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Eric C. Thompson
Semester 2, 2011/2012
Tutorials Announcement
 Manual Registration is today and tomorrow.
 Try to get it sorted out TODAY!
 If you are not registered now, you will most likely have
  to enroll in one of the two 8am Wednesday tutorial
  slots.
 If you have questions, please approach the instructor
  asap (at the break or after the lecture).
Outline: Today’s Lecture
 Facts about Human Sex and Sexuality


 Biology and Cultural Myth-making


 When does Biology matter Socially?
1. A Few Facts about Sex
What is so good about Sex?
 Asexual (non-sexual)
  reproduction relies on
  mutation to create
  variety.
 Sexual reproduction
  creates new
  combinations of DNA
  every time.
 Variety: Speeds up
  evolution, allows for
  more rapid adaptation,
  allows for emergence of
  more complex
  organisms
Asexual Reproduction (Example: Hydra)




                                         Hydra are small creatures that live in water.




   Hydra grow “buds” that drop off, grow
 large, and grow their own buds. Hydra are     (Note: This Hydra, a Mythical Greek
   biologically immortal (they don’t age!).    Beast, is not what I’m talking about!)
Sexual Reproduction (1):
   Sequential and Simultaneous Hermaphrodites




 Clown Fish: Male to Female Sex Change
                                          Wrasse: Female to Male Sex Change
      (Nemo’s deep dark secret?)




 Hamlet Fish: Simultaneous Hermaphrodites Banana Slug: Simultaneous Hermaphrodites
(Take turns during extended, multiple mating Prefers to mate with partner, but self-
        sessions, lasting several days)               fertilizes if necessary.
Sexual Reproduction(2):
“Dedicated” Heterosexuals




      Hoverflies




                            Homo sapiens sapiens

                          We are “dedicated”
                    heterosexuals, in the sense that
       Rabbits       from birth onward we remain
Human Sexuality Shapes Gender
 If asexual, we would have no basis for “gender” at all.


 If clownfish, gender would be an aspirational concept
  (men would aspire to one day become female).

 Because humans are “fixed” (unchanging) as male or
  female from birth, we think of gender as a fixed
  attribute determined by our biology (even though it is
  not).
Biology does dot Determine Gender.
 Different cultures create many different
  interpretations of our biology (for example, two, three
  or more genders).
 Different societies deal with biology differently (they
  put male and female bodies to use in different ways).
 Gender is our cultural interpretations of and social
  practices associated with our biological system of
  sexual reproduction.
The Sex / Gender Distinction
 SEX: Is a biological construct. It is the product of
  biological processes (reproduction, DNA
  replication, mutation, selection, evolution, etc.).
 GENDER: Is a social and cultural construct. It is
  the ways in which we organize our
  society, interpret, and give meaning to the fact that
  we are a sexually reproducing species.
 There are many, many different ways to organize
  society around and many different ways to
  interpret our sexual reproductive biology.
Sex at Different Levels
 Biological Sex is not a simple binary
 Genetic and Cellular Level
    XY and XX Chromosomes
 Hormonal Level
    Testosterone, Oestrogen
 Anatomical Level
    Genitals, Secondary Sex Characteristics


 See: Fausto-Sterling 2000, p.22
Male, Female, and Other
 Many types people are ‘intersexed’ individuals
    They do not follow “normal” sexual development

 Hermaphrodites (“five sexes”) only refer specifically to
  “uninterpretable” genitalia.
 There are many other ways in which typically male and
  female characteristics can be ‘mixed and matched’; many
  are at all obvious.
 Approximately 1% to 2% of all people born are “intersexed”
  in one way or another.
 At least 1 of every 100 people is intersexed in one way or
  another (Fausto-Sterling 2000 estimates 1.7 per 100).
“Intersexed” (Hermaphrodites)
 A small percentage of all humans
  born are hermaphrodites; or
  “intersexed”
 Many, many varieties of
  intersexed individuals (Reading:
  “The Five Sexes” only scratches
  the surface).
 Intersexed individuals are ‘fixed’   The Reclining Hermaphrodite
  by modern medicine; but this is        1st century BCE sculpture
  not always helpful to the
  individuals involved.
 Intersexed bodies are required to      See the Short Film
  conform to cultural gender
  beliefs.                                     XXXY:
                                          Intersex Genital
                                             Mutilation
Human Sexes
 For every 1,000 people:
 491 are female
 491 are male
 17 are intersexed
 1 other?
Paths to Intersexuality
 Some people have extra chromosomes: XXY, XYY
 Others experience unusual development, for
  example:
 In the womb, one set of processes “sexes” the body
   “Masculinization” of the body*
 Another set of processes “sexes” the brain
   “Masculinization” of the brain.*
 In the womb, sometimes a fetus experiences one
 process but not the other.

