Rs & Gis In Geotechnical Engineering.pdf

Volume 2 | Issue 1 | 13
Eng OA, 2024
Rs & Gis In Geotechnical Engineering: A Comprehensive Overview and
Applications
Review Article
Samirsinh ParmarID*
*
Corresponding Author
Samirsinh Parmar, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
D.D. University, India
Submitted: 2023, Nov 27; Accepted: 2023, Dec 06; Published: 2024, Jan 02
Citation: Parmar, S. (2024). Rs & Gis In Geotechnical Engineering: A Comprehensive Overview and Applications. Eng OA,
2(1), 13-27.
Abstract
The integration of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has emerged as a powerful approach in the
field of geotechnical engineering. This comprehensive report explores the diverse applications of RS and GIS technologies in
geotechnical engineering, focusing on their roles in site investigation, hazard assessment, and infrastructure design. The report
delves into the use of RS data, including satellite imagery, aerial photographs, and LiDAR, to gather critical geospatial information
for geological mapping and terrain analysis. It elucidates how GIS aids in data integration and visualization, providing a holistic
understanding of subsurface conditions, geological structures, and geohazards.
The report further highlights the applications of RS and GIS in slope stability analysis, landslide monitoring, and foundation
design. In addition, it addresses the significance of RS and GIS in environmental impact assessments, groundwater management,
and infrastructure asset management within the geotechnical context. The findings presented in this report underscore the
transformative potential of RS and GIS technologies, offering geotechnical engineers a comprehensive toolkit to make data-driven
decisions, enhance safety, and optimize the planning and design of geotechnical projects. As the field of geotechnical engineering
continues to evolve, the integration of RS and GIS is poised to play an increasingly pivotal role in shaping sustainable and resilient
infrastructures in the face of complex geological challenges.
Engineering: Open Access
ISSN: 2993-8643
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, D.D.
University, India.
Keywords: Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Geotechnical Engineering, innovative applications
Abbreviations:
RS : Remote sensing
GIS : Geographical Information System
QGIS : Quantum Geographical Info. System
MCDA : Multi-criteria decision analysis
LiDAR : Light Detection and Ranging
InSAR : Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar
DEM : Digital elevation models
InSAR : Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar
ESRI : Environmental Systems Research Institute
SPT : Standard Penetration Test
CPT : Cone Penetration Test
DEM : Digital Elevation Model

Eng OA, 2024
1. Introduction
Geotechnical engineering involves the study of the behavior
and properties of soils and rocks to understand their suitability
for construction projects. Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) have emerged as powerful tools that
can enhance geotechnical investigations and provide valuable
insights for engineering applications. This report explores the
various applications of RS and GIS in geotechnical engineering,
highlighting their benefits and impact on the field.
2. Overview of Rs And Gis:
2.1 Remote Sensing:
Remote Sensing refers to the collection of data about the Earth's
surface from a distance, typically using aerial or satellite imagery.
RS techniques involve the capture, analysis, and interpretation
of data related to topography, land cover, vegetation, and surface
conditions.
Figure-1: Working principle of RS & GIS
2.2 Geographic Information Systems:
Geographic Information Systems are computer-based systems used
for the capture, storage, manipulation, analysis, and visualization
of spatial data. GIS integrates various data sources, including
RS imagery, topographic maps, and geospatial data, to facilitate
spatial analysis and decision-making. Table- 3 (Appendix),
deliberates various GIS software’s along with its main advantages
and limitations.
2.3 Review of literature:
Federal Highway Administration –FHWA (2002) published a
report on RS and GIS applications in geotechnical engineering in
which soil boring management systems deliberated exclusively
using GIS software NJ DOT. Soil attributes such as depth,
Horizons of soil types, soil particle size distribution, plasticity
index, etc. were studied exclusively. Priya S. (2003) delineated
applicability of various software application in combination of
GIS tools such as Borehole Viewer and Strip chat. Roger J and
Luna R (2004) described sequence of origin of RS and GIS over
three decades starting from 1970. Types of sensors, common
inputs, data processing, analytical methods applicable to GIS and
challenges of using GIS representation of geotechnical data was
discussed exclusively by different respective case studies. Esaki
T et al. (2006) introduced advance application of GIS technology
to rock engineering. He discussed the future perspective of GIS
application to rock engineering, considering the data collection,
data analysis, coupling of GISs with the various analysis tools and
modules.
GandhimathiA.(2010)developedSCPMmodel(Soilcharacteristic
prediction model) for the prediction of soil parameters required for
foundation design. The values predicted using the designed model
were found to have close agreement with the actual values in field.
Rosen J.B. (2011) applied GIS technology to acquire information
from multiple data source and created decision making model)
using geotechnical feedback to handle quality control in project
management data for cut-off wall construction project.
2.4 Mapping requirement in Geotechnical Engineering
Geotechnical engineering requires various types of maps to
facilitate the practice and decision-making processes. These maps
provide valuable spatial information about the geological and
geotechnical properties of an area. Here are some essential types
of maps used in geotechnical engineering:
Geological Maps: Geological maps display the distribution and
characteristics of different rock formations and soil types in a given
region. They provide information about the geological history,
stratigraphy, and structural features of the area, which are crucial
for understanding the behavior of subsurface materials.
Topographic Maps: Topographic maps depict the elevation and
contour lines of the land surface. They help in identifying the
topographic features such as hills, valleys, ridges, and slopes, which
are important considerations in geotechnical site investigations
and construction planning. (figure-3)

