![Focus
Focus groups are closely related to task groups and problem-solving and decision-
making groups. They may be formed for a variety of purposes, including (1) to iden-
tify needs or issues, (2) to generate proposals that resolve an identified issue, and
(3) to test reactions to alternative approaches to an issue. A focus group is
A group convened to discuss a specific issue or single topic, often with the aid of ques-
tionnaires and a moderator who actively keeps the conversation oriented to that topic.
Such groups are often established to acquire information and generate ideas that would
not be as accessible through individual interviews.10
A Self-Help Group: Parents Anonymous
Parents Anonymous (PA), a national self-help organiza-
tion for parents who have abused or neglected their chil-
dren, was established in 1970 by Jolly K. in California. For
4 years before forming the group, Jolly had struggled with
an uncontrollable urge to severely punish her daughter.
One afternoon she attempted to strangle the child. Des-
perate, she sought help from a local child-guidance clinic
and was placed in therapy. When asked by her therapist
what she could do about her problem, Jolly developed an
idea. As she explained, “If alcoholics could stop drinking
by getting together, and gamblers could stop gambling,
maybe the same principle would work for [child] abusers,
too.” With her therapist’s encouragement she formed
“Mothers Anonymous” in 1970 and organized a few chap-
ters in California. Nearly every major city in the United
States and Canada now has a chapter, and the name has
been changed to Parents Anonymous because fathers who
abuse their children are also eligible to join.
PA is a crisis intervention program that offers two
main forms of help: a weekly group meeting and per-
sonal and telephone contact. Members share experi-
ences and feelings during weekly meetings and learn
to better control their emotions. During periods of cri-
sis, personal and telephone contact is especially impor-
tant, particularly when a member feels a nearly
uncontrollable desire to take anger or frustration out
on a child. Parents may be referred to PA by a social
agency (including protective services) or be self-
referred as parents who recognize that they need help.
Cassie Starkweather and S. Michael Turner de-
scribe why abusive parents would rather participate in
a self-help group than receive professional counseling:
It has been our experience that most [abusive]
parents judge themselves more harshly than other,
more objective people tend to judge them. The
fear of losing their children frequently diminishes
with reassurance from other members that they
are not the monsters they think they are.
Generally speaking, PA members are so afraid
they are going to be judged by others as harshly as
they judge themselves that they are afraid to go
out and seek help. Frequently our members ex-
press fears of dealing with a professional person,
seeing differences in education, sex, or social sta-
tus as basic differences that would prevent easy
communication or mutual understanding.
Members express feelings of gratification at
finding that other parents are “in the same boat.”
They contrast this with their feelings about profes-
sionals who, they often assume, have not taken
out the time from their training and current job
responsibilities to raise families of their own.a
PA emphasizes honesty and directness, as parents
who are prone to abuse their children have learned
to hide this problem because society finds it difficult
to acknowledge. In contrast to society’s tendency to
deny the problem, the goal of PA is to help parents
admit that they are abusive. The term abuse is used
liberally at meetings, and this insistence on frankness
has a healthy effect on members. Abusive parents are
relieved because they have finally found a group of
people able to accept them as they are. Furthermore,
only when they are able to admit they are abusive can
they begin to find ways to heal themselves.
During meetings, parents are expected to actually
admit to beating their child or engaging in other forms
of abuse, and the members challenge each other to find
ways to curb these activities. Members share construc-
tive approaches to anger and other abuse-precipitating
emotions and help each other develop specific plans for
dealing with situations that have resulted in abusive
episodes. Members learn to recognize danger signs
and to take action to avoid abuse.
Leadership is provided by a group member se-
lected by other members. The leader, called a chairper-
son, is normally assisted by a professional sponsor who
serves as resource and back-up person to the chair and
the group. The social worker who assumes the role of
sponsor must be prepared to perform a variety of func-
tions, including teacher-trainer, broker of community
services needed by parents, advocate, consultant, and
counselor.b
Source: Adapted from Introduction to Social Work and Social
Welfare, 8th ed., by Zastrow. © 2004. Reprinted with permis-
sion of Brooks/Cole.
a
Cassie L. Starkweather and S. Michael Turner, “Parents
Anonymous: Reflections on the Development of a Self-Help
Group,” in Child Abuse: Intervention and Treatment, eds. Nancy C.
Ebeling and Deborah A. Hill (Acton, MA: Publishing Sciences
Group, 1975), p. 151.
b
Check the parents Anonymous website at http://parents
anonymous.org.
6 CHAPTER ONE Groups: Types and Stages of Development
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![Two examples of a focus group are a nominal group (described in Chapter 4)
and a brainstorming session (described in Chapter 6).
A representative group is another version of a focus group. Its strength is that its
members have been selected specifically to represent different perspectives and points
of view in a community. At best, the representative group is a focus group that re-
flects the cleavages in the community and seeks to bring diverse views to the table;
at worst, it is a front group for people who seek to make the community think it has
been involved.
Self-Help and Mutual Aid
Self-help groups are increasingly popular and often successful in helping individuals
overcome social or personal problems. Katz and Bender provide a comprehensive
definition:
Self-help groups are voluntary, small group structures . . . usually formed by peers who
have come together for mutual assistance in satisfying a common need, overcoming a
common handicap or life-disrupting problem, and bringing about desired social and/or
personal change. The initiators and members of such groups perceive that their needs
are not, or cannot be, met by or through existing social institutions. . . . They often
provide material assistance as well as emotional support, they are frequently “cause”-
oriented, and promulgate an ideology or [set of] values through which members may
attain an enhanced sense of personal identity.11
Alcoholics Anonymous, developed by two recovering alcoholics, was the first self-
help group to demonstrate substantial success. In Self-Help Organizations and Profes-
sional Practice, Powell describes numerous self-help groups that are now active.12
Closely related to self-help groups are mutual-aid groups, and the terms are
sometimes interchangeable. Mutual-aid groups are informal or formal associations of
people who share certain problems and meet regularly in small groups with profes-
sional leaders to provide emotional support, information, assistance in problem
solving, and other help for each other.
Many self-help groups use individual confession and testimony techniques. Each
member explains his or her problem and recounts related experiences and plans for
handling the problem. When a member encounters a crisis (for example, an abusive
parent having an urge to abuse a child), he or she is encouraged to call another group
member, who helps the person cope. Having experienced the misery and conse-
quences of the problem, group members are highly dedicated to helping themselves
and their fellow sufferers. The participants also benefit from the “helper therapy”
principle; that is, the helper gains psychological rewards.13
Helping others makes a
person feel worthwhile, enabling the person to put his or her own problems into
perspective.
