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What is language, anyway?
The Word
• SYMBOL (or SIGN): Sound, writing etc
• GENERAL MEANING (or CONCEPT or SENSE)
• OBJECT (or ACTION etc)
The Word
• SIGN
• THOUGHT
• THING
The Word
CREATION
Language as CREATION
• Hindu myth:
• God wanted to speak
• God said bhur and the Earth was created
• God said bhuvar and Space was created
• God said suvar and Sky was created
Language as CREATION
• The Bible
• In the beginning was the Word
• And the Word was with God
• And the Word was God
Language as CREATION
• Let there be light!
• Let there be animals!
• Let there be sea!
• Etc
Language as CREATION?
•Expecto
Patronum!
Language as CREATION
• The Declaration of Independence
• アメリカ独立宣言
• Create a principle of equality
Language as CREATION
• I hereby name this ship Johnny
• Creates a name
• I hereby declare this meeting open/closed
• Creates a situation
The word “horse”
The meaning of horse
The actual horse
horse
PHON
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYNTAX
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
Horse: Category
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT
Horse: Valency
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT
VAL
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [ ]
VAL
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [ ]
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM ??????
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM [identity of referent (actual thing)
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM [identity of referent
+ general meaning ]
Horse
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM [identity of referent
+ general meaning ]
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM [identity of referent
+ general meaning ]
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM ID
GENERAL
MEANING
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM ID
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM INDEX
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM INDEX X
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM INDEX Y
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM INDEX Z
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM INDEX 1
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM INDEX 2
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM INDEX X
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM INDEX 3rd Person
Singular
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM INDEX X
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM
INDEX X
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES: GENERAL MEANING
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
Horse-Frame
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
Horse-Frame
Entity X
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
Horse-Frame
Entity X
X = 3rd Person, Singular
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
Horse-Frame
Entity X
PHON /hɔːs/
SYN
CAT [noun]
VAL [Determiner]
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
Horse-Frame
Entity X
>
PHON /ʃiː/
SYN
CAT [ CASE [ ]]
VAL [ ]
SEM
INDEX
FRAMES <
–Frame
Entity
>
PHON /ʃiː/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ ]]
VAL [ ]
SEM
INDEX
FRAMES <
–Frame
Entity
>
PHON /ʃiː/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ nom ]]
VAL [ ]
SEM
INDEX
FRAMES <
–Frame
Entity
>
PHON /ʃiː/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ nom ]]
VAL [ ???? ]
SEM
INDEX
FRAMES <
–Frame
Entity
>
PHON /ʃiː/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ nom ]]
VAL [ ]
SEM
INDEX
FRAMES <
–Frame
Entity
>
PHON /ʃiː/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ nom ]]
VAL [ ]
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
–Frame
Entity
>
PHON /ʃiː/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ nom ]]
VAL [ ]
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
female –Frame
Entity
>
PHON /ʃiː/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ nom ]]
VAL [ ]
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
female –Frame
Entity X
>
PHON /hɪm/
SYN
CAT [ CASE [ ]]
VAL < >
SEM
INDEX
FRAMES <
–Frame
Entity
>
PHON /hɪm/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ acc ]]
VAL < >
SEM
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
PHON /sliːps/
SYN
CAT [ ]
VAL <NP[CASE ] X= PER: NUM: >
SEM
INDEX
FRAMES <
–Frame
Entity
>
PHON /sliːps/
SYN
CAT [ ? ]
VAL <NP[CASE ? ] X= PER:? NUM: ? >
SEM
INDEX ??
?
FRAMES <
? –Frame
Entity ??
>
PHON /sliːps/
SYN
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom] X= PER: 3 NUM:sing>
SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Sleeping–Frame
Entity X
>
PHON /siːz/
SYN
CAT [ ]
VAL <NP[CASE ] X= PER: NUM: ,
NP[CASE ] Y= PER: NUM: >
SEM
INDEX
FRAMES <
–Frame
>SEER
SEEN
PHON /siːz/
SYN
CAT [ ]
VAL <NP[CASE ] X= PER: NUM: ,
NP[CASE ] Y= PER: NUM: >
SEM
INDEX
FRAMES <
–Frame
>SEER
SEEN
PHON /siːz/
SYN
CAT [ ? ]
VAL <NP[CASE ? ] X= PER:? NUM: ? ,
NP[CASE ? ] Y= PER: ? NUM:?