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Geophysical Maps: Geophysical maps show the subsurface
properties of an area, such as variations in rock density, electrical
resistivity, and seismic velocities. Geophysical surveys help
to detect hidden structures, groundwater levels, and potential
geotechnical hazards like faults or voids.
Borehole Logs: Borehole logs are vertical representations of
subsurface soil and rock layers obtained from drilling exploratory
boreholes. These logs present detailed information about the
soil and rock types, their depth, strength, and other geotechnical
parameters.
Soil Maps: Soil maps specifically focus on the distribution
of different soil types within a region. They provide valuable
information about soil properties, such as grain size, permeability,
bearing capacity, and shear strength, which are essential for
foundation design and construction.
Landslide Susceptibility Maps: Landslide susceptibility maps
identify areas prone to landslides based on factors like slope
angle, geology, and historical landslide events. These maps aid in
planning and mitigating landslide risks for infrastructure projects.
Seismic Hazard Maps: Seismic hazard maps illustrate the
potential for earthquake-induced ground shaking in a region. These
maps are crucial for designing earthquake-resistant structures and
assessing seismic risks.
Groundwater Maps: Groundwater maps show the distribution
and depth of the water table and provide insights into the regional
groundwater flow patterns. Understanding groundwater conditions
is essential for foundation design and excavation projects.
Environmental Maps: Environmental maps can include
information about potential contamination sources, wetlands,
wildlife habitats, and other ecological factors that might impact
geotechnical projects.
Infrastructure and Utilities Maps: These maps show the location
of existing infrastructure, utilities, and underground services.
Knowing the location of these features is crucial to avoid conflicts
during construction.
By utilizing these different types of maps, geotechnical engineers
can gain a comprehensive understanding of the subsurface
conditions and make informed decisions during the planning,
design, and construction stages of various civil engineering
projects.
3. Applications of Rs And Gis In Geotechnical Engineering:
3.1 Site Selection and Investigation:
RS and GIS techniques enable geotechnical engineers to analyze
vastamountsofspatialdata,aidinginsiteselectionforinfrastructure
projects. Satellite imagery and terrain models provide valuable
information on topography, geology, and land cover, helping
identify potential geotechnical hazards and determining suitable
construction locations.
Figure-2: Applicability and sequence of operation for Geographic Information system incorporated in Geotechnical Engineering
The flow char (figure-2) describes the sequence of operations to handle any geotechnical project along with RS and GIS interface.RS
becomes useful in step-2 for data acquisition and GIS technology can be exclusively applicable from step 3 to step-7. Here only step-6
may require purely geotechnical software’s for analysis and design of geotechnical structures. GIS software’s can generate tables, maps
(in 2D & 3D), which enhances the reporting and visualization information.
GIS for generating maps of geotechnical properties such as SPT N value, bearing capacity, soil classification, shear parameters of soil,
ground water table, GIS for contour and elevation map.

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Legends in GIS map
Glaciers
Rock areas
Forests
Figure-3 A 1:100k Soviet army map shows the Chobia pass trail across the Pir Panjal range, an ancient shepherd migration route from
Chamba to Lahaul, India.
Image source: https://ultrajourneys.org/mapping-the-western-himalaya/
GIS for interpolating missing data- GIS (Geographic Information
Systems) can be a valuable tool for interpolating missing
geotechnical data in various geotechnical engineering and
environmental applications. Interpolating missing data refers to
the process of estimating values at specific locations based on the
values available at nearby known locations.
The accuracy of the interpolation heavily depends on the spatial
distribution of the available data and the interpolation method
chosen. The reliability of the results should be carefully assessed,
and caution should be exercised when making critical decisions
based on the interpolated data, especially in regions with limited
or sparse data coverage. However, whenever possible, collecting
more geotechnical data at specific locations is the best approach to
improve the accuracy of the analysis.
3.2. Foundation design and post construction behavior
3.3 Geo-Hazard analysis and management
Geo-hazards are natural or human-induced events and processes
that pose risks to human life, property, and the environment due
to geological factors. Landslides, Earthquakes, Volcanic Hazards,
Sinkholes, Subsidence, Coastal Erosion, Rock falls and Rockslides,
Debris Flows and Mudslides, Permafrost Thawing, Ground Heave
and Swelling Soils, Seepage and Piping, Submarine Landslides
and Karst Hazards are geotechnical hazards.
I. Slope Stability Analysis with RS and GIS:
RS and GIS are essential for assessing slope stability. By integrating
topographic, land cover, and geological data, engineers identify
unstable slopes, potential landslide areas, and analyze factors
contributing to slope failures, aiding in designing stabilization
measures.
Applications of RS and GIS in Slope Stability:
i. Terrain Mapping: RS generates accurate DEMs and GIS
analyzes slope characteristics, identifying instability-prone areas
for mapping high-risk zones.
ii. Landslide Detection: RS techniques like image classification
and InSAR monitor landslides, helping create inventory maps and
assess susceptibility.
iii. Slope Stability Modeling: RS and field data combined with
GIS-based models evaluate slope stability and failure mechanisms,
aiding decision-making.
iv. Hazard Zonation and Risk Assessment: RS and GIS create
hazard zonation maps based on factors like slope angle and
geology, facilitating risk assessment.
v. Emergency Response and Planning: RS data quickly assesses
slope failures, aiding emergency responders in prioritizing actions
and planning evacuations.
vi. Long-term Monitoring: RS and GIS monitor slope movements,
erosion, and vegetation changes over time, informing maintenance
and mitigation strategies.