  *For technical reasons, becoming female is considered the ‘normal’
  developmental sequence; and “masculinization” is a deviation.
Some Terminology
 Intersexed (or “Hermaphrodite”) – Having both
    typically male and typically female genitalia
   Transexual or transsexual – Crossing from one sex to
    another biologically (e.g. sex change)
   Transgender – Crossing from one gender to another
    culturally (e.g. cross-dressing or “transvestite”)
   Homosexual – Same sex sexual practice or identity
   Heterosexual – Cross sex sexual practice or identity
   A major problem is that our vocabulary for talking
    about these things is limited, vague, and inconsistent
2. Biology and Cultural Myth-making
or How We Turn Ambiguous Biology
into Cultural Truth
Heterosexed Individuals
               Most individuals are
                substantially “heterosexed”; they
                follow a standard developmental
                sequence (they are “normal” – in
                a statisical sense)

               Even then, discounting ALL the
                many unusual cases. There is
                tremendous overlap in almost
                every respect between
                individuals who follow a
                standard female developmental
                sequence (i.e. women) and
                those who follow a male
                developmental sequence (i.e.
                men).
Why are we obsessed with Biological Sex
Differences?
 They seem (are) more easy to observe – so they seem
  more “real” than socialization or culture.
 They give us the comfortable illusion of permanence.
 So, we look obsessively for biological sex differences,
  for example . . .

 We define ourselves and others to a significant degree,
  based on only “One-percent of the burn chart” (one-
  percent of our total outward appearance).
“Sexing the Brain”*
 Studies showing difference in brain structures: 13*
 Studies showing no difference in brain structures: 95*
 Question: Why focus on difference correlated with sex?
  What is the specific purpose of the research?
 Left-handed & right-handed people exhibit as great or
  greater differences.
 Focusing on sex/gender difference and highlighting the
  (minority of) studies that find differences, reinforces
  cultural sense of difference.
                       *See Fausto-Sterling, Sexing the Body (2000) Chapter 5
                            (This is among the supplementary readings)
Ok, so there is a lot of misleading of scientific information, BUT
  men and women are still different in many ways, on
  average, right?
                    ABSOLUTELY TRUE!
 Men are on average:               Women are on average:
   Faster                             Less susceptible to illness
   Stronger (esp. Upper Body)         Better descriptive memory
   Better with directions             Better at listening/recall
   Better with math (maybe)           Better with language




              But, what does “average” mean?
             Is everyone pretty much average?
Problem with Averages
  Studies are repeatedly used to claim “men and women
   are different”
  Average differences are always cited.
  But, the range is almost never cited; without that, the
   meaningfulness of the “average” is useless.




 “Even when scientists themselves are cautious… popular renditions of new
scientific findings dispense with linguistic subtlety” (Fausto-Sterling pg.236)
How big is the difference?
    Example of a test of physical ability; emphasizing
                 upper body strength.*
           80%
                 FEMALES

                                  20%

                                                    MALES

                                                          80%



In US Army physical tests: top 20% of women had
    the same average as bottom 20% for men.
 (These statistics then get used both for and against women in the military)
How much can you lift?
              Udomporn Polsak (Female, Thailand,
                 Height 150 cm, Weight 53 kg):
                         Lifted 125 kg*

                Tang Gonghong (Female, China,
                 Height 172 cm, Weight 120 kg):
                         Lifted 182.5 kg

                  Halil Mutlu (Male, Turkey,
                 Height 150 cm, Weight 56 kg):
                         Lifted 160 kg

                Hossein Reza Zadeh (Male, Iran,
                Height 185 cm, Weight 160 kg):
                        Lifted 262.5 kg

                    *All results for “Clean & Jerk”
                            2004 Olympics
“Strong Masculine Bodies”
 In many cultures, domestic work is considered more
  appropriate for women than for men.
 In Samoa, Fafafini are considered excellent at domestic
  work because of their strong masculine bodies.
 Bodies can be (and are) used and interpreted in many
  different ways.
Turning Averages into Absolutes
 Physical strength, especially upper-body strength is the
  most significant known difference between human males
  and females (aside from childbearing).

