileswhlay3.gif" *
shelter for the canopy or Wildlife MERGEFORMATINET }
due to their ability to grow in emergent trees to grow and
low levels of light. eventually fill the gap created { INCLUDEPICTURE "C:My
The ground layer where non many years ago. DocumentsGrahamLayers of a
woody plants and tree Rainforest_fileswhlay4.gif" *
seedlings occur. Little light MERGEFORMATINET }
penetrates here so growth is
UNDERSTORY
sparse. LAYER
Palms
Epiphytes
Pioneer Trees: Because competition for light is so intense
pioneer trees have to be quick growing to prevent themselves
from being smothered by other plants. To achieve this they
often have huge leaves and lightweight or hollow trunks, both
of which maximize photosynthesis for growth. They also have
GROUND
slippery trunks and often enlist the help of ants to avoid other LAYER
plants hindering them. Pioneer trees provide perfect sheltered Darkness
No wind
conditions for canopy or emergent trees to grow below them
and although they may only last 30-40 years, they play a vital
role in the rainforest structure.

24

THE STRUCTURE OF TOBAGO’S
RAINFOREST

The rainforest on the main You will also find the tree
ridge has been classified as fern here, the only living
lower montane rainforest. descendent of a family of
This occurs above 250m, trees that died out 290 million
where there are no emergent years ago.
trees because of exposure to The ground layer is not
wind. The canopy reaches a typical for a rainforest. as
height of approximately 30m. more light has been available
Hurricane Flora has had a since the hurricane to allow
huge effect on the structure of plants to grow.
the forest, leaving most of the When a gap opens up in the
trees no older than 40 years. canopy today a typical
However, there are pockets of pioneer tree will be the
older trees that escaped the Cecropia (bois canot or
full force of the storm. trumpet tree.)
The most common canopy
tree is the rosewood, while a
typical understory tree is the
palm or mountain cabbage.

The effect of Hurricane Flora:
Near the entrance to the Gilpin trail, the structure of the
rainforest can be easily seen. The slender trees and lush ground
vegetation indicate that forest growth is new. The sheer force of
the wind combined with the enormous volume of rainfall had a
disastrous effect at the time. Forty years later the forest once
A common ground The cecropia or bois canot is one of again looks healthy. Fast-forward a couple of hundred years and
plant is the coconut the most common pioneer trees in the huge trees will return while the ground vegetation will
like Cyclanthaceae. diminish.
the reserve.

25

WHY ARE RAINFORESTS SO IMPORTANT? WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THEY ARE CUT
DOWN?

Rainforests provide us with many vital functions or The principal causes for deforestation are agriculture and
services, from climate control to human health. We must logging for timber. Often agriculture will follow after an area
remember that these are all provided FREE OF CHARGE. has been logged. The irony is that rainforest soils are very poor
After reading the list below consider how much it would for agriculture and areas will quickly be abandoned leading to
cost to replace all these services if the forest disappeared. more areas to be deforested.