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Figure-4: The predicted slope stability map of Vamanapuram River Basin, Kerala, South India.
(After C.D. Aju et al 2021)
The combination of RS and GIS aided by software tools generates slope stability maps classified as unstable, moderately stable, and
stable and highly stable slopes. Figure – depicts slope stability map for the Vamanapuram river basin of Kerala state of South India
region. Such maps help geotechnical engineer prior to the reconnaissance survey.
II. RS and GIS are vital for monitoring land subsidence.
RS techniques like satellite imagery, aerial photography, and
LiDAR provide high-resolution data, detecting changes in land
elevation over time. InSAR measures surface deformations with
precision, identifying even small-scale subsidence. GIS creates
and manages subsidence monitoring networks, integrating RS,
ground-based, and geological data. Time-series analysis in GIS
tracks subsidence rates and trends using multi-temporal satellite
imagery. GIS-based spatial analysis assesses subsidence risk by
combining geological, groundwater, and historical data. Managing
groundwater levels in GIS helps understand the relationship with
subsidence. GIS facilitates vulnerability mapping, identifying at-
risk areas and infrastructure. Decision support systems in GIS
aid stakeholders in subsidence data interpretation, informing
land use, infrastructure, and groundwater management strategies.
The integration of RS and GIS technologies in land subsidence
monitoring enhances the understanding, assessment, and
management of subsidence phenomena. These tools enable the
identification of subsidence patterns, detection of small-scale
deformations, monitoring of groundwater levels, vulnerability
mapping, and the development of decision support systems for
effective land subsidence management. Figure-5 below depicts
the steps to be followed to generate land subsidence susceptibility
maps and its validation by test data. It is peculiar that in to the
software tools it is possible to vary conditioning factors as per the
ground situations.
Figure-5: Land Subsidence Susceptibility Mapping Using Functional and Meta-Ensemble Machine Learning Algorithm Based on
Time-Series InSAR Data. (After Hakim WL et al (2020)

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RS techniques, such as Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar
(InSAR), provide a means to monitor land subsidence, which is
a critical geotechnical concern. InSAR measures ground surface
displacements over time, helping identify areas prone to subsidence
due to geological factors or human activities like groundwater
extraction or mining.
III. Earthquake and Seismic Hazard Assessment:
GIS can be utilized to map seismic activity and assess earthquake
hazards in a region. By integrating geological and seismological
data, engineers can better understand the potential impact of
earthquakes on infrastructure and plan accordingly.
Liquefaction potential and seismic micro-zonation are two critical
aspects of seismic hazard assessment, especially in regions prone
to earthquakes. They play a significant role in understanding the
potential impact of seismic events on the built environment and
infrastructure. Here's a brief explanation of each:
Liquefaction Potential: Liquefaction is a phenomenon that occurs
during certain seismic events when loose, saturated soils lose
their strength and behave like a liquid. It can lead to significant
ground shaking and cause severe damage to buildings, bridges,
and other structures. Assessing the liquefaction potential is crucial
to understanding the vulnerability of a site to liquefaction-induced
hazards.
Methods for liquefaction potential assessment often involve
evaluating soil characteristics, such as grain size distribution,
fines content, and groundwater levels. Standard penetration tests
(SPT), cone penetration tests (CPT), and shear wave velocity
measurements are commonly used to determine soil properties. By
integrating this geotechnical data with seismic hazard information,
geologists and engineers can estimate the likelihood of liquefaction
during earthquakes.
Seismic Micro-zonation: Seismic micro-zonation involves
subdividing a region into smaller zones based on variations in
geological and geotechnical properties. The aim is to create
detailed maps that depict the variability of seismic ground motion
and hazard levels across the area.
Figure-6: Seismic micro zonation (after- Bhandari T. and Thaker T.P. (2020))
To perform seismic micro-zonation, geologists and geotechnical
engineers use various data sources, including geological maps,
soil surveys, and seismic data. They may also consider historical
seismicity and fault line distribution. By considering these factors,
the region is categorized into zones with different seismic hazard
levels, indicating areas of high, moderate, and low seismic risk.
Seismic micro-zonation provides critical information for land-use
planning, infrastructure development, and disaster preparedness.
It helps policymakers, engineers, and urban planners to make
informed decisions on where to locate critical infrastructure,
identify areas requiring special seismic design considerations,
and develop appropriate mitigation measures. Figure-6 shows
the seismic micro zonation of Ahmedabad city along with river
Sabarmati, major roads and wards of Ahmedabad city.
Both liquefaction potential assessment and seismic micro-
zonation are essential components of seismic hazard assessment.
Understanding the potential for liquefaction and the spatial
distribution of seismic hazards allows for better risk mitigation
strategies and the development of earthquake-resistant
infrastructure to protect communities and assets in earthquake-
prone regions.
Seismic micro zonation and seismic zonation are crucial concepts
in earthquake risk assessment and preparedness in India.