Most self-help groups are “direct service” in that they help members with individ-
ual problems. Other self-help groups work on community-wide issues and tend to be
more social-action oriented. Some direct service self-help groups attempt to change
legislation and policy in public and private institutions. Others (parents of children
with a cognitive disability, for example) also raise funds and operate community pro-
grams. However, many people with personal problems use self-help groups in the
same way others use social agencies. An additional advantage of self-help groups is
that they generally operate with a minimal budget. (For further discussion, see
Chapter 8.)
Socialization
The primary objective of most socialization groups is to develop attitudes and beha-
viors in group members that are more socially acceptable.14
Developing social skills,
increasing self-confidence, and planning for the future are other focuses. Leadership
roles in socialization groups are frequently filled by social workers who work with
groups for predelinquent youths to curb delinquency; youths of diverse racial back-
grounds to reduce racial tensions; and pregnant, unmarried young females to help
them make plans for the future. Elderly residents in nursing homes are often
Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 7
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/42710-250223222415-d715cd85/85/Social-work-with-groups-a-comprehensive-worktext-9th-edition-Edition-Charles-Zastrow-34-320.jpg)
![Stages-of-Change Therapy
for Substance Users
The stages-of-change therapy model can be used for
group therapy for substance users. This model uses the
transtheoretical model of change to describe how people
make successful changes in their lives. The transtheoret-
ical model of change is based on research completed by
Prochaska and Diclemente.h
This model agrees that
change does not happen all at once and it takes time
and energy to change. This model notes five distinct
stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation,
preparation, action, and maintenance. (See “Motivational
Interviewing” in Chapter 12 for an expanded description
of this approach.) Treatment strategies for the group are
based on the stages-of-change model. It is important for
the leaders of the group to be aware of the stages of
change, determine what stage of change group members
are in, and then develop activities to motivate individuals
to move along the stages of change.i
The change process starts with an individual not
knowing that a change needs to take place. This stage
is called the precontemplation stage. In this stage sub-
stance abuse users do not see their using as a problem. If
there is a problem, the person is probably ignoring it or
does not consider the problem as something that is im-
portant. When the problem can no longer be ignored,
for example, a partner no longer wants to be with the
user because of the using behavior, the individual may
begin to consider that he or she needs to do something
about his or her using. This stage is seen as the contem-
plation stage of change. If the problem continues to
grow and the individual begins to make plans to change,
this is considered the preparation stage of the change
process. When individuals start the action stage of
change, their mental, physical, and social forces have
been organized and they begin to take steps to make
the change. If the clients continue to maintain the
change, it is said that they are in the maintenance stage
of change. This model does expect and prepares for in-
dividuals to possibly go back to the problem behavior.j
Exercise: “A Day in the Life”
An example of an exercise that could be completed in a
group setting with clients who are in the precontempla-
tion or contemplation stage of change with their sub-
stance use is as follows:
Goal
The name of the exercise is called “A Day in the Life.”
The change-process objective for the exercise is for
group members to raise consciousness of their drinking
during the day. This exercise helps raise consciousness
about the quantity and frequency of their substance use.
Clients in the early stages of change are often unaware of
how much and how often they are drinking. Students
could complete this exercise by thinking about some-
thing that they would like to change in their lives.
Step 1
The facilitator of the group explains in a nonthreaten-
ing way that sometimes it is difficult for people to real-
ize how much they are using in a day.
Step 2
The facilitator hands out a worksheet and has the cli-
ents answer the following questions: describe your use
from the time you wake up in the morning until
around noon; describe your using from noon until
early evening; and describe your use from around
6 p.m. until you go to bed. Students could answer
the same questions about the identified behavior that
they would like to change.
Step 3
Ask the clients to discuss what they have learned about
their substance use by doing the exercise. Discuss with
the group members when this use may be less or may
be more. Students could discuss what they have
learned about their desired behavior they want to
change and reflect on what they learned about the du-
ration and the frequency of the behavior they would
like to change. Students could discuss the importance
of raising consciousness of a behavior in the early stages
of the change process.k
* This material was written by Katherine Drechsler and
Dr. Sarah Hessenauer. Ms. Drechsler is an adjunct faculty
member at the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater, and is a
doctoral student in social work at George Williams College.
Dr. Hessenauer is an Assistant Professor in the Social Work
Department at the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater.
a
J. Harris and R. Hill, Principles and Practice of Group Work in
Addictions (New York: Routledge, 2011).
b
Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse
Treatment: Group Therapy (Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse
and Mental Health Services Administration, 2005). (Treatment
Improvement Protocol [TIP] Series, No. 41.) Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64220/.
c
Ibid.
d
Ibid.
e
Ibid.
f
Ibid.
g
Ibid.
h
J. O. Prochaska and C. C. DiClemente, “Trans-Theoretical
Therapy: Toward a More Integrative Model of Change,”
Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 19(3) (1982):
276–288.
i
C. Crouch, C. DiClemente, G. Maner, and M. Velasquez,
Group Treatment for Substance Abuse: A Stages-of-Change
Therapy Manual (New York: The Guilford Press, 2001).
j
Ibid.
k
Ibid.
Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders (continued)
10 CHAPTER ONE Groups: Types and Stages of Development
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![growing, continually changing person who becomes increasingly effective in interact-
ing with others. In terminating a sensitivity group, the leader may alert the partici-
pants to be “on guard” as old behavior patterns tend to creep back in.
Sensitivity groups usually generate an outpouring of emotions, as do treatment
groups. Sensitivity groups provide an interesting contrast to treatment groups. In
treatment groups, each member explores personal and emotional problems in depth
and then develops strategies to resolve them. Sensitivity groups generally do not di-
rectly attempt to identify and change specific emotional or personal problems, such as
drinking, feelings of depression, or sexual dysfunctions. The philosophy behind sen-
sitivity groups is that by simply increasing personal and interpersonal awareness, peo-
ple will be better able to avoid, cope with, and handle specific personal problems that
arise.