 Most other differences have much greater overlap.

 The science of averages is often turned into absolutes in
  popular discourse (which in turn guides public policy)…
  “Science” as myth-making… in modern societies, when we
  call something “scientific” it gains credibility.




       In almost every case, the abilities of woman and men overlap.
3. Sex Differences that Matter in
     (Some) Social Contexts
    *Reproductive Strategies
      *Sexual Competition
           *Hormones
Reproductive Strategies
 In mammals (including humans), females are far more
  limited in the number of offspring compared to males.
 This inclines females toward “quality” and males
  toward “quantity” in sexual reproduction and practice.
 Females are more “selective” (and in this sense, more
  active in driving human evolution; Hrdy 1981)

 Note also: Social systems play a strong role in
  reproductive strategies… social and cultural systems of
  gender affect biology as much as biology shapes
  gender.
Sexual Competition
 Sexual Competition (over access to mates) occurs
 between men and between women; NOT between
 men and women.
 Men compete with other men to make themselves
  attractive to women (based on what women want;
  or what men think women want).
 Women likewise compete with other women.
 At the same time, groups of men and groups of
  women often cooperate.
Some Consequences of Reproductive
  Strategies and Sexual Selection
 Physical dimorphism (men being on average larger than
    women) is an outcome of competition between men.
   Men’s larger size did not come about in order to physically
    dominate women; but in some cases it results in physical
    domination (violence or abuse).
   Male competition focuses on sexual access to women.
   Female competition focuses on access to the excess
    resources men produce (meat, money, etc.).
   Some of the social and cultural consequences of these
    differences will be discussed later in the course…
Testosterone (Hormone) Theory
 Male dominance is often attributed to testosterone (e.g. Steven
  Goldberg, 1993).

 Testosterone has effects that are important to understanding
  gender socialization – but they are oversimplified and
  exaggerated culturally.

 The oversimplified, exaggerated testosterone explanations
  perpetuate gendered outcomes and are often inaccurate excuses
  for gender discrimination.
    For example: Goldberg (1993) concludes that because testosterone
     (may) incline men to be more competitive therefore women should
     never compete with men.
A Few Facts about Testosterone
 Both men and women have testosterone.

 Testosterone levels are affected by environment.
    Levels of testosterone rise during competition (e.g. sports) – among
     participants and fans. The members and fans of a winning team
     have spike in testosterone after the game; testosterone levels in
     losing teams and fans drop.
    Men’s testosterone levels fall after marriage and rise after divorce.
    Boys have spikes in testosterone at various stages of childhood and
     adolescence.

 Testosterone affects the body and emotional responses.
Social Effects of Testosterone
 Testosterone makes boys more “aggressive” (agitated).
    Boys and girls respond equally to physical/aggressive activities, but boys
     are more likely to initiate them.

 Aggression contributes to different play styles.

 Different play styles contributes to self-segregation by gender
  (boys play with boys, girls play with girls)

 Segregation leads to different socialization (girls learn from each
  other ‘how to be girls’; boys learn from each other ‘how to be
  boys’)

 The socialization is responsible for the greatest differences; the
  testosterone is a “catalyst” but not a “cause” (Testosterone would
  have no effect in the absence of socialization processes).
Beyond Testosterone
 Testosterone is just one example of the complex
  interactions of biology (hormones), society and
  cultural contexts.
 Interactions between sex (biology) and gender
  (society, culture) are always similarly complex.
 Correlation between a biological fact and a social and
  cultural one can never be taken as proving that one
  causes the other.
 Reducing gender to biology is myth-making; not
  science.
Summarizing…
 Sex is a biological construct; Gender is a social and
  cultural construct.
 Sex and human heterosexual biology are a basis for
  gender… but do not determine gender.
 Ambiguous “facts” (such as average differences) and
  ambiguous biology is regularly transformed into
  cultural “truths” (belief taken to be “natural” and
  unquestionable).
 Bodies and biology do have effects socially; but in
  complex, sometimes counterintuitive ways. And
  society and culture can shape biology too!
Final Thoughts…
 How have this lecture and reading changed your
 understanding of human sex and sexuality?