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Seismic Zonation in India:
Seismic zonation refers to the division of a region or country into
different seismic zones based on the level of seismic activity and
the potential for earthquakes. In India, seismic zonation is essential
for understanding earthquake risk and designing buildings and
infrastructure that can withstand seismic forces. The Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS) has classified India into four seismic zones,
namely Zone II, Zone III, Zone IV, and Zone V, with Zone V being
the most seismically active. These zones help in determining
the seismic design parameters for construction projects and the
earthquake-resistant measures that need to be implemented.
Seismic Micro zonation in India:
Seismic micro zonation takes the concept of seismic zonation to a
more detailed level by studying specific localities or regions within
a seismic zone. It involves the mapping of the ground's response
to seismic waves, which can vary significantly even within the
same seismic zone. Seismic micro zonation studies aim to identify
areas with higher vulnerability to ground shaking, liquefaction,
landslides, and other seismic hazards. These studies consider
geological, geotechnical, and geophysical factors to create detailed
hazard maps for urban planning and disaster management. India
has conducted seismic micro zonation studies in various cities,
such as Delhi, Mumbai, and Chennai, to assess the earthquake
risk at a local level and inform construction practices and disaster
preparedness. Table-2 (Appendix) shows chronological efforts
made in the field of seismic micro zonation for various cities of
India as well as pan India seismic zonation.
IV. Geohazard Mapping:
RS and GIS technologies aid in geohazard mapping by analyzing
various factors like terrain, land cover, seismic data, and historical
landslide occurrences. These tools assist in identifying areas prone
to earthquakes, landslides, or other geological hazards. Geohazard
maps guide land-use planning, infrastructure design, and disaster
mitigation strategies.
Geohazard mapping using Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) involves the integration and analysis
of various spatial data to identify areas prone to natural hazards.
Here is a step-by-step guide on how to perform geohazard mapping
using RS and GIS:
Geohazard mapping with RS and GIS involves analyzing terrain,
land cover, seismic data, and historical landslides to identify
hazard-prone areas. Follow these steps:
i. Define StudyArea: Determine the geographic extent for mapping.
ii. Gather Data: Acquire relevant RS and spatial datasets.
iii. Preprocess Data: Correct distortions and align datasets in GIS.
iv. Extract Geohazard Indicators: Derive hazard-related parameters
from RS data.
v. Analyze Indicators: Use GIS tools for spatial analysis and
pattern recognition.
vi. Weight and Rank Indicators: Assign significance to indicators
and combine them for hazard susceptibility or risk mapping.
vii. Validate Results: Verify mapping accuracy using ground truth
data and expert knowledge.
viii. Generate Geohazard Maps: Create visual maps indicating
susceptibility levels.
ix. Interpret and Communicate: Explain findings clearly to
stakeholders and the public.
x. Update and Maintain: Regularly refresh maps with new data for
accuracy and relevance. Collaborate with experts and conduct field
verification for reliable mapping.
Figure-7: (After- [3] Batar, A.K.;Watanabe, T. 2021)

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Geo hazard map of Rudra Prayag of Uttarakhand, India shown
in figure- depicts the high to low susceptibility of geo-hazard
along with villages, roads, major rivers and its tributaries. The
information available after GIS inclusion guides geotechnical
engineers to correlate the variation of geotechnical properties or
behavior of soil with respect to elevation, ground water conditions
and presence of waterbodies.
3.4 Groundwater Management:
GIS-based hydrological modeling with RS data aids groundwater
resource assessment and management. Integrating rainfall,
land use, hydrological, and geological data enables modeling
of groundwater flow, aquifer evaluation, and optimized water
resource planning. Following are some applications of RS & GIS
in ground water management.
i. Groundwater Data Integration: RS provides land surface data,
while GIS combines diverse sources for comprehensive analysis.
ii.AquiferMapping:RSandGIScreateaquifermaps,characterizing
extent, properties, and vulnerability zones.
iii. Groundwater Monitoring: RS-based measurements track
regional groundwater changes, complemented by GIS analysis of
well data.
iv. Water Balance Estimation: RS data, integrated into GIS,
calculates water balance components and recharge rates.
v. Vulnerability Assessment: GIS integrates spatial data to
assess contamination risk and overexploitation, guiding resource
protection.
vi. Decision Support Systems: GIS-based systems offer tools
for informed decision-making, including modeling and scenario
analysis.
vii. Public Awareness: RS and GIS tools develop interactive
platforms, promoting groundwater importance and sustainable
water use. RS and GIS technologies offer powerful capabilities
for groundwater management. They enable the acquisition and
integration of data, aquifer mapping, groundwater monitoring,
water balance estimation, vulnerability assessment, decision
support systems, and public education. By utilizing these tools,
stakeholders can make informed decisions, optimize resource
allocation, and work towards sustainable groundwater management
practices.
Figure-8: The graphical user interface of GRADE-GIS and the estimate recharge and discharge map of Buena Vista Groundwater Basin,
Wisconsin, comparing surface water features in ArcMap (https://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0408/groundwater.html)
Figure- shows the software interface (ArcGIS) for ground water
modelling where the layers of ground water map can be fused with
bedrock depth, bedrock type, river basin, hydraulic conductivity of
rocks etc. as per the requirement of geotechnical analyst.
3.7. Construction and Excavation Planning: GIS provides
valuablesupportinplanningconstructionandexcavationprojectsby
offering a range of capabilities. Engineers can effectively visualize
the project area in GIS, gaining a comprehensive understanding of
the terrain and surrounding features. By integrating geological and
geotechnical data, they can identify potential risks such as unstable
ground, slope instability, or areas prone to flooding. GIS allows
engineers to analyze these risk factors spatially, enabling them to
make informed decisions and implement appropriate mitigation
strategies.
Furthermore, GIS assists in optimizing the layout and alignment of
structures within the project area. By overlaying various datasets,
including soil types, land use, and infrastructure, engineers can
identify the most suitable locations for buildings, roads, and other
structures. This data-driven approach helps minimize the impact on
the environment and surrounding communities while maximizing