Despite their popularity, sensitivity groups remain controversial. In some cases,
inadequately trained and incompetent individuals have become self-proclaimed lead-
ers and enticed people to join through sensational advertising. If handled poorly, the
short duration of some groups may intensify personal problems; for example, a per-
son’s defense mechanisms may be stripped away without first developing adaptive
coping patterns. Many authorities on sensitivity training disclaim the use of encounter
groups as a form of psychotherapy and discourage those with serious personal prob-
lems from joining such a group. Carl Rogers, in reviewing his own extensive experi-
ence as leader/participant, echoes these concerns:
Frequently the behavior changes that occur, if any, are not lasting. In addition, the indi-
vidual may become deeply involved in revealing himself and then be left with problems
which are not worked through. Less common, but still noteworthy, there are also very
occasional accounts of an individual having a psychotic episode during or immediately
following an intensive group experience. We must keep in mind that not all people are
suited for groups.19
In some cases, the popularity of sensitivity groups has led some individuals to enter
harmful groups with incompetent leaders where normal ethical standards have been
abused. Shostrom has identified some means by which those interested in encounter
groups can prevent exploitation: (1) Never participate in a group of fewer than a half-
dozen members. The necessary and valuable candor generated by an effective group can-
not be dissipated, shared, or examined by too small a group, and scapegoating or purely
vicious ganging up can develop. (2) Never join an encounter group on impulse—as a
fling, binge, or surrender to the unplanned. (3) Never stay with a group that has a behav-
ioral ax to grind. (4) Never participate in a group that lacks formal connection with a pro-
fessional who has proper credentials.20
After reviewing the research on the outcome of sensitivity groups, Lieberman,
Yalom, and Miles provide an appropriate perspective for those interested in the inten-
sive group experience:
Encounter groups present a clear and evident danger if they are used for radical surgery
to produce a new man [person]. The danger is even greater when the leader and the par-
ticipants share this misconception. If we no longer expect groups to produce magical,
Contrasting Goals of Treatment Groups Versus Sensitivity Groups
TREATMENT GROUPS SENSITIVITY GROUPS
Step 1: Examine problems in depth.
Step 2: Develop and select, from various resolution
approaches, a strategy to resolve the problem.
Step 1: Help each person become more aware of
him- or herself and how he or she affects others in
interpersonal interactions.
Step 2: Help a person develop more effective
interaction patterns.
Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 15
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/42710-250223222415-d715cd85/85/Social-work-with-groups-a-comprehensive-worktext-9th-edition-Edition-Charles-Zastrow-42-320.jpg)
![In a group of five members, a number of different relationships can be formed with a
moderate level of intimacy. Several individuals can also act as “buffers” who deal with
strained situations or power plays. If a vote is needed to resolve a dispute, obviously a
two-two split can be avoided. In groups smaller than five, Slater observed, the mem-
bers were inhibited from expressing their ideas through fear of alienating one another
and thereby destroying the group. In groups of more than five, members also felt in-
hibited and participated less often.
Groups with an even number of members tend to have higher rates of disagree-
ment and antagonism than those with an odd number, apparently because of the pos-
sible division of the group into two equal subdivisions.24
For each task to be
accomplished, there is probably an optimal group size. The more complex the task,
the larger the optimal size, so that the knowledge, abilities, and skills of many mem-
bers are available to accomplish the task. A group should be large enough to allow
members to speak freely without being inhibited and small enough to permit a mod-
erate level of intimacy and involvement.
Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Groups
Whether the group will be open-ended, with new members added as old members
leave, or whether the membership will remain constant until termination (closed-
ended) should be determined at the outset. Open-ended groups provide a measure of
synergism through the addition of new members. As new individuals join, they pro-
vide a different viewpoint, even though they usually are gradually socialized into
group norms and practices by the older members. The impact of such changes is
not all beneficial, however. The constant change in membership may inhibit openness
and detract from the sense of trust needed before certain subjects are broached. In
addition, open groups are likely to “have members at different levels of commitment
to the process and members [who are not] at the same stages of development.”25
A closed-ended group can often function more effectively because it has a relatively
constant population and often operates within a specified time frame.26
Although the
premature loss of members can seriously damage such a group’s effectiveness, a
leader must deal with member termination in both open and closed groups and
plan for this eventuality.
Duration
The duration of a group has two related components: the number of sessions and the
length of each session. Many groups meet for 1 to 2 hours once or twice a week for a
specified number of weeks. Meeting for 1 to 2 hours tends to optimize productive
activity and behavior. Meeting lengths shorter than 1 hour usually do not allow suffi-
cient time to thoroughly discuss the issues that are raised. In meetings that last longer
than 3 hours, members tend to become drowsy, frustrated, and unable to concen-
trate. Although a meeting length of 1 to 2 hours appears to be a guideline for optimal
functioning in many groups, at times pressing issues may necessitate a longer meeting
to process and conclude group business. Obviously, if a crisis occurs 5 minutes be-
fore the end of the meeting, the group leader should not conclude the session. By the
same token, some discussions can become so intense that they could last indefinitely
and accomplish little. A pragmatic approach to terminating each meeting or series of
meetings within a set time frame will enhance the group’s respect for the leader and
foster the group’s development.
Setting meetings in which there are 3 or 4 (or more) days between meetings usu-
ally allows the members some time to work on tasks that are designed to accomplish
their personal goals and the goals of the group. For example, in educational groups,
members can study and complete homework assignments between meetings. In treat-
ment groups, members can carry out homework assignments designed to reduce or
resolve personal problems.
Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 17
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- 5. Social work with groups a comprehensive worktext 9th edition. Edition Charles Zastrow Digital Instant Download Author(s): Charles Zastrow ISBN(s): 9781285746746, 1285746740 Edition: 9th edition. File Details: PDF, 10.71 MB Year: 2015 Language: english
- 7. INSIDE COVER /Zastrow, Social Work With Groups, 9th Edition ISBN -978-1-285-74640-1 ©2015 Designer: L. Entringer Text & Cover printer: ? Binding: PB Trim: 8.5" x 10.875" 2 color: balck + PMS 302 Council on Social Work Education Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards by Chapter The 10 Competencies and 41 Recommended Practice Behaviors (EPAS 2008): Chapter(s) Where Referenced: EP 2.1.5 Advance Human Rights and Social and Economic Justice: a. Understand forms and mechanisms of oppression and discrimination 2, 7 b. Advocate for human rights and social and economic justice 2, 7 c. Engage in practices that advance social and economic justice 2, 7 EP 2.1.6 Engage in Research-Informed Practice and Practice-Informed Research: a. Use practice experience to inform scientific inquiry 2, 14 b. Use research evidence to inform practice 2, 14 EP 2.1.7 Apply Knowledge of Human Behavior and the Social Environment: a. Utilize conceptual frameworks to guide the process of assessment, intervention, and evaluation 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, M1, M3, M4 b. Critique and apply knowledge to understand person and environment 2, 8 EP 2.1.8 Engage in Policy Practice to Advance Social and Economic Well-Being and to Deliver Effective Social Work Services: a. Analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance social well-being 2, 6 b. Collaborate with colleagues and clients for effective policy action 2, 6 EP 2.1.9 Respond to Contexts That Shape Practice: a. Continuously discover, appraise, and attend to changing locales, populations, scientific and technological developments, and emerging societal trends to provide relevant services 2, 6, 10, M3, M4 b. Provide leadership in promoting sustainable changes in service delivery and practice to improve the quality of social services 2 EP 2.1.10 Engage, Assess, Intervene, and Evaluate with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations and Communities: a. Substantively and affectively prepare for action with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities 2, 6, 9, 12, 13, M1, M2 b. Use empathy and other interpersonal skills 2, 12, 13 c. Develop a mutually agreed-on focus of work and desired outcomes 2, 6, 12, 13 d. Collect, organize, and interpret client data 2, 12, 13 e. Assess client strengths and limitations 2, 5, 7, 12, 13 f. Develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives 2, 12, 13 g. Select appropriate intervention strategies 2, 9, 11, 12, 13 h. Initiate actions to achieve organizational goals 2 i. Implement prevention interventions that enhance client capacities 2 j. Help clients resolve problems 2, 12, 13 k. Negotiate, mediate, and advocate for clients 2, 6 l. Facilitate transitions and endings 2, 12, 13 m. Critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate interventions 2, 14 Social Work with Groups: A Comprehensive Worktext, 9e, now includes explicit references to the Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards’ (EPAS) 10 core competencies and 41 recom- mended practice behaviors. The column on the right informs the reader in which chapters the icons appear. The 10 Competencies and 41 Recommended Practice Behaviors (EPAS 2008): Chapter(s) Where Referenced: EP 2.1.1 Identify as a Professional Social Worker and Conduct Oneself Accordingly: a. Advocate for client access to the services of social work 2, 6 b. Practice personal reflection and self-correction to assure continual professional development 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, M3, M4 c. Attend to professional roles and boundaries 2, 12 d. Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior, appearance, and communication 2, 4, 6, 12 e. Engage in career-long learning 2 f. Use supervision and consultation 2 EP 2.1.2 Apply Social Work Ethical Principles to Guide Professional Practice: a. Recognize and manage personal values in a way that allows professional values to guide practice 2, 7 b. Make ethical decisions by applying standards of the National Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics and, as applicable, of the International Federation of Social Workers/International Association of Schools of Social Work Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles 2, 12 c. Tolerate ambiguity in resolving ethical conflicts 2 d. Apply strategies of ethical reasoning to arrive at principled decisions 2, 6 EP 2.1.3 Apply Critical Thinking to Inform and Communicate Professional Judgments: a. Distinguish, appraise, and integrate multiple sources of knowledge, including research-based knowledge and practice wisdom 2 b. Analyze models of assessment, prevention, intervention, and evaluation 2 c. Demonstrate effective oral and written communication in working with individuals, families, groups, organizations, communities, and colleagues 2, 5, 6 EP 2.1.4 Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice: a. Recognize the extent to which a culture’s structures and values may oppress, marginalize, alienate, or create or enhance privilege and power 2, 7 b. Gain sufficient self-awareness to eliminate the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse groups 2, 7 c. Recognize and communicate their understanding of the importance of difference in shaping life experiences 2, 7 d. View themselves as learners and engage those with whom they work as informants 2, 7 46401_ifc_se_ptg01_hr.indd 1 28-09-2013 13:13:25 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 8. INSIDE COVER /Zastrow, Social Work With Groups, 9th Edition ISBN -978-1-285-74640-1 ©2015 Designer: L. Entringer Text Cover printer: ? Binding: PB Trim: 8.5 x 10.875 2 color: balck + PMS 302 Council on Social Work Education Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards by Chapter The 10 Competencies and 41 Recommended Practice Behaviors (EPAS 2008): Chapter(s) Where Referenced: EP 2.1.5 Advance Human Rights and Social and Economic Justice: a. Understand forms and mechanisms of oppression and discrimination 2, 7 b. Advocate for human rights and social and economic justice 2, 7 c. Engage in practices that advance social and economic justice 2, 7 EP 2.1.6 Engage in Research-Informed Practice and Practice-Informed Research: a. Use practice experience to inform scientific inquiry 2, 14 b. Use research evidence