FUNCTION OR SERVICE EFFECT OF DEFORESTATION
GLOBAL WARMING: When trees are cut they are often burnt
CARBON SINK: Through Photosynthesis the carbon from carbon
releasing huge amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This
dioxide in the atmosphere is fixed or “sequestered” into the plants
effect is compounded by there being fewer trees to absorb this gas.
and trees. This helps to alleviate global warming.
LOSS OF WILDLIFE: Habitat destruction is the fundamental cause of
BIODIVERSITY: Rainforests account for a large proportion of the
species depletion and extinction. The effect of this can be devastating.
worlds flora and fauna (as much as 50% according to some
Local economies dependent on the forest would be destroyed, unknown
scientists) yet much of it is still unrecorded. Locally this diversity
species that might be beneficial to medicine will be lost and tourism will
can be utilized by harvesting the forest for food, timber, medicines
decline
and many other useful products. If harvested in a sustainable
manner these products could also be traded internationally. LESS RAIN: With fewer trees to create rain the climate will change
Rainforest tourism is growing as people come to experience this dramatically. This would not only have repercussions on human life
variety of life. with water supply becoming less predictable but the remaining
rainforest could be threatened. It is thought that the Amazon rainforest
RAINMAKER: Trees create rain through ‘evapotranspiration’.
creates over half of its rainfall through evapotranspiration. Could there
Water that the tree does not use is transpired through its leaves,
be a point in time where there are not enough trees in the Amazon to
evaporating in the heat of the sun. This will condense to form
sustain the rest of the forest?
clouds and eventually fall as rain.
FLOOD & DROUGHT: Without trees to break the heavy tropical
WATERCATCHMENT: Rainforests act like a sponge allowing
rains impact and to absorb most of the rain rivers and stream will
excess rainwater to percolate slowly through the soil allowing
begin to flood in times of heavy rain and to disappear in dry periods.
streams and rivers to run constantly throughout the year. This
Again human health is affected.
provides dependable, good quality water for millions of people in
the tropics. LANDSLIDES & SILTATION: The heavy impact of tropical rain is
multiplied many times with no cover. Soils are washed away
CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION: The trees in a rainforest break
downstream leaving local farming devastated. Downstream the effects
the impact of heavy rain with its leaves and roots. A drop of rain
of siltation can cause dams to malfunction, flooding and coral reefs to
can take as long as 40 minutes to reach the forest floor!
die. The roots that bind the soil will disappear leaving hilly areas
ALBEDO EFFECT: Surface albedo or the ‘shininess’ of the land vulnerable to landslides.
surface is a basic factor in controlling climate. Rainforests have
CLIMATE CHANGE: Bare soil reflects more heat into the atmosphere
thick, green vegetation which absorbs much of the suns energy
and so contributes to the warming of the atmosphere. In turn this has
limiting the amount of heat reflected back into the atmosphere and
impacts on thermal currents and wind which effect rainfall patterns.
so controlling global warming.
26

Tourism Timber:
FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES OF Tourism is Tobago’s second
agricultural practices. Water The reserve is too small and
TOBAGO’S RAINFOREST largest employer and its biggest inaccessible to provide a timber
money earner. The rainforest industry in Tobago. If timber
plays a key role in attracting were to be extracted it should be
visitors to this island with its outside the reserve in conjunction
Two hundred years ago agricultural practices. Water beautiful vistas, stunning wildlife with agriculture
Tobago’s rainforest was supply has become less and easy access. Many guides
protected for its rain creating predictable and more costly in are employed to show visitors
this area. Run off has increased these delights. Without it a large
properties. Since then the
in the wet season and water flow sector of the industry would be
many other functions it has decreased in the dry season. lost.
provides have been realised Soil in the water, ‘turbidity’, Regular supply of
and today, Tobago’s causes pumping stations to clean household
rainforest is still considered malfunction and costly chemicals water
vital for the islands are used to reduce the effect. { EMBED Protection of coral
livlihoood. Water shortages could become reefs
MSPhotoEd.3 } Money from
Without it the water supply commonplace in the dry season
would be disrupted, crops would unless action is taken like re- Leads tourists
fail and coral reefs would die. forestation of the hills here. to High biodiversity
Once again, remember that this is and rainforest
⇒ products
a service provided FREE by the Coral reef protection:
forest. To replace or repair By controlling soil erosion and Rain
damage caused by deforestation allowing year round clear water A beautiful place
would be enormous. to flow into the sea the rainforest to visit
protects many of Tobago’s reefs
Water Supply: in the east. The beautiful reefs at
The rainforest provides rain and Speyside, Englishmans Bay and
is the watershed for a large part Castara are all dependent on this
of the island. It provides year service. Deforestation would Irregular water
round, clean household water for result in increased turbidity and a supply
most of the eastern part of the change in the salinity of the sea Coral reefs
island. due to flood/drought regimes in threatened
A study done on the Courland the rivers. Both could have a Loss of tourist
catchment area (which provides disastrous effect on the reefs. In Leads dollar
most of the western half of the turn the fishing and tourist to Loss of
industries, which are dependent Biodiversity and
island but is outside the forest ⇒ forest products
reserve) suggests that due to on the reefs, would decline.
deforestation and poor Less rain
An ugly place you
wouldn’t visit