 Is anything here new to you?


 What questions do you have?
   Bring them to tutorials!!!!!

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Sc2220 lecture 2 2012

  • 2. Tutorials Announcement  Manual Registration is today and tomorrow.  Try to get it sorted out TODAY!  If you are not registered now, you will most likely have to enroll in one of the two 8am Wednesday tutorial slots.  If you have questions, please approach the instructor asap (at the break or after the lecture).
  • 3. Outline: Today’s Lecture  Facts about Human Sex and Sexuality  Biology and Cultural Myth-making  When does Biology matter Socially?
  • 4. 1. A Few Facts about Sex
  • 5. What is so good about Sex?  Asexual (non-sexual) reproduction relies on mutation to create variety.  Sexual reproduction creates new combinations of DNA every time.  Variety: Speeds up evolution, allows for more rapid adaptation, allows for emergence of more complex organisms
  • 6. Asexual Reproduction (Example: Hydra) Hydra are small creatures that live in water. Hydra grow “buds” that drop off, grow large, and grow their own buds. Hydra are (Note: This Hydra, a Mythical Greek biologically immortal (they don’t age!). Beast, is not what I’m talking about!)
  • 7. Sexual Reproduction (1): Sequential and Simultaneous Hermaphrodites Clown Fish: Male to Female Sex Change Wrasse: Female to Male Sex Change (Nemo’s deep dark secret?) Hamlet Fish: Simultaneous Hermaphrodites Banana Slug: Simultaneous Hermaphrodites (Take turns during extended, multiple mating Prefers to mate with partner, but self- sessions, lasting several days) fertilizes if necessary.
  • 8. Sexual Reproduction(2): “Dedicated” Heterosexuals Hoverflies Homo sapiens sapiens We are “dedicated” heterosexuals, in the sense that Rabbits from birth onward we remain
  • 9. Human Sexuality Shapes Gender  If asexual, we would have no basis for “gender” at all.  If clownfish, gender would be an aspirational concept (men would aspire to one day become female).  Because humans are “fixed” (unchanging) as male or female from birth, we think of gender as a fixed attribute determined by our biology (even though it is not).
  • 10. Biology does dot Determine Gender.  Different cultures create many different interpretations of our biology (for example, two, three or more genders).  Different societies deal with biology differently (they put male and female bodies to use in different ways).  Gender is our cultural interpretations of and social practices associated with our biological system of sexual reproduction.
  • 11. The Sex / Gender Distinction  SEX: Is a biological construct. It is the product of biological processes (reproduction, DNA replication, mutation, selection, evolution, etc.).  GENDER: Is a social and cultural construct. It is the ways in which we organize our society, interpret, and give meaning to the fact that we are a sexually reproducing species.  There are many, many different ways to organize society around and many different ways to interpret our sexual reproductive biology.
  • 12. Sex at Different Levels  Biological Sex is not a simple binary  Genetic and Cellular Level  XY and XX Chromosomes  Hormonal Level  Testosterone, Oestrogen  Anatomical Level  Genitals, Secondary Sex Characteristics  See: Fausto-Sterling 2000, p.22
  • 13. Male, Female, and Other  Many types people are ‘intersexed’ individuals  They do not follow “normal” sexual development  Hermaphrodites (“five sexes”) only refer specifically to “uninterpretable” genitalia.  There are many other ways in which typically male and female characteristics can be ‘mixed and matched’; many are at all obvious.  Approximately 1% to 2% of all people born are “intersexed” in one way or another.  At least 1 of every 100 people is intersexed in one way or another (Fausto-Sterling 2000 estimates 1.7 per 100).
  • 14. “Intersexed” (Hermaphrodites)  A small percentage of all humans born are hermaphrodites; or “intersexed”  Many, many varieties of intersexed individuals (Reading: “The Five Sexes” only scratches the surface).  Intersexed individuals are ‘fixed’ The Reclining Hermaphrodite by modern medicine; but this is 1st century BCE sculpture not always helpful to the individuals involved.  Intersexed bodies are required to See the Short Film conform to cultural gender beliefs. XXXY: Intersex Genital Mutilation
  • 15. Human Sexes  For every 1,000 people:  491 are female  491 are male  17 are intersexed  1 other?