to inform practice 2, 14 EP 2.1.7 Apply Knowledge of Human Behavior and the Social Environment: a. Utilize conceptual frameworks to guide the process of assessment, intervention, and evaluation 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, M1, M3, M4 b. Critique and apply knowledge to understand person and environment 2, 8 EP 2.1.8 Engage in Policy Practice to Advance Social and Economic Well-Being and to Deliver Effective Social Work Services: a. Analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance social well-being 2, 6 b. Collaborate with colleagues and clients for effective policy action 2, 6 EP 2.1.9 Respond to Contexts That Shape Practice: a. Continuously discover, appraise, and attend to changing locales, populations, scientific and technological developments, and emerging societal trends to provide relevant services 2, 6, 10, M3, M4 b. Provide leadership in promoting sustainable changes in service delivery and practice to improve the quality of social services 2 EP 2.1.10 Engage, Assess, Intervene, and Evaluate with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations and Communities: a. Substantively and affectively prepare for action with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities 2, 6, 9, 12, 13, M1, M2 b. Use empathy and other interpersonal skills 2, 12, 13 c. Develop a mutually agreed-on focus of work and desired outcomes 2, 6, 12, 13 d. Collect, organize, and interpret client data 2, 12, 13 e. Assess client strengths and limitations 2, 5, 7, 12, 13 f. Develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives 2, 12, 13 g. Select appropriate intervention strategies 2, 9, 11, 12, 13 h. Initiate actions to achieve organizational goals 2 i. Implement prevention interventions that enhance client capacities 2 j. Help clients resolve problems 2, 12, 13 k. Negotiate, mediate, and advocate for clients 2, 6 l. Facilitate transitions and endings 2, 12, 13 m. Critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate interventions 2, 14 Social Work with Groups: A Comprehensive Worktext, 9e, now includes explicit references to the Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards’ (EPAS) 10 core competencies and 41 recom- mended practice behaviors. The column on the right informs the reader in which chapters the icons appear. The 10 Competencies and 41 Recommended Practice Behaviors (EPAS 2008): Chapter(s) Where Referenced: EP 2.1.1 Identify as a Professional Social Worker and Conduct Oneself Accordingly: a. Advocate for client access to the services of social work 2, 6 b. Practice personal reflection and self-correction to assure continual professional development 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, M3, M4 c. Attend to professional roles and boundaries 2, 12 d. Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior, appearance, and communication 2, 4, 6, 12 e. Engage in career-long learning 2 f. Use supervision and consultation 2 EP 2.1.2 Apply Social Work Ethical Principles to Guide Professional Practice: a. Recognize and manage personal values in a way that allows professional values to guide practice 2, 7 b. Make ethical decisions by applying standards of the National Association of Social Workers Code of Ethics and, as applicable, of the International Federation of Social Workers/International Association of Schools of Social Work Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles 2, 12 c. Tolerate ambiguity in resolving ethical conflicts 2 d. Apply strategies of ethical reasoning to arrive at principled decisions 2, 6 EP 2.1.3 Apply Critical Thinking to Inform and Communicate Professional Judgments: a. Distinguish, appraise, and integrate multiple sources of knowledge, including research-based knowledge and practice wisdom 2 b. Analyze models of assessment, prevention, intervention, and evaluation 2 c. Demonstrate effective oral and written communication in working with individuals, families, groups, organizations, communities, and colleagues 2, 5, 6 EP 2.1.4 Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice: a. Recognize the extent to which a culture’s structures and values may oppress, marginalize, alienate, or create or enhance privilege and power 2, 7 b. Gain sufficient self-awareness to eliminate the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse groups 2, 7 c. Recognize and communicate their understanding of the importance of difference in shaping life experiences 2, 7 d. View themselves as learners and engage those with whom they work as informants 2, 7 46401_ifc_se_ptg01_hr.indd 1 28-09-2013 13:13:25 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 9. Social Work with Groups A Comprehensive Worktext Ninth Edition Charles H. Zastrow, MSW, PhD George Williams College of Aurora University Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 10. This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 11. Social Work with Groups: A Comprehensive Worktext, Ninth Edition Charles H. Zastrow, MSW, PhD Product Director: Jon-David Hague Product Manager: Seth Dobrin Content Developer: Julie Martinez Content Coordinator: Casey Lozier Product Assistant: Nicole Bator Media Developer: John Chell Marketing Manager: Shanna Shelton Art and Cover Direction, Production Management, and Composition: S4Carlisle Publishing Services Manufacturing Planner: Judy Inouye Rights Acquisitions Specialist: Roberta Broyer Text Researcher: PreMediaGlobal Cover Image: Kristian Sekulic @ Getty Images © 2015, 2012, Delmar Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706. For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be emailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com. Library of Congress Control Number: 2013946144 ISBN-13: 978-1-285-74640-1 ISBN-10: 1-285-74640-6 Cengage Learning 200 First Stamford Place, 4th Floor Stamford, CT 06902 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global. Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com. Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17 16 15 14 13 WCN: 02-200-203 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 12. To Kathy, My wife and soulmate Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 13. Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 14. Contents Preface xv About the Author xviii CHAPTER 1 Groups: Types and Stages of Development 1 Historical Development of Group Work 1 Settlement Houses 2 Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) 2 Types of Groups 3 Social Conversation 3 Recreation/Skill Building 3 Education 4 Task 4 Problem Solving and Decision Making 4 Focus 6 Self-Help and Mutual-Aid 7 Socialization 7 Treatment 8 Common Types of Treatment Groups 8 Psycho-Educational Groups 11 Symptom Management Groups 11 Anger Management Groups 11 Life Skills Groups 11 Social Skills Groups 12 Process Groups 12 Stress Management Groups 12 Specialty Groups 12 Sensitivity and Encounter Training 13 Initial Development of Groups 16 Determining Objectives 16 Size 16 Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Groups 17 Duration 17 Stages of Groups 18 Intake 18 Selection of Members 18 Assessment and Planning 18 Group Development and Intervention 19 Evaluation and Termination 19 Models of Group Development over Time 19 Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model 19 EXERCISE 1.1 The Garland, Jones, and Kolodny Model 21 Tuckman Model 21 EXERCISE 1.2 The Tuckman Model 22 Northen and Kurland Model 22 EXERCISE 1.3 The Northen and Kurland Model 23 Sequential Stage Models of Group Development 23 Bales Model 24 Group Cohesion 24 EXERCISE 1.4 Variables That Impact Group Cohesion 26 Membership and Reference Groups 26 Breaking the Ice 27 EXERCISE 1.5 Understanding Membership and Reference Groups 28 Experiential Learning 28 Ethics and Guidelines for Conducting Exercises 29 Pitfalls to Avoid in Conducting Class Exercises 30 Summary 31 Group Exercises 31 EXERCISE A Getting Acquainted 31 EXERCISE B Introducing a Partner 32 EXERCISE C Personal Expectations for the Group 32 EXERCISE D Searching for Descriptors 32 EXERCISE E Why I Decided to Be a Social Worker 33 CHAPTER 2 Social Group Work and Social Work Practice 34 Definition of Social Work 34 Relationship Between Social Work and Social Welfare 35 What Is the Profession of Social Work? 35 Generalist Social Work Practice 36 EXERCISE 2.1 Your Areas of Interest in Social Work 37 v Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 15. The Change Process 38 Phase 1: Engaging Clients in an Appropriate Working Relationship 40 Phase 2: Identifying Issues, Problems, Needs, Resources, and Assets 40 Phase 3: Collecting and Assessing Information 41 Phase 4: Planning for Service Delivery 41 Phase 5: Using Communication Skills, Supervision, and Consultation 41 Phase 6: Identifying, Analyzing, and Implementing Empirically Based Interventions Designed to Achieve Client Goals 42 Phase 7: Applying Empirical Knowledge and Technology 43 Phase 8: Evaluating Program Outcomes and Practice Effectiveness 43 A Variety of Roles 44 Enabler 44 Broker 44 Advocate 44 Empowerer 44 Activist 44 Mediator 45 Negotiator 45 Educator 45 Initiator 45 Coordinator 45 Researcher 46 Group Facilitator 46 Public Speaker 46 A Systems Perspective 46 EXERCISE 2.2 Your Interest in Various Social Work Roles 47 Medical Model Versus Ecological Model 48 Medical Model 48 EXERCISE 2.3 Understanding the Major Mental Disorders 48 Ecological Model 50 EXERCISE 2.4 Understanding the Medical Model and the Ecological Model 51 Goals of Social Work Practice 52 Goal 1: Enhance the Clients’ Problem-Solving, Coping, and Developmental Capacities 52 Goal 2: Link Clients with Systems That Provide Resources, Services, and Opportunities 52 Goal 3: Promote the Effective and Humane Operation of Systems That Provide Resources and Services 52 Goal 4: Develop and Improve Social Policy 52 Goal 5: Promote Human and Community Well-Being 53 A Problem-Solving Approach 53 EXERCISE 2.5 Your Interest in Achieving the Goals of Social Work 54 EXERCISE 2.6 Applying the Problem-Solving Approach 55 Micro, Mezzo, and Macro Practice 55 Social Casework 55 Case Management 56 Group Work 57 Group Treatment 57 Family Treatment 57 Community Organization 58 Policy Analysis 58 Administration 58 EXERCISE 2.7 Identifying Your Interest in Various Social Work Activities 59 Knowledge, Skills, and Values Needed for Social Work Practice 60 Social Group Work as a Component of Social Work Practice 63 Summary 64 Group Exercises 65 EXERCISE A Options Planning 65 EXERCISE B Social Work with Groups and Generalist Practice 66 EXERCISE C Assessing Core Competencies and Practice Behaviors 66 EXERCISE D Assessing Core Competencies and Practice Behaviors in Class and in Field Placement 70 EXERCISE E Social Work Value Issues 78 EXERCISE F Olga and Igor 80 EXERCISE G Genie and the Magic Lantern 81 EXERCISE H Pregnancy and Tragedy 81 CHAPTER 3 Group Dynamics: Leadership 84 Approaches to Leadership 84 The Trait Approach 84 EXERCISE 3.1 The Charismatic Leader 86 EXERCISE 3.2 Machiavellian Leaders 87 The Position Approach 87 The Leadership-Style Approach 88 The Distributed-Functions Approach 88 EXERCISE 3.3 Authoritarian, Democratic, and Laissez-Faire Leaders 89 Servant Leadership Approach 90 EXERCISE 3.4 Applying the Distributed-Function Approach 90 EXERCISE 3.5 Servant Leaders 92 Leadership Roles 92 Task and Maintenance Roles 92 Other Roles 94 EXERCISE 3.6 Your Task and Maintenance Contributions to a Group 95 vi Contents Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 16. Power and Influence in Groups 96 Power Bases in Groups 97 Reward Power 97 Coercive Power 97 Legitimate Power 97 Referent Power 98 Expert Power 98 EXERCISE 3.7 The Power Bases in This Class 98 Effects of Unequal Power 100 Coleadership of a Group 101 Benefits 101 EXERCISE 3.8 Groups of Equal Power and Unequal Power 102 Disadvantages 103 Guidelines for Forming and Leading a Group 104 Homework 104 Planning a Session 105 Relaxing Before You Start a Meeting 106 Cues Upon Entering the Meeting Room 106 Seating Arrangements 106 Introductions 107 Clarifying Roles 107 Agenda 108 Additional Guidelines for Leading a Group 108 Standards for Social Work Practice with Groups 109 Summary 116 Group Exercises 116 EXERCISE A Desensitizing Fears of Leading a Group 116 EXERCISE B Task Functions and Group Maintenance Functions 116 EXERCISE C Power Bases 117 EXERCISE D Leading a Group 118 CHAPTER 4 Group Dynamics: Goals and Norms 119 Setting Personal and Group Goals 119 Personal Goals 120 EXERCISE 4.1 Identifying Your Personal Goals 121 Hidden Agendas 121 EXERCISE 4.2 Hidden Agendas and Their Effects 122 Establishing Group Goals 123 Operational and Measurable Goals 124 EXERCISE 4.3 Group Goals and Personal Goals in This Class 125 Competition Versus Cooperation 127 EXERCISE 4.4 The Effects of a Competitive Group Member 128 The Nominal Group Approach 128 Group Norms 130 How Norms Are Learned and Developed 130 EXERCISE 4.5 Group Norms in This Class 131 Conformity 132 Idiosyncrasy Credits 134 Do’s and Don’ts of Norms 134 EXERCISE 4.6 Your Yielding to Group Pressure 135 Problems of Conformity 135 EXERCISE 4.7 Understanding Idiosyncrasy Credits 136 Types of Disruptive Behavior 137 Handling Disruptive Behavior 140 Reducing the Likelihood of Disruptive Behavior 142 EXERCISE 4.8 Handling Disruptive Behavior of a Group Member 143 Summary 144 Group Exercises 