>
SEM
INDEX ?
FRAMES <
? –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
?
?
PHON /siːz/
SYN
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X= PER:3 NUM: 1 ,
NP[CASE acc ] Y= PER: NUM: >
SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
The Word
CREATION
Language as CREATION
• Hindu myth:
• God wanted to speak
• God said bhur and the Earth was created
• God said bhuvar and Space was created
• God said suvar and Sky was created
Language as CREATION
• The Bible
• In the beginning was the Word
• And the Word was with God
• And the Word was God
Language as CREATION
• Let there be light!
• Let there be animals!
• Let there be sea!
• Etc
Language as CREATION?
•Expecto
Patronum!
PHON /hɪm/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ acc ]]
VAL < >
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity X
>
The Word
creates an
individual
Or
object
Or
individual
In the
listener’s
mind
PHON /hɪm/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ acc ]]
VAL < >
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity X
>
The Word
IS LIKE
an
individual
Or
object
Or
individual
PHON /hɪm/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ acc ]]
VAL < >
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity X
>
The Word
IS
an
individual
Or
object
Or
individual
The word as CREATION
PHON  /siːz/
SYN
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X= PER:3 NUM: 1 ,
NP[CASE acc ] Y= PER: NUM: >
SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
The word creates a situation
PHON  /siːz/
SYN
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X= PER:3 NUM: 1 ,
NP[CASE acc ] Y= PER: NUM: >
SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
The word IS LIKE a situation
PHON  /siːz/
SYN
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X= PER:3 NUM: 1 ,
NP[CASE acc ] Y= PER: NUM: >
SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
The word ISa situation
PHON  /siːz/
SYN
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X= PER:3 NUM: 1 ,
NP[CASE acc ] Y= PER: NUM: >
SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
The word as CREATION
• A word IS a thing?
• A word IS an individual?
• A word IS an action?
• A phrase IS a thing?
• A phrase IS a situation?
• A sentence IS a situation?
• Maybe I’m crazy?
Language as CREATION
• Hindu myth:
• God wanted to speak
• God said bhur and the Earth was created
• God said bhuvar and Space was created
• God said suvar and Sky was created
Language as CREATION
• The Bible
• In the beginning was the Word
• And the Word was with God
• And the Word was God
Language as CREATION
• Unicorn
• The unicorn
• Friend
• Your friend
• Playing
• Playing tennis
• The unicorn was playing tennis with your
friend in the hotel room
• Don’t we EXPERIENCE language as a REAL
THING?
• Or am I crazy??
• Anyway…
• …how does it work?
Chomsky
The cleverest person in the world!
Very difficult to understand!
One rule for language!
What’s the rule?
Merge
What’s merge?
Very difficult!
The most difficult rule in the universe!
Sem6 up
Sem6 up
apple
applepen
applepen
apple-pen
apple-pen
• But what is an apple-pen?
• Is it an apple?
• No
• Is it a pen?
• No
• It’s an apple-pen
• But what is an apple-pen?
apple-pen
• Is an apple-pen ….
• … more like an apple …
• … or more like a pen?
Sem6 up
Sem6 up
father
fathermother
fathermother
you
But what is a You?
• Are you your mother?
• No
• Are you your father?
• No
• Are you more like your mother or your father?
Sem6 up
Sem6 up
pen
pena
pena
a pen
Sem6 up
Sem6 up
Pen
noun
Pen
noun
A
Determiner
Pen
名詞
A
限定詞
Pen
noun
A
Determiner
名詞限定詞
名詞句
noundeterminer
noun phrase
OK, so let’s merge
himsees
him
noun phrase
sees
verb
sees him
him
noun (phrase)
sees
verb
verb phrase
MERGE PHON
PHON /siːz/ PHON /hɪm/
MERGE PHON
PHON /siːz/ PHON /hɪm/
PHON /siːz hɪm /
MERGE SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
SEMANTICS OF
“sees”
MERGE SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
SEMANTICS OF “sees”
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y >
SEMANTICS OF
“him”
MERGE SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
SEMANTICS OF “sees”
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y >
SEMANTICS OF “him”
NOTICE the Ys are merging already.