  • 16. Paths to Intersexuality  Some people have extra chromosomes: XXY, XYY  Others experience unusual development, for example:  In the womb, one set of processes “sexes” the body  “Masculinization” of the body*  Another set of processes “sexes” the brain  “Masculinization” of the brain.*  In the womb, sometimes a fetus experiences one process but not the other. *For technical reasons, becoming female is considered the ‘normal’ developmental sequence; and “masculinization” is a deviation.
  • 17. Some Terminology  Intersexed (or “Hermaphrodite”) – Having both typically male and typically female genitalia  Transexual or transsexual – Crossing from one sex to another biologically (e.g. sex change)  Transgender – Crossing from one gender to another culturally (e.g. cross-dressing or “transvestite”)  Homosexual – Same sex sexual practice or identity  Heterosexual – Cross sex sexual practice or identity  A major problem is that our vocabulary for talking about these things is limited, vague, and inconsistent
  • 18. 2. Biology and Cultural Myth-making or How We Turn Ambiguous Biology into Cultural Truth
  • 19. Heterosexed Individuals  Most individuals are substantially “heterosexed”; they follow a standard developmental sequence (they are “normal” – in a statisical sense)  Even then, discounting ALL the many unusual cases. There is tremendous overlap in almost every respect between individuals who follow a standard female developmental sequence (i.e. women) and those who follow a male developmental sequence (i.e. men).
  • 20. Why are we obsessed with Biological Sex Differences?  They seem (are) more easy to observe – so they seem more “real” than socialization or culture.  They give us the comfortable illusion of permanence.  So, we look obsessively for biological sex differences, for example . . .  We define ourselves and others to a significant degree, based on only “One-percent of the burn chart” (one- percent of our total outward appearance).
  • 21. “Sexing the Brain”*  Studies showing difference in brain structures: 13*  Studies showing no difference in brain structures: 95*  Question: Why focus on difference correlated with sex? What is the specific purpose of the research?  Left-handed & right-handed people exhibit as great or greater differences.  Focusing on sex/gender difference and highlighting the (minority of) studies that find differences, reinforces cultural sense of difference. *See Fausto-Sterling, Sexing the Body (2000) Chapter 5 (This is among the supplementary readings)
  • 22. Ok, so there is a lot of misleading of scientific information, BUT men and women are still different in many ways, on average, right? ABSOLUTELY TRUE!  Men are on average:  Women are on average:  Faster  Less susceptible to illness  Stronger (esp. Upper Body)  Better descriptive memory  Better with directions  Better at listening/recall  Better with math (maybe)  Better with language But, what does “average” mean? Is everyone pretty much average?
  • 23. Problem with Averages  Studies are repeatedly used to claim “men and women are different”  Average differences are always cited.  But, the range is almost never cited; without that, the meaningfulness of the “average” is useless. “Even when scientists themselves are cautious… popular renditions of new scientific findings dispense with linguistic subtlety” (Fausto-Sterling pg.236)
  • 24. How big is the difference? Example of a test of physical ability; emphasizing upper body strength.* 80% FEMALES 20% MALES 80% In US Army physical tests: top 20% of women had the same average as bottom 20% for men. (These statistics then get used both for and against women in the military)
  • 25. How much can you lift? Udomporn Polsak (Female, Thailand, Height 150 cm, Weight 53 kg): Lifted 125 kg* Tang Gonghong (Female, China, Height 172 cm, Weight 120 kg): Lifted 182.5 kg Halil Mutlu (Male, Turkey, Height 150 cm, Weight 56 kg): Lifted 160 kg Hossein Reza Zadeh (Male, Iran, Height 185 cm, Weight 160 kg): Lifted 262.5 kg *All results for “Clean & Jerk” 2004 Olympics
  • 26. “Strong Masculine Bodies”  In many cultures, domestic work is considered more appropriate for women than for men.  In Samoa, Fafafini are considered excellent at domestic work because of their strong masculine bodies.  Bodies can be (and are) used and interpreted in many different ways.
  • 27. Turning Averages into Absolutes  Physical strength, especially upper-body strength is the most significant known difference between human males and females (aside from childbearing).  Most other differences have much greater overlap.  The science of averages is often turned into absolutes in popular discourse (which in turn guides public policy)… “Science” as myth-making… in modern societies, when we call something “scientific” it gains credibility. In almost every case, the abilities of woman and men overlap.
