![S A M P L E PA P E R S46
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 11
software. Before beginning the actual task, participants performed 20 practice trials to assure
compliance with the task instructions.
Results
Analyses focus on participants’ RTs to the 120 trials in which a target was present and
was from a different emotional category from the distractor (e.g., RTs were not included for
arrays containing eight images of a cat and one image of a butterfly because cats and butterflies
are both positive low-arousal items). RTs were analyzed for 24 trials of each target emotion
category. RTs for error trials were excluded (less than 5% of all responses) as were RTs that
were ±3SD from each participant’s mean (approximately 1.5% of responses). Median RTs were
then calculated for each of the five emotional target categories, collapsing across array type (see
Table 2 for raw RT values for each of the two age groups). This allowed us to examine, for
example, whether participants were faster to detect images of snakes than images of mushrooms,
regardless of the type of array in which they were presented. Because our main interest was in
examining the effects of valence and arousal on participants’ target detection times, we created
scores for each emotional target category that controlled for the participant’s RTs to detect
neutral targets (e.g., subtracting the RT to detect neutral targets from the RT to detect positive
high arousal targets). These difference scores were then examined with a 2 × 2 × 2 (Age [young,
older] × Valence [positive, negative] × Arousal [high, low]) analysis of variance (ANOVA). This
ANOVA revealed only a significant main effect of arousal, F(1, 46) = 8.41,p = .006, ηp
2
= .16,
with larger differences between neutral and high-arousal images (M = 137) than between neutral
and low-arousal images (M = 93; i.e., high-arousal items processed more quickly across both age
groups compared with low-arousal items; see Figure 1). There was no significant main effect for
valence, nor was there an interaction between valence and arousal. It is critical that the analysis
Symbols, 4.45;
Numbers, 4.31
Abbreviations
accepted as
words, 4.24
Numbering and discussing
figures in text, 5.05
Nouns followed
by numerals or
letters, 4.17
Reporting
p values,
decimal
fractions,
4.35
Statistical symbols,
4.46, Table 4.5
Elements of the
Results section, 2.07
Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/sample-experiment-paper-1-130810135550-phpapp02/85/Tech-N-10-6-320.jpg)
![M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 47
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 12
revealed only a main effect of age but no interactions with age. Thus, the arousal-mediated
effects on detection time appeared stable in young and older adults.
The results described above suggested that there was no influence of age on the
influences of emotion. To further test the validity of this hypothesis, we submitted the RTs to the
five categories of targets to a 2 × 5 (Age [young, old] × Target Category [positive high arousal,
positive low arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal]) repeated-measures
ANOVA.2
Both the age group, F(1, 46) = 540.32, p < .001, ηp
2
= .92, and the ta rget category,
F(4, 184) = 8.98, p < .001, ηp
2
= .16, main effects were significant, as well as the Age Group ×
Target Category interaction, F (4, 184) = 3.59, p = .008, ηp
2
= .07. This interaction appeared to
reflect the fact that for the younger adults, positive high-arousal targets were detected faster than
targets from all other categories, ts(23) < –1.90, p < .001, with no other target categories
differing significantly from one another (although there were trends for negative high-arousal
and negative low-arousal targets to be detected more rapidly than neutral targets; p < .12). For
older adults, all emotional categories of targets were detected more rapidly than were neutral
targets, ts(23) > 2.56, p < .017, and RTs to the different emotion categories of targets did not
differ significantly from one another. Thus, these results provided some evidence that older
adults may show a broader advantage for detection of any type of emotional information,
whereas young adults’ benefit may be more narrowly restricted to only certain categories of
emotional information.
Discussion
As outlined previously, there were three plausible alternatives for young and older adults’
performance on the visual search task: The two age groups could show a similar pattern of
enhanced detection of emotional information, older adults could show a greater advantage for
Elements of the
Discussion section, 2.08
Statistics
in text, 4.44
Capitalize effects
or variables when
they appear with
multiplication
signs, 4.20
Spacing, alignment,
and punctuation of
mathematical copy, 4.46
Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/sample-experiment-paper-1-130810135550-phpapp02/85/Tech-N-10-7-320.jpg)
Tech N 10
- 1. Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 1 Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger Boston College Author Note This research was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694 awarded to Elizabeth A. Kensinger. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc, Department of Psychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467. Email: christina.leclerc.1@bc.edu Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology, Boston College. Author Note arch was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694 beth A. Kensinger. ndence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc, sychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth ut Hill, MA 02467. Email: christina.leclerc.1@bc.edu M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology, Writing the abstract, 2.04 Establishing a title, 2.01; Preparing the manuscript for submission, 8.03 Formatting the author name (byline) and institutional affiliation, 2.02, Table 2.1 Double-spaced manuscript, Times Roman typeface, 1-inch margins, 8.03 Elements of an author note, 2.03 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 2 Abstract Age differences were examined in affective processing, in the context of a visual search task. Young and older adults were faster to detect high arousal images compared with low arousal and neutral items. Younger adults were faster to detect positive high arousal targets compared with other categories. In contrast, older adults exhibited an overall detection advantage for emotional images compared with neutral images. Together, these findings suggest that older adults do not display valence-based effects on affective processing at relatively automatic stages. Keywords: aging, attention, information processing, emotion, visual search M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 41 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (The numbers refer to numbered sections in the Publication Manual.) Paper adapted from “Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information,” by C. M. Leclerc and E. A. Kensinger, 2008, Psychology and Aging, 23, pp. 209–215. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