27

BIODIVERSITY- THE VARIETY OF LIFE BIODIVERSITY IN TOBAGO

Biodiversity within a Awesome statistics abound. A For such a small island been ‘extirpated’ (become
rainforest can be viewed on hectare of rainforest in Brazil Tobago is fortunate to have a locally extinct) it still holds an
2 levels: SPECIES diversity- can contain 500 different very rich flora and fauna. This impressive array of life.
the number of different species of tree. On one of is because it was once joined Tobago is less rich than its big
species and GENETIC these trees 400 unique species to the South American sister Trinidad but it does
diversity - the differences might be found. The value of continent and so has remnants have 15 birds, 4 frogs, 1 snake
within a species. this abundance cannot be over of the life from the rainforest and 1 lizard that Trinidad
Of all the earth’s ecosystems emphasised both for its there. Although many of the does not have.
rainforests are the most aesthetic value and for its uses larger animals have
diverse and productive. it can provide for people. It is
Although they cover only 6% these products of the forests-
of the land surface they the medicines the food and the
contain over half the chemicals that is one of the Tobago’s Flora and Fauna
estimated 5-10 million plants keys to their survival.
and animals. Tobago’s rainforest remains poorly recorded except for birds and
larger animals. No comprehensive records exist for insects or
smaller animals. The last major survey of trees was in 1943, before
Genetic Diversity- The differences that occur within a species are the hurricane and plant records are rare.
vital to its long-term survival. These differences allow for
adaptation to environmental changes – not every individual or It is difficult to specify the number of birds that live in the
population has the genetic make up to survive change. Habitat rainforest on such a small island, as there is a large overlap of
destruction decreases the gene pool and so decreases the chances of habitats. Approximately 100 species of bird can be seen of which
a species survival. the following live exclusively in the reserve.

White tailed sabre-wing hummingbird
Golden olive woodpecker
Why are rainforests are so biologically rich? Collared trogon
Great black hawk
Striped breasted spine tail
1. The tropics, where rainforests exist, have escaped the
devastating effects of ice ages leaving them to evolve SPECIAL TO TOBAGO OTHER ANIMALS
undisturbed for millions of years.
2. Most plants here are pollinated by animals (as there is little Blue backed manekin 21 snakes
wind). The relationship between animals and plants can effect Cocrico 5 large mammals
the evolution of both creating new species in the process. White tailed sabre-wing
3. Rainforests are perfect breeding grounds for pests, viruses, Red snake or Tobago
bacteria and fungus all of which target life. If only a few species false coral
were to evolve these would be quickly targeted and die off.
28

USING BIODIVERSITY TOBAGO’S MEDICINAL CABINET
The key to the rainforests survival? Secrets waiting to be unlocked

Although it is the beauty and All this sounds great but the Tobago’s rainforest is no researched for their chemical
bounty of the rainforests that issue is complicated by the different; there are a wealth of compounds.
attracts us to them in the first manner in which these plants used locally for This touches on an important
place, it maybe the wealth of products are exploited and by medicinal purposes. However issue. Knowledge like this is
the forest products derived the political consequences of the rainforest plants are invaluable but unless it is
from this diversity that could some discoveries. For poorly documented - much of written down it could become
hold the key to their survival. example logging has to be the knowledge has been lost as the culture moves
The diversity of life in carried out in a sustainable passed down through toward a more western
rainforests means that there manner so not to compromise generations by word of dependency of synthetic
are more types of plant to use its regeneration; property mouth. A report does exist medicines.
in industry, more types of rights need to be addressed for that lists plants that need to be
fruit and crops that can be the countries where rainforest
grown for food and more products are found and the Some Tobago rainforest plants recommended for
types of plant and animal that political will has to found to research into their chemical makeup
can be utilised for their move away from old
medicinal purposes. Below technologies when products Common Name Traditional use Known Chemical
are just a few examples of are found that render them Compounds
what has been discovered in obsolete.
Bois Canot, Hypertension, flu Sterols and alkaloids
the rainforests.
Trumpet and Diarrhea.
tree,cecropia Shoots chewed for
Industry: . sap of the Amazonian copaiba when poured
The (see photo below) snake bite
straight into a fuel tank can power a truck. It is almost identical Bay leaf Flu and Pneumonia Oil is expectorant
to diesel.
Wild coffee Purgative Sennosides/alkaloids
Agriculture: The dazzling array of fruits and crops from the Zeb-a-pik Diabetes/ malaria Bitter alkaloid
rainforest offer varieties of food, that maybe resistant to pests Bois Bande Aphrodisiac- bark Unknown
and diseases that affect modern crops. used in tea