145 EXERCISE A Setting Personal and Group Goals 145 EXERCISE B A Sphinx Foundation Grant 145 EXERCISE C The Nominal Group Approach 146 EXERCISE D Identifying and Changing Group Norms 147 EXERCISE E An Ornery Instructor 147 EXERCISE F How Group Decisions Affect Values 148 EXERCISE G Confrontation and I-Messages 150 EXERCISE H Confronting and Being Confronted by Others 150 CHAPTER 5 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 152 A Model of Communication 152 One-Way Communication 153 EXERCISE 5.1 The Emotional Effects of One-Way Communication 155 Two-Way Communication 156 Perception 156 The Perceptual Process 156 Physiological Influences 157 Sociopsychological Influences 158 EXERCISE 5.2 Using Defense Mechanisms 160 EXERCISE 5.3 Defensive Communication 162 Self-Disclosure 163 The Johari Window 164 EXERCISE 5.4 Feeling Good After Self-Disclosure 165 EXERCISE 5.5 Johari Windows 167 How to Communicate Effectively 168 Sender 168 Receiver 168 Listening Skills 169 Active Listening 169 I-Messages 170 EXERCISE 5.6 Learning to Use I-Messages 171 Contents vii Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 17. EXERCISE 5.7 Resolving Collisions of Values 172 Collisions of Values 173 Nonverbal Communication 173 Functions of Nonverbal Communication 174 Repetition 174 Substitution 174 Accentuation 174 Regulation 174 Contradiction 174 The Risk of Misinterpretation 174 Forms of Nonverbal Communication 174 EXERCISE 5.8 Interpreting Nonverbal Cues 175 Posture 176 Body Orientation 176 Facial Expressions 176 Eye Contact 177 Gestures 177 Touching 178 Clothing 179 Personal Boundaries 180 Territoriality 181 Voice 182 Physical Appearance 182 EXERCISE 5.9 Reading Nonverbal Cues 183 Environment 184 Other Nonverbal Cues 185 Summary 185 Group Exercises 186 EXERCISE A The Johari Window 186 EXERCISE B Defense Mechanisms 186 EXERCISE C Distortions in Transmitting Information 186 EXERCISE D The Intruder 187 EXERCISE E Active Listening 188 EXERCISE F My Nonverbal Communications 188 EXERCISE G Nonverbal Cues 189 EXERCISE H A Popular Faculty Member 189 EXERCISE I Double Messages 189 EXERCISE J The Flat Tire 190 EXERCISE K Communicating While Blindfolded 190 EXERCISE L Giving and Receiving Feedback About Nonverbal Communication 191 EXERCISE M Zones of Personal Space 191 CHAPTER 6 Task Groups 193 A Variety of Task Groups 193 Guidelines for Leading Task Groups 195 Establishing the Group’s Purpose 195 Potential Sponsorship of the Task Group 195 Selecting Potential Members 195 Recruiting Members 195 Size of the Group 196 Orienting Members to the Group 196 Meeting Place and Room 196 First Meeting 196 Working with Resistive and Disruptive Members 197 The Middle Stages 197 Adjourning a Meeting 197 Evaluating and Terminating 197 EXERCISE 6.1 Successful and Unsuccessful Group Experiences 198 Problem-Solving Approach 199 Identification and Definition 199 Assessment of Size and Causes 200 Development of Alternative Strategies 200 Assessment of Strategies 200 Selection and Implementation 200 Evaluation 200 Barriers to Effective Problem Solving 201 Inadequate Definitions 201 Invalid Hypotheses 201 Poor Communication 201 Lack of Skills 201 Lack of Resources 202 Lack of Motivation 202 Brainstorming 202 Conflict 203 Techniques for Resolving Conflicts 203 Win-Lose Approach 203 EXERCISE 6.2 My Tolerance for Conflicts 204 No-Lose Problem Solving 205 Role Reversal 207 EXERCISE 6.3 Creativity Inspired by Conflict 207 Empathy 208 Inquiry 208 I-Messages 208 Disarming 208 Stroking 209 EXERCISE 6.4 Disarming and Stroking 209 Letting Go or Forgiving 210 Mediation 210 What If These Strategies Do Not Work? 212 Intergroup Conflict 212 EXERCISE 6.5 Resolving Your Conflicts Effectively 213 Decision Making 216 The Bases of Decisions 216 Approaches to Decision Making 217 Consensus 218 Simple Majority Vote 218 Two-Thirds or Three-Fourths Majority Vote 219 Delegated Decisions 219 Multiple Voting 220 Averaging Individual Opinions 220 viii Contents Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 18. Group Versus Individual Decision Making 221 Groupthink 222 EXERCISE 6.6 My Groupthink Experience 223 Summary 224 Group Exercises 224 EXERCISE A Suspended from High School 224 EXERCISE B Brainstorming 225 EXERCISE C Busing to Achieve Racial Integration 225 EXERCISE D Creative Thinking 227 EXERCISE E The Manhattan Glass 227 EXERCISE F Brainteasers 229 EXERCISE G Resolving Conflicts 230 EXERCISE H Funding Social Programs Involves Hard Choices 230 EXERCISE I Consensus 231 EXERCISE J Subjective Influences on Merit Raises 232 EXERCISE K Midterm Exam Using Jigsaw Puzzles 234 CHAPTER 7 Working with Diverse Groups 239 Definitions of Key Terms 240 EXERCISE 7.1 Some of My Stereotypes 241 Stereotyping and Multiculturalism: A Perspective 242 Your Stereotypes and Preconceptions 244 EXERCISE 7.2 Questionnaire About Gays and Lesbians 244 Knowledge About Diverse Groups 247 Working with the LGBTIQQ Population in Groups 250 Posture of Reciprocity 251 EXERCISE 7.3 Victimized in Iran 252 Which Intervention Techniques Work? 253 Anger Management 253 Cultural Communication 253 Ethnic-Sensitive Practice 255 Empowerment 256 Strengths Perspective 256 EXERCISE 7.4 The Strengths Perspective Applied to a Homeless Family 257 Culturally Competent Practice 258 Indicators for the Achievement of the Standards for Cultural Competence 259 EXERCISE 7.5 Culturally Competent Standards 260 Safeguarding Human Rights 260 The RAP Framework for Leading Multiracial Groups 262 Recognize 262 Anticipate 262 Problem-Solve 263 Feminist Intervention 263 Principles of Feminist Therapy 264 EXERCISE 7.6 Feminist Intervention 267 Using Feminist Intervention in Groups 267 Evaluation of Feminist Therapy 268 Group Development Stages in Women’s Groups 269 Summary 270 Group Exercises 271 EXERCISE A Coming Out of the Closet 271 EXERCISE B Spaceship to Futura 271 EXERCISE C Feminist Intervention in Counseling 272 EXERCISE D Are You a Feminist? 