  • 28. 3. Sex Differences that Matter in (Some) Social Contexts *Reproductive Strategies *Sexual Competition *Hormones
  • 29. Reproductive Strategies  In mammals (including humans), females are far more limited in the number of offspring compared to males.  This inclines females toward “quality” and males toward “quantity” in sexual reproduction and practice.  Females are more “selective” (and in this sense, more active in driving human evolution; Hrdy 1981)  Note also: Social systems play a strong role in reproductive strategies… social and cultural systems of gender affect biology as much as biology shapes gender.
  • 30. Sexual Competition  Sexual Competition (over access to mates) occurs between men and between women; NOT between men and women.  Men compete with other men to make themselves attractive to women (based on what women want; or what men think women want).  Women likewise compete with other women.  At the same time, groups of men and groups of women often cooperate.
  • 31. Some Consequences of Reproductive Strategies and Sexual Selection  Physical dimorphism (men being on average larger than women) is an outcome of competition between men.  Men’s larger size did not come about in order to physically dominate women; but in some cases it results in physical domination (violence or abuse).  Male competition focuses on sexual access to women.  Female competition focuses on access to the excess resources men produce (meat, money, etc.).  Some of the social and cultural consequences of these differences will be discussed later in the course…
  • 32. Testosterone (Hormone) Theory  Male dominance is often attributed to testosterone (e.g. Steven Goldberg, 1993).  Testosterone has effects that are important to understanding gender socialization – but they are oversimplified and exaggerated culturally.  The oversimplified, exaggerated testosterone explanations perpetuate gendered outcomes and are often inaccurate excuses for gender discrimination.  For example: Goldberg (1993) concludes that because testosterone (may) incline men to be more competitive therefore women should never compete with men.
  • 33. A Few Facts about Testosterone  Both men and women have testosterone.  Testosterone levels are affected by environment.  Levels of testosterone rise during competition (e.g. sports) – among participants and fans. The members and fans of a winning team have spike in testosterone after the game; testosterone levels in losing teams and fans drop.  Men’s testosterone levels fall after marriage and rise after divorce.  Boys have spikes in testosterone at various stages of childhood and adolescence.  Testosterone affects the body and emotional responses.
  • 34. Social Effects of Testosterone  Testosterone makes boys more “aggressive” (agitated).  Boys and girls respond equally to physical/aggressive activities, but boys are more likely to initiate them.  Aggression contributes to different play styles.  Different play styles contributes to self-segregation by gender (boys play with boys, girls play with girls)  Segregation leads to different socialization (girls learn from each other ‘how to be girls’; boys learn from each other ‘how to be boys’)  The socialization is responsible for the greatest differences; the testosterone is a “catalyst” but not a “cause” (Testosterone would have no effect in the absence of socialization processes).
  • 35. Beyond Testosterone  Testosterone is just one example of the complex interactions of biology (hormones), society and cultural contexts.  Interactions between sex (biology) and gender (society, culture) are always similarly complex.  Correlation between a biological fact and a social and cultural one can never be taken as proving that one causes the other.  Reducing gender to biology is myth-making; not science.
  • 36. Summarizing…  Sex is a biological construct; Gender is a social and cultural construct.  Sex and human heterosexual biology are a basis for gender… but do not determine gender.  Ambiguous “facts” (such as average differences) and ambiguous biology is regularly transformed into cultural “truths” (belief taken to be “natural” and unquestionable).  Bodies and biology do have effects socially; but in complex, sometimes counterintuitive ways. And society and culture can shape biology too!
  • 37. Final Thoughts…  How have this lecture and reading changed your understanding of human sex and sexuality?  Is anything here new to you?  What questions do you have?  Bring them to tutorials!!!!!