Medicine: 70 % of all plants that have been identified as
having anti- cancer properties are exclusive to the rainforest. The instantly
Only 1%of plants have been examined! recognizable dead
The rosy periwinkle found in Madagascar gives a 99% chance of cecropia leaf can be
recovery from leukemia boiled and used as a
tea for hypertension
and diarrhea

29

RELATIONSHIPS IN THE RAINFOREST
Trees and fungus: Many
trees are dependent on very fine
fungal threads that grow amongst
Rainforest ecology is ecology can be broken, their roots. These are known as
complex. Scientists are yet to leaving the future of the forest mycorrhizas. The fungi
even scratch the surface of in doubt. breakdown and absorb vital
what happens here. The relationship between nutrients from dead plant matter
Relationships occur between organisms is called which tree roots are incapable of
plants, between plants and SYMBIOSIS. This can be doing. The roots can then absorb
animals and between plants mutually beneficial, benign the nutrients that are released in
and fungi. This is what makes or destructive. The this process.
the rainforest work. But it also following pages give This is another reason why
Roots on their own
what makes it vulnerable. By examples of all three. are not enough – they rainforests cannot regenerate
interfering in these By showing these well known need the help of after being cut down as the rain
processes,particularly through examples the forest ecology fungus to gather quickly washes the fungus away.
deforestation, vital links in the can be better understood. nutrients

The agouti and the
Brazil nut: The bertholletia The cecropia and the
tree in the Amazon region { EMBED Word.Picture.8 }
ants: As shown earlier
produces a nut whose
the cecropia is a pioneer
protective pod is so tough only
tree and needs to grow
one animal can crack it, the
quickly to establish itself.
agouti. By producing more
It does this with the help of
nuts than an agouti can eat in
a species of ant (from the
one meal the nuts become
azteca family). By living
dispersed by the rodent who
on the tree these ants keep
buries them for a later date.
the trunk free from any
Ultimately, some nuts are
harmful animals or plants.
forgotten and are left to grow
An agouti breaks open a In return, the ants receive a
into another tree. Remove the Azteca ants living
Brazil nut pod with its juicy substance from the
agouti and the bertholletia tree within the hollow trunk
powerful jaws. base of leaf stalk
will disappear. of the cecropia tree

30

the soil below. As the roots Vines or climbers
PLANT LIFE ON THE TREES grow thicker, they gradually These plants, known as lianas,
join up around the host tree use the trunk of a tree to reach
and starve it of its nutrients up toward the light. As they
One of the remarkable aspects retain a reservoir of water at and sunlight (“strangler” grow aerial roots are sent
of the rainforest is the variety the base of their leaves. When might be a misnomer). Slowly down to reach the nutrients in
of plant life that lives on the matter falls here, a rich the original tree dies and rots the soil. These cables that
trees. This is another form of nutritious soup is created. away leaving a hollow, lattice seem to descend from the sky
rainforest relationship. tree in its place. This is a can grow to be as thick as a
As so little light gets to the parasitic relationship. mans thigh. Again this is a
forest floor plants have had to relatively bengn relationship
adapt to use areas with more leaving the host tree
sunlight to live. This could be { EMBED unharmed.
on the leaves of trees, the Word.Picture.8 }
trunks or even on the plants
already using trees as their
home.
These plants: lianas (vines or
climbers), epiphytes and
stranglers play a vital role in
the structure of the rainforest.