- 2. S A M P L E PA P E R S42 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 3 Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information Frequently, people encounter situations in their environment in which it is impossible to attend to all available stimuli. It is therefore of great importance for one’s attentional processes to select only the most salient information in the environment to which one should attend. Previous research has suggested that emotional information is privy to attentional selection in young adults (e.g., & Tapia, 2004; Nummenmaa, Hyona, & Calvo, 2006), an obvious service to evolutionary drives to approach rewarding situations and to avoid threat and danger (Davis & Whalen, 2001; Dolan & Vuilleumier, 2003; Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1997; LeDoux, 1995). For example, Ohman, Flykt, and Esteves (2001)presented participants with 3 × 3visual arrays with images representing four categories (snakes, spiders, flowers, mushrooms). In half the arrays, all nine images were from the same category, whereas in the remaining half of the arrays, eight images were from one category and one image was from a different category (e.g., eight flowers and one snake). Participants were asked to indicate whether the matrix included a discrepant stimulus. Results indicated that fear-relevant images were more quickly detected than fear-irrelevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were observed for participants who were fearful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been observed when examining the attention-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with threatening faces (including those not attended to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral faces (Eastwood, Smilek,& Merikle, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced detection of emotional information is not limited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any high-arousing stimulus can be detected rapidly, regardless of whether it is positively or negatively valenced (Anderson, 2005; Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie, Hinojosa, Marin-Loeches, Mecado, ant stimulus. Results indicated that fearr-rr relevant images were more quickly detected than elevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were observed for participants whoaa arful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been observed when examining the n-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with threatening faces (includ- ing those nded to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral faces (Eastwood, Smilek,& e, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced detection of emotional information is ited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any high-arousing stimulus can be d rapidly, regardless of whether it is positively or negatively valenced (Anderson,(( 2005;55 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 4 Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie et al., 2004; Juth, Lundqvist, Karlsson, & Ohman, 2005; Nummenmaa et al., 2006). From this research, it seems clear that younger adults show detection benefits for arousing information in the environment. It is less clear whether these effects are preserved across the adult life span. The focus of the current research is on determining the extent to which aging influences the early, relatively automatic detection of emotional information. Regions of the brain thought to be important for emotional detection remain relatively intact with aging (reviewed by Chow& Cummings, 2000). Thus, it is plausible that the detection of emotional information remains relatively stable as adults age. However, despite the preservation of emotion-processing regions with age (or perhaps because of the contrast between the preservation of these regions and age-related declines in cognitive-processing regions; Good et al., 2001; Hedden & Gabrieli, 2004; Ohnishi, Matsuda, Tabira,Asada, & Uno, 2001; Raz, 2000; West, 1996), recent behavioral research has revealed changes that occur with aging in the regulation and processing of emotion. According to the socioemotional selectivity theory (Carstensen, 1992), with aging, time is perceived as increasingly limited, and as a result, emotion regulation becomes a primary goal (Carstensen, Isaacowitz, & Charles, 1999). According to socioemotional selectivity theory, age is associated with an increased motivation to derive emotional meaning from life and a simultaneous decreasing motivation to expand one’s knowledge base. As a consequence of these motivational shifts, emotional aspects of the Writing the introduction, 2.05 Ordering citations within the same parentheses, 6.16 Selecting the correct tense, 3.18 Continuity in presentation of ideas, 3.05 Citing one work by six or more authors, 6.12 No capitalization in naming theories, 4.16 Numbers expressed in words, 4.32 Numbers that represent statistical or mathematical functions, 4.31 Use of hyphenation for compound words, 4.13, Table 4.1 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
- 3. M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 43 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 5 To maintain positive affect in the face of negative age-related change (e.g., limited time remaining, physical and cognitive decline), older adults may adopt new cognitive strategies. One such strategy, discussed recently, is the positivity effect (Carstensen &Mikels, 2005), in which older adults spend proportionately more time processing positive emotional material and less time processing negative emotional material. Studies examining the influence of emotion on memory (Charles, Mather, & Carstensen, 2003; Kennedy, Mather, & Carstensen, 2004) have found that compared with younger adults, older adults recall proportionally more positive information and proportionally less negative information. Similar results have been found when examining eye-tracking patterns: Older adults looked at positive images longer than younger adults did, even when no age differences were observed in looking time for negative stimuli (Isaacowitz, Wadlinger, Goren, & Wilson, 2006). However, this positivity effect has not gone uncontested; some researchers have found evidence inconsistent with the positivity effect (e.g., Grühn, Smith, & Baltes, 2005; Kensinger, Brierley, Medford, Growdon, & Corkin, 2002). Based on this previously discussed research, three competing hypotheses exist to explain age differences in emotional processing associated with the normal aging process. First, emotional information may remain important throughout the life span, leading to similarly facilitated detection of emotional information in younger and older