WHY?
PHON /siːz/
SYN
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X= PER:3 NUM: 1 ,
NP[CASE acc ] Y= PER: NUM: >
SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
VALENCY and
SEM SPECS
MERGE SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
SEMANTICS OF “sees”
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y >
SEMANTICS OF “him”
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN WE MERGE SEMANTIC INFO?
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX ?
FRAMES < >????????
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX ?
FRAMES < >????????
WHAT
KIND OF
INDEX FOR
“sees
him”?
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX ?
FRAMES < >????????
INDEX
identifies
as a
situation
or
individual
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX ?
FRAMES < >????????
Is “sees
him” more
like an
individual
or a
situation?
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >????????
Probably a
situation
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >????????
How
about
Frames?
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >????????
Well
FRAMES is
a list
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >????????
FRAMES is
a list of
general
meanings
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >????????
So we can
keep both
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >
Seeing –Frame
X
Y
SEER
SEEN
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >
Seeing –Frame
X
Y
SEER
SEEN
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >
Seeing –Frame
X
Y
SEER
SEEN
Male –Frame
Entity Y
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >
Seeing –Frame
X
Y
SEER
SEEN
Male –Frame
Entity Y
,
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >
Seeing –Frame
X
Y
SEER
SEEN
Male –Frame
Entity Y
,
“sees him”
Identity as a
situation from
the DOMINANT
(Stronger)
PARENT
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >
Seeing –Frame
X
Y
SEER
SEEN
Male –Frame
Entity Y
,
“sees him”
General meaning
(FRAMES) from
BOTH PARENTS
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >
Seeing –Frame
X
Y
SEER
SEEN
Male –Frame
Entity Y
,
“sees” “him”
“sees him”
Isn’t this fun?!
• In MERGE …
• Sound (PHONOLOGICAL) info comes from
both parents equally
• General meaning (FRAMES) info comes from
both parents equally
• But the identity (INDEX) comes from the
dominant parent
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
INDEX Y
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity Y
>
INDEX S
FRAMES < >
Seeing –Frame
X
Y
SEER
SEEN
Male –Frame
Entity Y
,
“sees” “him”
“sees him”
What about Grammar (SYNTAX)?
verbverb
verb phrase
Well, we kind of
expect SYNTAX to
come mostly from
one DOMINANT
parent, right?
PHON /siːz/
SYN
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X= PER:3 NUM: 1 ,
NP[CASE acc ] Y= PER: NUM: >
SEM
INDEX S
FRAMES <
Seeing –Frame
>SEER
SEEN
X
Y
PHON /hɪm/
SYN
CAT [ noun CASE [ acc ]]
VAL < >
SEM
INDEX X
FRAMES <
Male –Frame
Entity X
>
SYNTAX for “sees”
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X,
NP[CASE acc ] Y>
SYNTAX for “him”
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X,
NP[CASE acc ] Y>
CAT [noun [CASE acc]]
VAL < >
SYNTAX for “ sees him”?
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X,
NP[CASE acc ] Y>
CAT [noun [CASE acc]]
VAL < >
What do you think?
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X,
NP[CASE acc ] Y>
CAT [noun [CASE acc]]
VAL < >
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X,
NP[CASE acc ] Y>
CAT [noun [CASE acc]]
VAL < >
SYNTAX of “sees him”
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X,
NP[CASE acc ] Y>
CAT [noun [CASE acc]]
VAL < >
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X,
NP[CASE acc ] Y>
Exactly
the same
as the
SYNTAX of
the verb …
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X,
NP[CASE acc ] Y>
CAT [noun [CASE acc]]
VAL < >
CAT [ verb ]
VAL <NP[CASE nom ] X>
… minus
the object
in the
VALENCY
list

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