Epiphytes
Epiphytes are a truly
remarkable group of plants.
Orchids, ferns and bromeliads A small bromiliad beginning
just a few examples. They its life on a branch.
have adapted to use every
available inch on a tree. A tree
in an pristine rainforest is Stranglers
often unrecognisable because Stranglers are another
it can be so covered by these remarkable group of plants.
plants. They are found only in A common sight in the
Epiphytes use trees only for rainforests and whereas forest reserve a cheese plant
support, this relationship is epiphytes do not harm trees moves up a trunk to the
fairly benign, all their stranglers will eventually kill light.
nutrients come from falling their host. A strangler tree (the parrot
matter-leaves, dead insects or Starting life off as an innocent apple in Tobago) takes a
dust. Orchids and ferns trap epiphyte a strangler will often grip on its host
this amongst their roots where take hold on a branch of a
over time a fine soil is tree. As time goes by roots are
formed. Bromeliads also sent down to the nutrients in 31

occurs because of the
NUTRIENT RECYCLING IN THE
humidity and presence of
RAINFOREST fungi and certain
bacteria,
types of animal (mainly ants Leaf cutter ants { EMBED MSPhotoEd.3 }
and termites). For example a cut the leaves
They are met
We have discovered that leaf will take about 6 weeks to and take them
by smaller
decompose in a rainforest back to the nest
rainforests are home to more ants who cut Again even
species of plants than while it takes up to a year in a the leaf up smaller
anywhere else so surely the temperate forest. All this into tiny ants chew
soils must be fantastically leaves a very thin, typically 2- pieces up the
nutritious. WRONG! 4 cm layer of fertile soil. For leaves and
Rainforest soils are this reason the roots of trees then
surprisingly poor in nutrients. are very shallow, tapping into defecate
the nutrients at the ground on it
How can this be? The smallest
Firstly rainforest soils are surface with the help of fungal ants tend the Even smaller
typically very old. With all threads. garden and ants take this
that rain over the millions of remove substance
years, most of the soluble unwanted and place it
nutrients have long since been
TERMITES AND material, the in the fungus
washed away. Secondly the ANTS garbage. garden
nutrients in dead organic
matter such as leaves, wood These incredible creatures
and animals are very quickly represent a crucial
element in the rainforest The garbage is
broken down and reabsorbed taken to the
ecology. Studies have
shown that these tiny dump
creatures can make up a chambers by
quarter of all animal mass the ‘garbage
{ EMBED ants’, in
here. Termites are the
PhotoSuite.Image } principal recycler of Tobago this is
nutrients from dead wood. often outside
Because trees are very shallow the nest.
rooted they develop ‘buttresses’ to Ants are the principal
stabilize themselves. recycler of dead animals
of a similar size. 32
THREATS TO THE RAINF
LEAFCUTTER ANTS: This family of ants, known locally as Deforestation, hunting and clim
bachacs, is one of the most recognizable animals in the rainforest. Generally
viewed as pests (especially in agriculture) they are in fact one of the
principal agents in recycling nutrients in the forest. Leafcutters have been
practicing agriculture for millions of years and live almost entirely on a Despite a widespread
by the plants. The nutrients fungus they produce from fresh leaves. The waste from this process is knowledge of the importance
are locked up within the incredibly nutritious and is quickly absorbed by plants and trees. In fact the of rainforests they are still
plants. This rapid breakdown nutrients would probably go back to the very plants that provided the fresh under severe threat. Huge
leaves in the first place.

areas are being lost due to only often precedes enough for this to have little carbon dioxide released
deforestation and their conversion to agriculture; it impact on the ecology of the through the burning of the
integrity is being also opens up areas to be forest. However, problems forest and you have a recipe
compromised by over farmed because of the roads arise when hunting extends to for disaster. However, as
hunting. In addition the silent built to transport the timber. providing for a wider appetite, there are so many factors
threat of climate change could either in cities or in other involved scientists are not
well be their ultimate Deforestation is also being countries. This over certain what the eventual
downfall. carried out for house building, exploitation of animals can outcome will be. For example,
new roads, mining and oil have a subtle but important is there a point in time where
Deforestation exploitation. Huge areas are effect , particularly to the there is not enough forest to
The principal causes of also flooded through the biodiversity. Remember produce the rain it needs to
deforestation are: construction of dams. everything is linked- if you sustain itself?
Agriculture: Conversion of loose one species you might
forests to agriculture accounts loose others dependent on it.
for over 60% of deforestation. The forest could still be Rainfall and
Vast areas are cut, burnt and standing but the variety of life evapotranspiration
used for crops or livestock. would be diminished.
Rainforest soils have been Trinidad and Tobago receives
shown to be invariably poor Hunting for the pet trade, furs an annual rainfall of
for this type of practice. Often and traditional medicines also approximately 9000 million
it is poor farmers of these play a part in species cubic metres of rain, of which
7900 million cubic metres are
regions that are forced to farm depletion
returned to the sky through
these areas. Within a few evapotranspiration! In other
Why animals are hunted
years the fertility is gone and words 88% of rain is
the farmers have little choice Caiman- Skins meat, oil recycled. FORESTS
but to clear new areas, only to Snakes- Skins CREATE THEIR OWN
repeat the cycle. Bulldozers are used to help RAIN!
Otters-Skins
Logging: Again vast areas are clear forests. They compact the
Primates-Medical science
soil, reducing the ability of the
destroyed by the effects of Birds- Plumes, pets
forest to regenerate even
logging. This has been Deer- Skins, meat
further.