adults. Second, with aging, emotional information may take on additional importance, resulting in older adults’ enhanced detection of emotional information in their environment. Third, older adults may focus principally on positive emotional information and may show facilitated detection of positive, but not negative, emotional information. The primary goal in the present experiment was to adjudicate among these alternatives. To do so, we employed a visual search paradigm to assess young and older adults’ abilities to motional processing associated with the normal aging process. First, n may remain important throughout the life span, leading to similarly of emotional information in younger and older adults. Second, with aging, n may take on additional importance, resulting in older adults’ enhanced al information in their environment. Third, older adults may focus e emotional information and may show facilitated detection of positive, but nal information. goal in the present experiment was to adjudicate among these alternatives. ed a visual search paradigm to assess young and older adults’ abilities to EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 6 rapidly detect emotional information. We hypothesized that on the whole, older adults would be slower to detect information than young adults would be (consistent with Hahn, Carlson, Singer, & Gronlund, 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006); the critical question was whether the two age groups would show similar or divergent facilitation effects with regard to the effects of emotion on item detection. On the basis of the existing literature, the first two previously discussed hypotheses seemed to be more plausible than the third alternative. This is because there is reason to think that the positivity effect may be operating only at later stages of processing (e.g., strategic, elaborative, and emotion regulation processes) rather than at the earlier stages of processing involved in the rapid detection of information (see Mather & Knight, 2005, for discussion). Thus, the first two hypotheses, that emotional information maintains its importance across the lifespan or that emotional information in general takes on greater importance with age, seemed particularly applicable to early stages of emotional processing. Indeed, a couple of prior studies have provided evidence for intact early processing of emotional facial expressions with aging. Mather and Knight (2006)examined young and older adults’ abilities to detect happy, sad, angry, or neutral faces presented in a complex visual array. Mather and Knight found that like younger adults, older adults detected threatening faces more quickly than they detected other types of emotional stimuli. Similarly, Hahn et al. (2006)also found no age differences in efficiency of search time when angry faces were presented in an array of neutral faces, compared with happy faces in neutral face displays. When angry faces, compared with positive and neutral faces, served as nontarget distractors in the visual search arrays, however, older adults were more efficient in searching, compared with younger adults, Capitalization of words beginning a sentence after a colon, 4.14 Using the colon between two grammatically complete clauses, 4.05 Using the semicolon to separate two independent clauses not joined by a conjunction, 4.04 Using the comma between elements in a series, 4.03 Punctuation with citations in parenthetical material, 6.21 Citing references in text, inclusion of year within paragraph, 6.11, 6.12 Hypotheses and their correspondence to research design, Introduction, 2.05 Prefixes and suffixes that do not require hyphens, Table 4.2 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
- 4. S A M P L E PA P E R S44 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 7 negative stimuli were not of equivalent arousal levels (fearful faces typically are more arousing than happy faces; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). Given that arousal is thought to be a key factor in modulating the attentional focus effect (Hansen & Hansen, 1988; Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann & McNally, 1995), to more clearly understand emotional processing in the context of aging, it is necessary to include both positive and negative emotional items with equal levels of arousal. In the current research, therefore, we compared young and older adults’ detection of four categories of emotional information (positive high arousal, positive low arousal, negative high arousal, and negative low arousal) with their detection of neutral information. The positive and negative stimuli were carefully matched on arousal level, and the categories of high and low arousal were closely matched on valence to assure that the factors of valence (positive, negative) and arousal (high, low) could be investigated independently of one another. Participants were presented with a visual search task including images from these different categories (e.g., snakes, cars, teapots). For half of the multi-image arrays, all of the images were of the same item, and for the remaining half of the arrays, a single target image of a different type from the remaining items was included. Participants were asked to decide whether a different item was included in the array, and their reaction times were recorded for each decision. Of primary interest were differences in response times (RTs) based on the valence and arousal levels of the target categories. We reasoned that if young and older adults were equally focused on emotional information, then we would expect similar degrees of facilitation in the detection of emotional stimuli for the two age groups. By contrast, if older adults were more affectively focused than were younger adults, older adults should show either faster detection speeds for all of the emotional items (relative to the neutral items) than shown by young adults or greater facilitation g y , g , single target image of a different type from the remaining were asked to decide whether a different item was included in were recorded for each decision. Of primary interest were ) based on the valence and arousal levels of the target ung and older adults were equally focused on emotional t similar degrees of facilitation in the detection of emotional contrast, if older adults were more affectively focused than should show either faster detection speeds for all of the utral items) than shown by young adults or greater facilitation EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 8 for the arousing items than shown by the young adults (resulting in an interaction between age and arousal). Method Participants Younger adults (14 women, 10 men, Mage = 19.5 years, age range: 18–22 years) were recruited with flyers posted on the Boston College campus. Older adults (15 women, nine men, Mage = 76.1 years, age range: 68–84 years) were recruited through the Harvard Cooperative