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the efficiency and safety of the project.
Overall, GIS serves as a powerful tool for construction and
excavation planning, ensuring that projects are well-informed,
environmentally conscious, and optimized for success. Its ability
to visualize and analyze complex spatial data enables engineers
to make data-driven decisions that lead to well-planned and
sustainable infrastructure development.
3.8 Application in rock engineering: Remote Sensing (RS) and
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have various applications
in rock engineering, enhancing understanding, analysis, and
decision-making in this field. Some of the applications of RS
& GIS in rock engineering are rock mass characterization, rock
slope stability analysis, rock fall hazard assessment, rock mass
classification, geological mapping, rock mass monitoring, rock
slope design, rock blasting planning and rock mass modelling and
3D visualization. RS and GIS applications in rock engineering
contribute to better understanding, planning, and management
of rock-related projects. They improve safety, efficiency, and
decision-making, ultimately leading to more successful and
sustainable rock engineering endeavors.
3.9. Land reclamation and ground improvement: RS and GIS
are valuable for land reclamation projects, aiding in planning,
monitoring, and assessment. Applications include site assessment,
selection analysis, baseline data collection, vegetation monitoring,
and environmental impact assessment. Hydrological modeling,
slope stability analysis, and land cover mapping support effective
reclamation strategies. GIS facilitates erosion control, community
engagement, and decision-making. These technologies promote
sustainable and ecologically sensitive reclamation practices,
restoring disturbed lands for various beneficial purposes.
3.10. Environmental ImpactAssessment: GIS plays a crucial role
in conducting comprehensive environmental impact assessments
(EIAs) by offering essential spatial data related to various factors
impacted by construction activities. Through GIS, professionals
can access information on soil erosion, soil contamination, habitat
mapping, and other crucial environmental elements. This data
aids in understanding the potential environmental consequences
of construction projects, enabling better decision-making and
planning to minimize negative impacts and promote sustainable
development practices.
4. Advantages of RS and GIS in Geotechnical Engineering:
4.1 Data Accessibility and Visualization:
RS and GIS platforms provide easy access to a wide range of
spatial data, enabling geotechnical engineers to visualize and
analyze complex geospatial information effectively.
4.2 Cost and Time Efficiency:
By utilizing RS imagery and GIS tools, geotechnical investigations
can be conducted remotely, reducing the need for extensive field
surveys. This saves time and resources, especially for large-scale
projects.
4.3 Multi-dimensional Analysis:
RS and GIS allow geotechnical engineers to analyze various data
layers simultaneously, providing a comprehensive understanding
of geological and geotechnical conditions. This multi-dimensional
analysis aids in decision-making and risk assessment.
5. Limitations of Using RS & GIS in Geotechnical Applications
The use of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) in geotechnical applications has certain limitations
that need to be considered:
Spatial and Temporal Resolution: RS data, especially satellite
imagery, may have limitations in spatial resolution, meaning that it
may not capture fine-scale details required for certain geotechnical
analyses. Similarly, the temporal resolution of RS data may not
be frequent enough to capture rapid changes in geotechnical
conditions.
Data Availability and Accessibility: Acquiring high-quality RS
data and GIS datasets can be costly, especially for specialized
or high-resolution data. Additionally, certain regions may have
limited data availability, particularly in remote or inaccessible
areas, which can hinder the accuracy and comprehensiveness of
geotechnical assessments.
Data Interpretation Challenges: Interpreting RS data and
translating it into meaningful geotechnical information requires
expertise and experience. Differentiating between natural and
anthropogenic features, identifying geotechnical hazards, and
accuratelyinterpretingremotesensingindicatorscanbechallenging
without appropriate knowledge and ground truth verification.
Validation and Ground Truthing: RS and GIS data should be
validated and calibrated using ground truth data, field surveys,
or monitoring data. While RS data provides valuable insights, it
is essential to validate and verify the results with ground-based
measurements to ensure accuracy and reliability.
Limited Accessibility to Advanced RS Techniques: Some
advanced RS techniques, such as Interferometric Synthetic
Aperture Radar (InSAR) or hyperspectral imaging, may require
specialized equipment, software, or expertise that may not be
readilyaccessibletoallgeotechnicalprofessionalsororganizations.
Limited Coverage and Scale: RS data may have limitations
in terms of coverage and scale. Some geotechnical applications
require data at a very local or site-specific level, which may not
be readily available or feasible to acquire through RS techniques.
Complexity of GIS Analysis: GIS analysis can be complex,
requiring a certain level of technical knowledge and skills to
effectively manipulate, analyze, and interpret geotechnical data.
The learning curve associated with GIS software and the need for
training and support can be a barrier for some users.
Uncertainty and Limitations in Data Interpretation: Geotech-
nical assessments based on RS and GIS data are subject to uncer-