33

Hunting: Hunting for Climate change: The silent
wildmeat has occurred in threat of climate change could HUNTING IN TOBAGO’S RAINF
rainforests for as long as hold the ultimate fate for the
people have lived there. It is rainforest. The loss of forest Tobago’s rainforest is well protected for its trees
still a vital source of protein cover will radically alter the well for its larger animals. People have hunted h
particularly severe in South to many people in Amazonia surrounding climate by first stepped ashore many thousands of years ago
East Asia where only a small and Central Africa. reducing rainfall and changing last four centuries Tobago’s larger animals, or ‘gam
percentage of the original Population sizes in rainforests the albedo effect. Add to this decimated.
forest remains. Logging not have generally been small the enormous amounts of Why has this happened? It is the age-old thinkin
supply” people still believe they can hunt indefi
repercussions. Wrong! At the current rate the anim
join the others that have already disappeared Altho
hunting season this is largely ignored and rarely enf

Ocelot Red Brocket Deer

{ INCLUDEPICTURE
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nimal_html/latin_america/ima
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GOING, GOING……
Animals that still survive in the rainforest. MERGEFORMATINET }

{ {
INCLUDEPICTURE INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://www.brevardz "http://www.perimeter
Blue and Yellow Macaw Otter
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tin_america/images/h ammals/armadillo.jpg
older_iguana.jpg" * " * { INCLUDEPICTURE
MERGEFORMATIN "http://home.cc.umanitob
Iguana Armadillo a.ca/~rmacarth/bobtitle.jp
g" *
{ MERGEFORMATINET
INCLUDEPICTUR Other Animals }
E Wild pig
"http://www.nat Lappe
urecom.de/postc Raccoon Muskrat
Maned Wolf
Agouti 34
GONE……. but not forgotten.
Animals that have become extinct in Tobago CLOSING THOUGHT

Rainforests are awe inspiring
places. Full of beauty, they
{ INCLUDEPICTURE provide the earth and its
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practically too. But there lurks “ are rainforests worth
a dark cloud over their future more standing than they are
that possibly threatens us all. cut down? ”
Tobago offers a small antidote We hope that we have proved
to this with its forest reserve, they are, but will the
providing the world with a necessary people be
wonderful example of what convinced?
can be achieved. However, it Perhaps all that is needed is
is a small place and most a change in attitude, to
rainforests are huge in realise that everything in
comparison- their protection life, like the rainforests, is
is difficult and their future connected. Plan for the long
looks bleak. Ultimately their term. Think sustainably.
fate depends on whether their Everyone would benefit not
true value can be recognised, just a few…..unfortunately
by everyone, from the poor this is probably the hardest
task of all.
________________________________________________

35

farmer to the people in power. REFERENCES
Undeniably this comes down
to money and the question:
Books and Journals

1.Trinidad and Tobago report to FAO on plant genetic resources 1996.
2.Rainforest Action Network Factsheet no.10
3.Rainforest Action Network Fact sheet no.1
4. Tobago the forgotten island. The Naturalist 4,7. 1983. Dave Hardy

Filename: Teachers Resource Book Part 1- Pages 1-35
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Author: ENVIRONMENT TOBAGO
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Creation Date: 5/23/2003 1:23:00 PM
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