on Aging (see Table 1, for demographics and test scores).1 Participants were compensated $10 per hour for their participation. There were 30 additional participants, recruited in the same way as described above, who provided pilot rating values: five young and five old participants for the assignment of items within individual categories (i.e., images depicting cats), and 10 young and 10 old participants for the assignment of images within valence and arousal categories. All participants were asked to bring corrective eyewear if needed, resulting in normal or corrected to normal vision for all participants. Materials and Procedure The visual search task was adapted from Ohman et al. (2001). There were 10 different types of items (two each of five Valence × Arousal categories: positive high arousal, positive low arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal), each containing nine individual exemplars that were used to construct 3 × 3 stimulus matrices. A total of 90 images were used, each appearing as a target and as a member of a distracting array. A total of 360 matrices were presented to each participant; half contained a target item (i.e., eight items of one type and one target item of another type) and half did not (i.e., all nine images of the same type). Within the Prefixed words that require hyphens, Table 4.3 Using abbreviations, 4.22; Explanation of abbreviations, 4.23; Abbreviations used often in APA journals, 4.25; Plurals of abbreviations, 4.29 Elements of the Method section, 2.06; Organizing a manuscript with levels of heading, 3.03 Using numerals to express numbers representing age, 4.31 Numbering and discussing tables in text, 5.05 Identifying subsections within the Method section, 2.06 Participant (subject) characteristics, Method, 2.06 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
- 5. M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 45 Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 10 selected such that the arousal difference between positive low arousal and positive high arousal was equal to the difference between negative low arousal and negative high arousal. Similarity ratings. Each item was rated for within-category and between-categories similarity. For within-category similarity, participants were shown a set of exemplars (e.g., a set of mushrooms) and were asked to rate how similar each mushroom was to the rest of the mushrooms, on a 1 (entirely dissimilar) to 7 (nearly identical) scale. Participants made these ratings on the basis of overall similarity and on the basis of the specific visual dimensions in which the objects could differ (size, shape, orientation). Participants also rated how similar objects of one category were to objects of another category (e.g., how similar the mushrooms were to the snakes). Items were selected to assure that the categories were equated on within- category and between-categories similarity of specific visual dimensions as well as for the overall similarity of the object categories (ps > .20). For example, we selected particular mushrooms and particular cats so that the mushrooms were as similar to one another as were the cats (i.e., within-group similarity was held constant across the categories). Our object selection also assured that the categories differed from one another to a similar degree (e.g., that the mushrooms were as similar to the snakes as the cats were similar to the snakes). Procedure Each trial began with a white fixation cross presented on a black screen for 1,000 ms; the matrix was then presented, and it remained on the screen until a participant response was recorded. Participants were instructed to respond as quickly as possible with a button marked yes if there was a target present, or a button marked no if no target was present. Response latencies and accuracy for each trial were automatically recorded with E-Prime (Version 1.2) experimental Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTIONRR selected such that the arousal difference between positive low arousal and positi was equal to the difference between negative low arousal and negative high arou Similarity ratings. Each item was rated for within-category and between similarity. For within-category similarity, participants were shown a set of exem of mushrooms) and were asked to rate how similar each mushroom was to the re mushrooms, on a 1 (entirely dissimilar) to 7 (nearly identical(( ) scale. Participants ratings on the basis of overall similarity and on the basis of the specific visual di which the objects could differ (size, shape, orientation). Participants also rated h objects of one category were to objects of another category (e.g., how similar the were to the snakes). Items were selected to assure that the categories were equate category and between-categories similarity of specific visual dimensions as well overall similarity of the object categories (p(( s > .20). For example, we selected pa h d ti l t th t th h i il t EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 9 matrix. Within the 180 target trials, each of the five emotion categories (e.g., positive high arousal, neutral, etc.) was represented in 36 trials. Further, within each of the 36 trials for each emotion category, nine trials were created for each of the combinations with the remaining four other emotion categories (e.g., nine trials with eight positive high arousal items and one neutral item). Location of the target was randomly varied such that no target within an emotion category was presented in the same location in arrays of more than one other emotion category (i.e., a negative high arousal target appeared in a different location when presented with positive high arousal array images than when presented with neutral array images). The items within each category of grayscale images shared the same verbal label (e.g., mushroom, snake), and the items were selected from online databases and photo clipart packages. Each image depicted a photo of the actual object. Ten pilot participants were asked to write down the name corresponding to each object; any object that did not consistently generate the intended response was eliminated from the set. For the remaining images, an additional 20 pilot participants rated the emotional valence and arousal of the objects and assessed the degree of visual similarity among objects within a set (i.e., how similar the mushrooms were to one another) and between objects across sets (i.e., how similar the mushrooms were to the snakes). Valence and arousal ratings. Valence and arousal were judged on 7-point scales (1 = negative valence or low arousal and 7 = positive valence or high arousal). Negative objects received mean valence ratings of 2.5 or lower, neutral objects received mean valence ratings of 3.5 to 4.5, and positive objects received mean valence ratings of 5.5 or higher. High-arousal objects received mean arousal ratings greater than 5, and low-arousal objects (including all neutral stimuli) received mean arousal ratings of less than 4. We selected categories for which both young and older adults agreed on the valence and arousal classifications, and stimuli were Latin abbreviations, 4.26 Numbers expressed in words at beginning of sentence, 4.32 Italicization of anchors of a scale, 4.21 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