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tainties and limitations. Factors such as atmospheric conditions,
image processing techniques, and assumptions made during data
analysis can introduce uncertainties and affect the accuracy of ge-
otechnical interpretations.
Integration Challenges: Integrating RS and GIS data with
other geotechnical datasets and models can be challenging due
to differences in data formats, coordinate systems, and scales.
Ensuring seamless integration and compatibility between various
data sources and models requires careful data management and
proper data integration techniques.
Continuous Monitoring Requirements: RS data may provide
snapshots of geotechnical conditions at a particular time, but
continuous monitoring of ground conditions is often necessary for
accurate and dynamic geotechnical assessments. RS data alone
may not capture the temporal variations and long-term behavior of
geotechnical parameters.
While these limitations exist, RS and GIS still offer significant
advantages in geotechnical applications. By understanding these
limitations and using appropriate methodologies, validation
techniques, and expertise, the potential benefits of RS and GIS can
be maximized in geotechnical assessments and decision-making
processes.
6. Compilation of GIS Software Options for Geotechnical Data
Management.
There are several GIS software options available that can be used
to manage geotechnical data effectively. Here are some popular
GIS software packages commonly used for geotechnical data
management:
ArcGIS: ArcGIS by Esri is one of the most widely used GIS
software packages. It provides a comprehensive set of tools
and functionalities for managing, analyzing, and visualizing
geotechnical data.ArcGIS allows you to create geodatabases, store
and manage geotechnical data in various formats, perform spatial
analysis, and generate maps and reports.
QGIS: QGIS is a free and open-source GIS software that offers
a user-friendly interface and a wide range of geospatial analysis
capabilities.Itsupportsvariousdataformats,includinggeotechnical
data, and provides tools for data editing, querying, analysis, and
visualization. QGIS also has a strong plugin ecosystem that allows
users to extend its functionality.
GeoStudio: GeoStudio is a specialized geotechnical modeling
software suite that includes tools for geotechnical analysis, slope
stability analysis, seepage analysis, and more. It integrates with
GIS data, allowing you to import and export geotechnical data to
and from GIS software for visualization and analysis.
BentleygINT:BentleygINTisageotechnicalsoftwaresolutionthat
includes a GIS module for managing and visualizing geotechnical
data. It offers features for creating borehole logs, storing and
managing subsurface data, and generating geotechnical reports.
The GIS module in gINT allows you to integrate geotechnical data
with spatial data for better visualization and analysis.
MapInfo Professional: MapInfo Professional is a GIS software
package that provides tools for data management, mapping,
and spatial analysis. It supports various data formats, including
geotechnical data, and offers functionalities for querying, editing,
and analyzing spatial data. MapInfo Professional also has
capabilities for generating thematic maps and conducting spatial
analysis for geotechnical purposes.
RockWorks: RockWorks is a specialized software package
designed for geotechnical and geological data management and
analysis. It offers tools for creating stratigraphic models, borehole
data management, and geological mapping. While not a traditional
GIS software, RockWorks integrates well with GIS platforms,
allowing you to import and export data between the two for
comprehensive analysis.
These software packages provide powerful tools for managing
geotechnical data, performing spatial analysis, and generating maps
and reports. The pros and cons of the at a glance software packages
are listed in table-3 (Appendix). The choice of software will
depend on your specific requirements, budget, and familiarity with
the software. It's advisable to evaluate the features, capabilities,
and compatibility with your data formats before selecting the most
suitable GIS software for your geotechnical data management
needs.
7. Discussion
The integration of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) has brought significant advancements
to the field of Geotechnical Engineering. RS involves the
collection of information about the Earth's surface using aerial
or satellite-based sensors, while GIS enables the storage,
manipulation, and interpretation of geospatial data. This abstract
explores the diverse applications of RS and GIS in Geotechnical
Engineering, highlighting their contributions to site selection and
characterization, slope stability analysis, geohazard mapping and
risk management, subsurface investigations, and infrastructure
asset monitoring and management.
In the context of site selection and characterization, RS and
GIS provide valuable tools for geotechnical engineers. RS
data, such as high-resolution satellite imagery, helps identify
potential geotechnical hazards, assess terrain conditions, and map
geological features. By integrating various geospatial datasets into
GIS platforms, engineers can make informed decisions regarding
site suitability and optimize geotechnical investigations.
Slope stability analysis is another crucial area where RS and GIS
play a significant role. RS techniques, including advanced image
processing, enable the detection of ground movements, monitoring
of slope deformations, and identification of landslide-prone areas.
By integrating RS data with GIS-based slope stability models,
engineers can perform comprehensive spatial analysis and assess