- 6. S A M P L E PA P E R S46 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 11 software. Before beginning the actual task, participants performed 20 practice trials to assure compliance with the task instructions. Results Analyses focus on participants’ RTs to the 120 trials in which a target was present and was from a different emotional category from the distractor (e.g., RTs were not included for arrays containing eight images of a cat and one image of a butterfly because cats and butterflies are both positive low-arousal items). RTs were analyzed for 24 trials of each target emotion category. RTs for error trials were excluded (less than 5% of all responses) as were RTs that were ±3SD from each participant’s mean (approximately 1.5% of responses). Median RTs were then calculated for each of the five emotional target categories, collapsing across array type (see Table 2 for raw RT values for each of the two age groups). This allowed us to examine, for example, whether participants were faster to detect images of snakes than images of mushrooms, regardless of the type of array in which they were presented. Because our main interest was in examining the effects of valence and arousal on participants’ target detection times, we created scores for each emotional target category that controlled for the participant’s RTs to detect neutral targets (e.g., subtracting the RT to detect neutral targets from the RT to detect positive high arousal targets). These difference scores were then examined with a 2 × 2 × 2 (Age [young, older] × Valence [positive, negative] × Arousal [high, low]) analysis of variance (ANOVA). This ANOVA revealed only a significant main effect of arousal, F(1, 46) = 8.41,p = .006, ηp 2 = .16, with larger differences between neutral and high-arousal images (M = 137) than between neutral and low-arousal images (M = 93; i.e., high-arousal items processed more quickly across both age groups compared with low-arousal items; see Figure 1). There was no significant main effect for valence, nor was there an interaction between valence and arousal. It is critical that the analysis Symbols, 4.45; Numbers, 4.31 Abbreviations accepted as words, 4.24 Numbering and discussing figures in text, 5.05 Nouns followed by numerals or letters, 4.17 Reporting p values, decimal fractions, 4.35 Statistical symbols, 4.46, Table 4.5 Elements of the Results section, 2.07 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
- 7. M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 47 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 12 revealed only a main effect of age but no interactions with age. Thus, the arousal-mediated effects on detection time appeared stable in young and older adults. The results described above suggested that there was no influence of age on the influences of emotion. To further test the validity of this hypothesis, we submitted the RTs to the five categories of targets to a 2 × 5 (Age [young, old] × Target Category [positive high arousal, positive low arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal]) repeated-measures ANOVA.2 Both the age group, F(1, 46) = 540.32, p < .001, ηp 2 = .92, and the ta rget category, F(4, 184) = 8.98, p < .001, ηp 2 = .16, main effects were significant, as well as the Age Group × Target Category interaction, F (4, 184) = 3.59, p = .008, ηp 2 = .07. This interaction appeared to reflect the fact that for the younger adults, positive high-arousal targets were detected faster than targets from all other categories, ts(23) < –1.90, p < .001, with no other target categories differing significantly from one another (although there were trends for negative high-arousal and negative low-arousal targets to be detected more rapidly than neutral targets; p < .12). For older adults, all emotional categories of targets were detected more rapidly than were neutral targets, ts(23) > 2.56, p < .017, and RTs to the different emotion categories of targets did not differ significantly from one another. Thus, these results provided some evidence that older adults may show a broader advantage for detection of any type of emotional information, whereas young adults’ benefit may be more narrowly restricted to only certain categories of emotional information. Discussion As outlined previously, there were three plausible alternatives for young and older adults’ performance on the visual search task: The two age groups could show a similar pattern of enhanced detection of emotional information, older adults could show a greater advantage for Elements of the Discussion section, 2.08 Statistics in text, 4.44 Capitalize effects or variables when they appear with multiplication signs, 4.20 Spacing, alignment, and punctuation of mathematical copy, 4.46 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
- 8. S A M P L E PA P E R S48 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 13 emotional detection than young adults, or older adults could show a greater facilitation than young adults only for the detection of positive information. The results lent some support to the first two alternatives, but no evidence was found to support the third alternative. In line with the first alternative, no effects of age were found when the influence of valence and arousal on target detection times was examined; both age groups showed only an arousal effect. This result is consistent with prior studies that indicated that arousing information can be detected rapidly and automatically by young adults (Anderson, Christoff,Panitz, De Rosa, & Gabrieli, 2003; Ohman & Mineka, 2001) and that older adults, like younger adults, continue to display a threat detection advantage when searching for negative facial targets in arrays of positive and neutral distractors (Hahn et al., 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006). Given the relative preservation of automatic processing with aging (Fleischman, Wilson, Gabrieli, Bienias, & Bennett, 2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993), it makes sense that older adults would remain able to take advantage of these automatic alerting systems for detecting high arousal information. However, despite the similarity in arousal-mediated effects on detection between the two age groups, the present study did provide some evidence for age-related change (specifically, age-related enhancement) in the detection of emotional information. When examining RTs for the five categories of emotional targets, younger adults were more efficient in detecting positive high-arousal images (as presented in Table 2), whereas older adults displayed an overall advantage for detecting all emotional images compared with neutral images. This pattern suggests a broader influence of emotion on older adults’ detection of stimuli, providing support for the hypothesis that as individuals age, emotional information becomes more salient. It is interesting that this second set of findings is clearly inconsistent with the hypothesis that the positivity effect in older adults operates at relatively automatic stages of information nd neutral distractors (Hahn et al., 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006). Given the66 n of automatic processing with aging (Fleischman, Wilson, Gabrieli, Bienias, nnings & Jacoby, 1993), it makes sense that older adults would remain able33 f these automatic alerting systems for detecting high arousal information. espite the similarity in arousal-mediated effects on detection between the two ent study did provide some evidence for age-related change (specifically, ment) in the detection of emotional information. When examining RTs for of emotional targets, younger adults were more efficient in detecting positive s (as presented in Table 2), whereas older adults displayed an overall22 ting all emotional images compared with neutral images. This pattern nfluence of emotion on older adults’ detection of stimuli, providing support hat as individuals age, emotional information becomes more salient. ng that this second set of findings is clearly inconsistent with the hypothesis ffect in older adults operates at relatively automatic stages of information EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 14 processing, given that no effects of valence were observed in older adults’ detection speed. In the present study, older adults were equally fast to detect positive and negative information, consistent with prior research that indicated that older adults often attend equally to positive and negative stimuli (Rosler et al., 2005). Although the pattern of results for the young adults has differed across studies—in the present study and in some past research, young adults have shown facilitated detection of positive information (e.g., Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie et al., 2004; Juth et al., 2005; Nummenmaa et al., 2006), whereas in other studies, young adults have shown an advantage for negative information (e.g., Armony & Dolan, 2002; Hansen & Hansen, 1988; Mogg, Bradley,de Bono, & Painter, 1997; Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann & McNally, 1995; Williams, Mathews, &MacLeod, 1996)—what is important to note is that the older adults detected both positive and negative stimuli at equal rates. This equivalent detection of positive and negative information provides evidence that older adults display an advantage for the detection of emotional information that is not valence-specific. Thus, although younger and older adults exhibited somewhat divergent patterns of emotional detection on a task reliant on early, relatively automatic stages of processing, we found no evidence of an age-related positivity effect. The lack of a positivity focus in the older adults is in keeping with the proposal (e.g., Mather & Knight, 2006) that the positivity effect does not arise through automatic attentional influences. Rather, when this effect is observed in older adults, it is likely due to age-related changes in emotion regulation goals that operate at later stages of processing (i.e., during consciously controlled processing), once information has been attended to and once the emotional nature of the stimulus has been discerned. Although we cannot conclusively say that the current task relies strictly on automatic processes, there are two lines of evidence suggesting that the construct examined in the current Clear statement of support or nonsupport of hypotheses, Discussion, 2.08 Use of an em dash to indicate an interruption in the continuity of a sentence, 4.06; Description of an em dash, 4.13 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
- 9. M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 49 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 15 research examines relatively automatic processing. First, in their previous work, Ohman et al. (2001) compared RTs with both 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 arrays. No significant RT differences based on the number of images presented in the arrays were found. Second, in both Ohman et al.’s (2001) study and the present study, analyses were performed to examine the influence of target location on RT. Across both studies, and across both age groups in the current work, emotional targets were detected more quickly than were neutral targets, regardless of their location. Together, these findings suggest that task performance is dependent on relatively automatic detection processes rather than on controlled search processes. Although further work is required to gain a more complete understanding of the age- related changes in the early processing of emotional information, our findings indicate that young and older adults are similar in their early detection of emotional images. The current study provides further evidence that mechanisms associated with relatively automatic processing of emotional images are well maintained throughout the latter portion of the life span (Fleischman et al., 2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993; Leclerc & Hess, 2005). It is critical that, although there is evidence for a positive focus in older adults’ controlled processing of emotional information (e.g., Carstensen & Mikels, 2005; Charles et al., 2003; Mather & Knight, 2005), the present results suggest that the tendency to focus on the positive does not always arise when tasks require relatively automatic and rapid detection of information in the environment. he early processing of emotional information, our findings indicate that ults are similar in their early detection of emotional images. The current her evidence that mechanisms associated with relatively automatic processing s are well maintained throughout the latter portion of the life span 2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993;33 Leclerc & Hess, 2005). It is critical that, idence for a positive focus in older adults’ controlled processing of emotional Carstensen & Mikels, 2005; Charles et al., 2003; Mather & Knight, 2005), the est that the tendency to focus on the positive does not always arise when ely automatic and rapid detection of information in the environment. EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 16 Anderson, A. K., Christoff, K., Panitz, D., De Rosa, E., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2003). Neural correlates of the automatic processing of threat facial signals. Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 5627–5633. Armony, J. L., & Dolan, R. J. (2002). Modulation of spatial attention by fear-conditioned stimuli: An event-related fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 40, 817–826. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932%2801%2900178-6 Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,56, 893–897. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893 Calvo, M. G., & Lang, P. J. (2004). Gaze patterns when looking at emotional pictures: Motivationally biased attention. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 221–243. doi: 10.1023/B%3AMOEM.0000040153.26156.ed Carretie, L., Hinojosa, J. A., Martin-Loeches, M., Mecado, F., & Tapia, M. (2004). Automatic attention to emotional stimuli: Neural correlates. Human Brain Mapping, 22, 290–299. doi:10.1002/hbm.20037 Carstensen, L. L.(1992). Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: Support for socioemotional selectivity theory. Psychology and Aging, 7, 331–338. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.7.3.331 Carstensen, L. L., Fung, H., & Charles, S. (2003). Socioemotional selectivity theory and the regulation of emotion in the second half of life. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 103–123. References Anderson, A. K. (2005). Affective influences on the attentional dynamics supporting awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 154, 258–281. doi:10.1037/0096- 3445.134.2.258 Use of parallel construction with coordinating conjunctions used in pairs, 3.23 Discussion section ending with comments on importance of findings, 2.08 Construction of an accurate and complete reference list, 6.22; General desciption of references, 2.11 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
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Psychology and Aging, 20, 579–588. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.20.4.579 Hahn, S., Carlson, C., Singer, S., & Gronlund, S. D. (2006). Aging and visual search: Automatic and controlled attentional bias to threat faces. Acta Psychologica,123, 312–336. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2006.01.008 Hansen, C. H., & Hansen , R. D. (1988). Finding the face in the crowd: An anger superiority effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 917–924. doi: 10.1037/0022- 3514.54.6.917 Hedden, T., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2004). Insights into the ageing mind: A view from cognitive neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, 87–96. doi:10.1038/nrn1323 Isaacowitz, D. M., Wadlinger, H. A., Goren, D., & Wilson, H. R.(2006). Selective preference in visual fixation away from negative images in old age? An eye-tracking study. Psychology of Aging, 21, 40–48. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.40 Jennings, J. M., & Jacoby, L. L.(1993). Automatic versus intentional uses of memory: Aging, attention, and control. Psychology and Aging, 8, 283–293. doi:10.1037/0882- 7974.8.2.283 Juth, P., Lundqvist, D., Karlsson, A., & Ohman, A. (2005). Looking for foes and friends: Perceptual and emotional factors when finding a face in the crowd. Emotion, 5, 379–395. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.379 Kennedy, Q., Mather, M., & Carstensen, L. L.(2004). The role of motivation in the age-related positive bias in autobiographical memory. Psychological Science, 15, 208–214. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.01503011.x Davis, M., & Wha 6, 13–33 34. d Dolan, R. J., & Vu of the New Eastwood, J. D., S attention an Fleischman, D. A. longitudina 19, 617–77 62 Good, C. D., John S. J. (2001). brains. Neu alen doi: uille w Yo Smil nd d , W al st 25. d srud ). A uroI Hahn, S., Carlson, C., Singer, S., & Gronlund, S. D. (2006). Aging and visual search: Automa and controlled attentional bias to threat faces. Acta Psychologica,123, 312–22 336. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2006.01.008 Hansen, C. H., & Hansen , R. D. (1988). 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Emotion, 5, 379–99 39 doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.379 Kennedy, Q., Mather, M., & Carstensen, L. L.(2004). The role of motivation in the age. -relate positive bias in autobiographical memory. Psychological Science, 15, 208–88 214. doi:10.1111/j.0956-66 7976.2004.01503011.x EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 19 Kensinger, E. A., Brierley, B., Medford, N., Growdon, J. H., & Corkin, S. (2002). Effects of normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease on emotional memory. Emotion, 2, 118– 10.1037/1528-3542.2.2.118 Lang, P. J., Bradley,M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1997). Motivated attention: Affect, activation, and action. In P. J. Lang, R. F. Simons, & M. Balaban (Eds.), Attention and orienting: Sensory and motivational processes (pp. 97–135). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Leclerc, C. M., & Hess, T. M. (2005, August). Age differences in processing of affectively primed information. Poster session presented at the 113th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. LeDoux, J. E. 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Example of reference to a book chapter, print verison, no DOI, 7.02, Example 25 Digital object identifier as article identifier, 6.31; Example of reference to a periodical, 7.01 134. doi: Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
- 11. M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 51 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 20 Nummenmaa, L., Hyona, J., & Calvo, M. G. (2006). Eye movement assessment of selective attentional capture by emotional pictures. Emotion, 6, 257–268. doi:10.1037/1528- 3542.6.2.257 Ohman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 466–478. doi:10.1037/0096- 3445.130.3.466 Ohman, A., & Mineka, S. (2001). Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review, 108, 483–522. doi:10.1037/0033- 295X.108.3.483 Ohnishi, T., Matsuda, H., Tabira, T., Asada, T., & Uno, M. (2001).Changes in brain morphology in Alzheimer’s disease and exaggerated aging process? American Journal of Neuroradiology, 22, 1680–1685. Petrides,M., & Milner, B. (1982). Deficits on subject-ordered tasks after frontal- and temporal- lobe lesions in man. Neuropsychologia,20, 249–262. doi: 10.1016/0028- 3932%2882%2990100-2 Pratto, F., & John, O. P. (1991). Automatic vigilance: The attention-grabbing power of negative social information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,61, 380–391. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.61.3.380 Raz, N. (2000). Aging of the brain and its impact on cognitive performance: Integration of structural and functional findings. In F. I. M. Craik& T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), Handbook of aging and cognition (2nd ed., pp. 1–90). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Reimann, B., & McNally, R. (1995). Cognitive processing of personally relevant information. Cognition and Emotion, 9, 324–340. Ohman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in 7/0096 d modu 3- orphol EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 21 Rosler, A., Ulrich, C., Billino, J., Sterzer, P., Weidauer, S., Bernhardt, T., …Kleinschmidt, A. (2005). Effects of arousing emotional scenes on the distribution of visuospatial attention: Changes with aging and early subcortical vascular dementia. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 229, 109–116. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2004.11.007 Shipley, W. C. (1986). Shipley Institute of Living Scale. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, I., & Lushene, R. E. (1970). Manual for the State–Trait Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Wechsler, D. (1987). Wechsler Memory Scale—Revised. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation. Wechsler, D. (1997). Technical manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence and Memory Scale– III. New York, NY: The Psychological Corporation. West, R. L.(1996). An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 272–292. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 Williams, J. M., Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C., (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3–24. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.3 Wilson, B. A., Alderman, N., Burgess, P. W., Emslie, H. C., & Evans, J. J. (1996).The Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome. Flempton, Bury St. Edmunds, England: Thames Valley Test Company. al- ve ok . empora negati doi: of andboo mation. Gorsuch, I., & Lushene, R. E. (1970). Manual for the State–Trait Inventory. CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. ). Wechsler Memory Scaler —Revised. San Antonio, TX: Psychological . ). Technical manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence and Memory Scale– rk, NY: The Psychological Corporation. An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging. cal Bulletin, 120, 272–22 292. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 athews, A., & MacLeod, C., (1996). The emotional Stroop task and ology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3–33 24. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.3 erman, N., Burgess, P. W., Emslie,ee H. C., & Evans, J. J. (1996).The l Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome. Flempton, Bury St. Edmunds, hames Valley Test Company. 22 Footnotes covariance were conducted with these covariates, with no resulting influences of these variables on the pattern or magnitude of the results. 2 These data were also analyzed with a 2 × 5 ANOVA to examine the effect of target category when presented only in arrays containing neutral images, with the results remaining qualitatively the same. More broadly, the effects of emotion on target detection were not qualitatively impacted by the distractor category. EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION Analyses of1 Article with more than seven authors, 7.01, Example 2 Placement and format of footnotes, 2.12 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
- 12. S A M P L E PA P E R S52 24 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION Note. Values represent median response times, collapsing across array type and excluding arrays of the same category as targets (i.e., positive high arousal represents the median RT to respond to positive high arousal targets, collapsing across positive low arousal, neutral, negative high arousal, and negative low arousal array categories). The median response time values were recorded in milliseconds. Table 2 Raw Response Time (RT) Scores for Young and Older Adults Category Young group Older group Positive high arousal 825 1,580 Positive low arousal 899 1,636 Neutral 912 1,797 Negative high arousal 885 1,578 Negative low arousal 896 1,625 24 CTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION Values represent median response times, collapsing across array type and excluding arrays same category as targets (i.e., positive high arousal represents the median RT to respond to e high arousal targets, collapsing across positive low arousal, neutral, negative high , and negative low arousal array categories). The median response time values were ed in milliseconds. 2 esponse Time (RT) Scores for Young and Older Adults oryy Young groupg g p Older groupg p ve high arousal 825 1,580 ve low arousal 899 1,636 al 912 1,797 ive high arousal 885 1,578 ive low arousal 896 1,625 23EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION Note. The Beck Anxiety Inventory is from Beck et al. (1988); the Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome—Dysexecutive Questionnaire (BADS–DEX) is from Wilson et al. (1996); the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) measures are from Spielberger et al. (1970); and the Digit Symbol Substitution, Digit Span–Backward, and Arithmetic Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—III and Wechsler Memory Scale—III measures are from Wechsler (1997). Generative naming scores represent the total number of words produced in 60 s each for letter F, A, and S. The Vocabulary measure is from Shipley (1986); the Mental Control measure is from Wechsler (1987); the Self-Ordered Pointing measure was adapted from Petrides and Milner (1982); and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) measure is from Nelson (1976). Table 1 Participant Characteristics Younger group Older group Measure M SD M SD F(1, 46) p Years of education 13.92 1.28 16.33 2.43 18.62 <.001 Beck Anxiety Inventory 9.39 5.34 6.25 6.06 3.54 .066 BADS–DEX 20.79 7.58 13.38 8.29 10.46 .002 STAI–State 45.79 4.44 47.08 3.48 1.07 .306 STAI–Trait 45.64 4.50 45.58 3.15 0.02 .963 Digit Symbol Substitution 49.62 7.18 31.58 6.56 77.52 <.001 Generative naming 46.95 9.70 47.17 12.98 .004 .951 Vocabulary 33.00 3.52 35.25 3.70 4.33 .043 Digit Span–Backward 8.81 2.09 8.25 2.15 0.78 .383 Arithmetic 16.14 2.75 14.96 3.11 1.84 .182 Mental Control 32.32 3.82 23.75 5.13 40.60 <.001 Self-Ordered Pointing 1.73 2.53 9.25 9.40 13.18 .001 WCST perseverative errors 0.36 0.66 1.83 3.23 4.39 .042 All values represent raw, nonstandardized scores. Selecting effective presentation, 4.41; Logical and effective table layout, 5.08 Elements of table notes, 5.16 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)
- 13. M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 53 EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 25 . Figure 1. Mean difference values (ms) representing detection speed for each target category subtracted from the mean detection speed for neutral targets. No age differences were found in the arousal-mediated effects on detection speed. Standard errors are represented in the figure by the error bars attached to each column. Figure legends and captions, 5.23 Principles of figure use and construction; types of figures; standards, planning, and preparation of figures, 5.20–5.25 Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)