Eng OA, 2024
the associated risks accurately.
Geohazard mapping and risk management benefit greatly from the
integration of RS and GIS. By combining RS data with ground truth
measurements, GIS platforms can generate accurate hazard maps
that highlight areas prone to earthquakes, floods, or landslides.
These maps serve as valuable tools for the development of effective
mitigation strategies, land-use planning, and infrastructure design,
ultimately minimizing potential risks and damages.
RS and GIS technologies also contribute significantly to
subsurface investigations. RS data, such as airborne geophysical
surveys and ground-penetrating radar, provide crucial information
about subsurface conditions, including soil types, bedrock depth,
and groundwater levels. Integration of this data with GIS aids in
the design of foundations, tunnels, and underground structures,
enhancing their safety and efficiency. Table-1 (appendix) gives
brief outline of the research and application in various areas of
geotechnical engineering.
Furthermore, RS and GIS are instrumental in the monitoring and
management of infrastructure assets in geotechnical engineering.
By utilizing RS data and GIS platforms, engineers can assess the
condition of roads, bridges, and pipelines, detect deformations, and
plan maintenance activities effectively. This proactive approach to
infrastructure management ensures the longevity and reliability of
geotechnical assets.
8. Conclusion
The integration of RS and GIS technologies in geotechnical
engineering has significantly improved the accuracy, efficiency,
and effectiveness of geotechnical investigations and analysis.
These tools enable better-informed decision-making, site
selection. The applications discussed in this paper demonstrate
the substantial contributions of RS and GIS in site selection, slope
stability analysis, geohazard mapping, subsurface investigations,
and infrastructure monitoring and management. The continued
development of RS and GIS technologies holds immense potential
for further enhancing the capabilities and effectiveness of
Geotechnical Engineering in the future.
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Eng OA, 2024
Appendix
Sr.No. Researcher Research Interest
1 Soil Survey,
Reconnaissance
Survey, Geotechnical
Data management
Bui et al.(1995) Soil survey- regional salinization risk mapping
Satya Priya (1992) Geotechnical data management and planning
Rosen J.B. (2011) Cut-off wall construction data management and
decision making
R. S. V. Player (2006) Geotechnical data management using GIS
Gandhimathi A. (2010) Preliminary site investigation and soil
characterization modelling
Mary Labib et al. (2013) GIS and geotechnical mapping of expansive
soil
AE AbdelRahman et al (2018) Assessment of Soil Quality by Using Remote
Sensing and GIS Techniques
M.A. Elfadil et al (2018) Soil profile modelling using geo- statistics and
GIS
Khatri, S. and S. Suman
(2019)
Mapping of soil geotechnical properties using
GIS
Azougay, A. (2020) The use of a GIS to study geotechnical
problems in urban areas
A. X. Zhu et al. (2001) Soil mapping using GIS,
2 Ground water
modelling
Fayer M.J. et al. (1995) Estimation of recharge rate for ground water
model
Maitani et al. (2005) Estimation of water seepage in tunnel and
shortage of water reserve due to tunnel
excavation
Fares M. Howari et al. (2007) Assessment and Development of Groundwater
resources
Kazakis, N. et al (2015),
Khakhar, M. et al (2017)
Groundwater vulnerability and pollution risk
assessment of porous aquifers
3 Geotechnical hazard
Mapping, Erosion
Landslide Monitoring
and prediction, Slope
Stability
Carrara, A.(1999) Prediction and monitoring of landslide hazard
Aleotti, P., & Chowdhury, R.
(1999)
Landslide hazard assessment: summary review
Guzzetti, F (1999) Landslide hazard evaluation
Meijerink et al. (1996) Erosion modelling using flow accumulation
Luna (1995), Kiremidjian
(1997) and Miles & Ho(1995)
Evaluation of geotechnical hazard using GIS
Esaki et al. (2000) Hazard map of ground cave
Sakellariou, M.G. (2001) Estimation of slope stability
Xie et al. (2003) Estimation of 3-D slope stability
Esaki et al. (2004) Subsidence prediction due to underground
mining
Corominas, J (2005) Landslide susceptibility analysis
Pandey, A.C. (2007) Landslide hazard zonation
Jaiswal, P et al. (2011) landslide hazard assessment
Klose, C. D et al. (2012) landslide susceptibility mapping

Eng OA, 2024
4
Soil Liquefection Maitani et al. (2001) Simulation of shear-flow coupling test
Carr, L.P (2009) Mapping Earthquake-Induced Landslides
Megalooikonomou, V. et al.
(2003)
Earthquake-induced soil liquefaction hazard
mapping
Ramakrishnan, D et al. (2006) Mapping the liquefaction induced soil moisture
changes using remote sensing technique
Ishitsuka, K et al. (2011) Detection and mapping of soil liquefaction
Oommen, T et al. (2013) Documenting earthquake-induced liquefaction
using satellite remote sensing image
transformations.
5 Rock Engineering Roger and Drumm (1999),
Geolith(2000) and Jurasius
(2002)
Real time monitoring of incipient rock slope
failure
Esaki et al. (2006) Rock Engineering
Abellan, A. et al. (2009) Rock fall hazard and risk assessment
Singh, T. N. et al. (2016) Rock mass characterization using remote
sensing and GIS techniques:
Mallick, J., & Baskey, S. K.
(2017)
Rock slope stability analysis using remote
sensing and GIS techniques
City Researchers Year
Ahmedabad Trivedi SS, Rao KS, Gupta KK (2007) 2007
Trivedi SS (2011) 2011
Rao KS, Thakker TP, Aggarwal A, Bhandari T, Kabra S (2012) 2012
Bangalore Kumar, A., Anbazhagan, P., & Sitharam, T. G. (2013). 2013
Chandigarh Mundepi AK (2008) 2008
Chennai Suganthi A, Boominathan A (2006) 2006
Boominathan A, Dodagoudar GR, Suganthi A, Uma Maheshwari R (2007) 2007
Dehradun Mahajan AK, Slob S, Ranjan R, Spoory R, Champati Ray PK, van Westen CJ (2007) 2007
Delhi Rao KS, Mohanty WK (2001) 2001
Parvez IA, Panza GF, Gusev AA, Vaccari F (2002) 2002
harma ML, Wason HR, Dimri R (2003) 2003
Iyengar RN, Ghosh S (2004) 2004
Mukhopadhyay S, Bormann P (2004) 2004
Parvez IA, Vaccari F, Panza GF (2004) 2004
Satyam DN (2006) 2006
Mohanty WK, Walling MY, Nath SK, Pal I (2007) 2007
Rao KS, Satyam DN (2007) 2007
Greater Hyderabad Somayajulu, Y. K., & Raju, I. S. (2007) 2007
Hyderabad Srinagesh, D., Sitharam, T. G., & Vipin, K. S. (2018) 2018
Haldia, Bengal Mohanty WK, Walling MY (2008) 2008
India Tandon AN (1956) 1956
Krishna J (1959) 1959
Guha SK (1962) 1962
TABLE-1: Exclusive citations for RS & GIS applications in different geotechnical sectors.

Eng OA, 2024
Gubin IE (1971), Gubin IE (1968) 1971
Basu S, Nigam NC (1978) 1978
Kaila KL, Rao M (1979) 1979
Khattri KN, Rogers AM, Perkins DM, Algermissen ST (1984) 1984
Bhatia SC, Ravi Kumar M, Gupta HK (1999) 1999
Parvez IA, Vaccari F, Panza GF (2003) 2003
Walling YM, Mohanty WK (2009) 2009
Jabalpur Mishra PS (2004) 2004
Jammu city Singh, Y., Mandal, P., & Shashidhar, D. (2010) 2010
Kolkata, Mohanty WK, Walling MY (2008) 2008
Vaccari F, Walling MY, Mohanty WK, Sengupta A, Panza GF (2011) 2011
Sarkar, A., Sitharam, T. G., & Kumar, J. (2014) 2014
Mumbai Raghukanth STG, Iyengar RN (2006) 2006
Mysore Sitharam, T. G., & Kaynia, A. M. (2007) 2007
Review on all
Indian Cities
Sitharam, T. G., & Anbazhagan, P. (2016) 2016
Sikkim Pal I, Nath SK, Shukla K, Paul DK, Raj A, Thingbaijam KKS, Bandal BK (2008) 2008
Sikkim and
Guwahati City
Nath SK, Thingbaijam KKS, Raj A (2008) 2008
Srinagar city,
Kashmir valley
Mandal, P., Singh, Y., & Shashidhar, D. (2013) 2013
Surat Thakker TP, Rathod GW, Rao KS, Gupta KK (2012) 2012
Sr. No. GIS Software Pros Cons
1 ArcGIS by
Esri:
Comprehensive functionality for data management,
analysis, and visualization.
Expensive, especially for commercial or enterprise-level
licenses.
Extensive support and resources available, including
a large user community.
Steeper learning curve compared to some other GIS software.
Wide range of extensions and add-ons to enhance
functionality.
Some advanced features may require programming or
scripting knowledge.
Offers both desktop and web-based solutions.
2 QGIS
(Quantum
GIS):
Open-source and free to use, making it accessible to
a wide range of users.
Not as feature-rich as ArcGIS, particularly for advanced
spatial analysis.
Regular updates and improvements based on
community contributions.
Limited technical support compared to commercial software.
Extensible through plugins and libraries. Plugin quality can vary, and some may lack documentation.
User-friendly interface with intuitive tools and
features.
3 GRASS GIS: Open-source and free GIS software with a strong
focus on scientific research.
Steeper learning curve, especially for beginners.
Advanced spatial analysis capabilities and
modelling tools.
Less intuitive interface compared to some other GIS
software.
Integration with other open-source geospatial
software.
Limited support for 3D visualization and cartographic design.
Active development community and regular
updates.
Table-2: Information on the researchers involved in seismic micro-zonation for Indian cities and pan-India.

Eng OA, 2024
Copyright: ©2024 Samirsinh Parmar. This is an open-access article
distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
https://opastpublishers.com
4 MapInfo Pro: User-friendly interface with easy-to-use mapping
and analysis tools.
Relatively expensive, especially for commercial licenses.
Strong data management capabilities, including
extensive file format support.
Limited availability of advanced geo-processing tools.
Good support for network analysis and location
intelligence.
Smaller user community compared to some other GIS
software.
Offers both desktop and web-based solutions.
5 Google Earth
Pro:
Free version available with basic functionality. Limited spatial analysis capabilities compared to full-fledged
GIS software.
Easy-to-use interface with intuitive navigation and
visualization.
Less flexible data management options.
Rich 3D imagery and satellite imagery coverage. Online connectivity required for some features.
Integration with other Google services.
6 Global
Mapper:
Affordable pricing compared to some other GIS
software.
Interface can be overwhelming for beginners.
Comprehensive data format support. Less emphasis on cartographic design compared to other
software.
Extensive spatial analysis and processing tools. Limited availability of advanced geo-processing algorithms.
Good support for LiDAR data and 3D visualization.
7 Geomedia Fast querying and analysis Confusing license tiers
Strong cartography with smart labelling Small user community for problem-solving
Remote sensing with ERDAS Imagine Cannot drag-and-drop files into GeoMedia
All-purpose mapping with multiple layouts Poor interoperability with other GIS formats
Superior editing with smart snapping
8 ILWIS Monitoring and modelling the Earth system Light on documentation and tutorial information
Object-based image classification Lacks advanced mapping features and layout support
Land change modelling Small community support and discussion forum
2D and 3D visualization with time series Sparse tools for advanced editing
Free and Open Source Software
Image classification and remote sensing tools
9 Bentley Map CAD/GIS fusion Limited GIS analysis tools
3D viewing, analysis, and support High cost for the license
Fly-through, sunlight and shadow studies Poor labelling and annotation
Decent interoperability
Table-3 Benefits and drawbacks of using different GIS software platforms.

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