273 EXERCISE E Double Standards 273 EXERCISE F Applying Indicators of Cultural Competence 274 EXERCISE G Understanding Stereotypes 275 CHAPTER 8 Self-Help Groups 276 Mended Hearts: An Example 276 Definition and Characteristics 277 Classification of Self-Help Groups 278 Katz and Bender Classification 278 Powell Classification 279 Benefits of Self-Help Groups 280 EXERCISE 8.1 Merits and Shortcomings of a Self-Help Group 281 Linkage with Social Workers 282 Starting a Self-Help Group 282 Online Self-Help Groups 284 EXERCISE 8.2 Checking Out Online Self-Help Groups 285 EXERCISE 8.3 Using the American Self-Help Group Clearinghouse 290 Summary 290 Group Exercises 291 EXERCISE A Alcoholics Anonymous 291 EXERCISE B Combating Terrorism 291 CHAPTER 9 Social Work with Families 293 Diversity of Family Forms 293 Societal Functions of Families 295 EXERCISE 9.1 Composition and Strengths of My Family 296 Family Problems and the Nature of Social Work 297 Family Assessment 299 Contents ix Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 19. The Eco-Map 299 EXERCISE 9.2 An Eco-Map of My Family 302 The Genogram 302 EXERCISE 9.3 A Genogram of My Family 305 Family Therapy 308 Verbal Communication 309 Avenues of Communication 309 Nonverbal Communication 310 EXERCISE 9.4 Problematic Verbal Communication Patterns in My Family 311 Family Group Norms 311 EXERCISE 9.5 Problematic Nonverbal Communication Patterns in My Family 312 EXERCISE 9.6 Functional and Problematic Norms in My Family 313 Family Roles 314 EXERCISE 9.7 Functional Roles and Problematic Roles of My Family Members 315 Personal and Group Goals 315 EXERCISE 9.8 Personal Goals, Group Goals, and Hidden Agendas in My Family 317 Hidden Agendas 318 Family Conflicts, Problems, and Resolutions 318 Marital Difficulties 318 Parent/Child Relationship Difficulties 320 Personal Problems of Individual Family Members 321 External Environmental Stresses 323 EXERCISE 9.9 Challenges Faced by My Family 324 Three Approaches to Family Therapy 325 A Communication Pattern Approach 325 A Family Subsystem Approach 326 A Cognitive-Behavioral Approach 328 EXERCISE 9.10 Applying Family Therapy Concepts to My Family 330 Summary 333 Group Exercises 333 EXERCISE A The Sitzke Family 333 EXERCISE B You and Your Family 335 EXERCISE C Analyzing Your Family in Terms of Group Concepts 336 CHAPTER 10 Organizations, Communities, and Groups 339 Organizations 339 The Relationship Between a Group and an Organization 340 EXERCISE 10.1 Refuting Our Organizational Myths 340 Models of Organizations 342 The Autocratic Model 342 The Custodial Model 342 EXERCISE 10.2 Working for an Autocratic Boss 343 The Scientific Management Model 344 The Human Relations Model 345 Theory X and Theory Y 346 The Collegial Model 346 EXERCISE 10.3 Working for Theory X Versus Theory Y Managers 347 Theory Z 348 Management by Objectives 349 Total Quality Management 350 EXERCISE 10.4 Applying Concepts of Models of Organizations 351 Surviving in a Bureaucracy 352 EXERCISE 10.5 Your Orientation Toward Bureaucratic Systems 354 Organizational Effectiveness; Structure Versus Leadership Competency 356 Communities, Organizations, and Groups 357 EXERCISE 10.6 Enjoying and Appreciating a Community 358 The Relationship Between a Group and a Community 359 Analyzing a Community 360 EXERCISE 10.7 Analyzing Your Home Community 361 Models of Community Practice 362 Locality Development Model 362 Social Planning Model 363 Social-Action Model 365 Building and Sustaining Community Assets 366 Skills for Macro Practice 368 Evaluating Outcomes 368 Fundraising 369 Budgeting 369 Working with the Media 369 Conducting a Needs Assessment 369 Transformative Dialogue 370 Summary 371 Group Exercises 372 EXERCISE A Transformative Dialogue 372 EXERCISE B Analyzing a Human Services Organization 372 EXERCISE C Understanding and Applying Models of Organizations 373 EXERCISE D Theory X and Theory Y 373 EXERCISE E Appreciating Communities 374 EXERCISE F Analyzing a Community 374 EXERCISE G Analyzing Community Change 374 x Contents Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 20. CHAPTER 11 Educational Groups: Stress Management and Time Management as Examples 376 Educational Groups 376 Stress Management 377 Conceptualizing Stress 377 Reactions to Stress 377 EXERCISE 11.1 My Physiological Reactions to High Levels of Stress 378 Stressors 379 EXERCISE 11.2 My Stress-Related Illnesses 380 Optimal Levels of Stress 381 Long-Term Distress 381 EXERCISE 11.3 Events and Self-Talk as Stressors 383 Burn-Out 385 EXERCISE 11.4 A Time When I Burned Out 386 Structural Causes of Burn-Out 386 Managing Stress and Preventing Burn-Out 388 Goal Setting and Time Management 388 Relaxation 388 Exercise 389 Taking Care of Your Physical Self 390 Social Support Groups 390 Talking to Others 390 Positive Thinking 390 Changing Stress-Producing Thoughts 391 Law of Attraction 392 EXERCISE 11.5 Qualities I Admire in Others 392 Changing or Adapting to Distressing Events 393 Personal Pleasures 393 EXERCISE 11.6 Stress Management Techniques for Me 394 Time Management 394 Setting and Prioritizing Goals and Tasks 395 Set Goals 395 Prioritize Goals 395 List Tasks for A Goals 396 Prioritize Tasks 396 Schedule Tasks 396 EXERCISE 11.7 My High-Value Goals and Tasks 397 Time-Saver Tips 398 Planning Tomorrow 398 Concentrated Study 398 Best Use of Time 398 Writing Papers and Reports 398 Physical Environment 399 Saying “No” Assertively 399 Deadlines 399 Avoid “Shoulds” 399 Be Optimistic 399 Amount of Sleep 399 Relaxation 399 Other Study Hints 399 Overcoming Procrastination 399 EXERCISE 11.8 My Time-Savers 400 Swiss Cheese Approach 400 EXERCISE 11.9 Ending My Procrastination 401 Other Suggestions 402 Advantages of Time Management 402 Summary 403 Group Exercises 404 EXERCISE A Resolving Current Stressors 404 EXERCISE B Relaxing Through Meditation 404 EXERCISE C Setting High-Value Goals and Tasks 406 EXERCISE D Time Diagram 407 EXERCISE E Ending Procrastination 408 EXERCISE F Internal Prime Time 408 CHAPTER 12 Treatment Groups 410 Starting, Leading, and Ending Treatment Groups 410 Preparation and Homework 410 EXERCISE 12.1 My Concerns About Participating in a Treatment Group 412 EXERCISE 12.2 My Concerns About Co-Facilitating a Treatment Group 414 Relaxing Before Starting a Session 414 Cues Upon Entering the Meeting Room 414 Strategies for Working with Hostile, Involuntary Members 415 Seating Arrangements 415 Introductions 416 Clarifying Roles 417 Building Rapport 417 EXERCISE 12.3 The Helper Therapy Principle 418 Exploring Problems in Depth 419 EXERCISE 12.4 Using Tact in Treatment Groups 420 Exploring Alternative Solutions 421 Stages of Group Development 424 Ending a Session 428 Ending a Group 429 Co-Facilitating Treatment Groups 432 Legal Safeguards for Group Facilitators 433 Setting Professional Boundaries with Clients 434 EXERCISE 12.5 Boundaries with Clients 435 The Therapeutic Factors: What It Is That Heals 436 Contents xi Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 21. EXERCISE 12.6 What Causes Positive Changes Through Counseling? 438 Selecting Intervention Strategies: Evidence-Based Practice 438 Summary 440 Group Exercises 440 EXERCISE A Developing Counseling Skills with Role-Playing 440 EXERCISE B Group Treatment in Action 441 EXERCISE C Facilitating an Intervention Group 442 EXERCISE D Who Am I? 442 EXERCISE E The Miracle Workers 444 EXERCISE F Clients I Would Find Difficult to Work With 445 EXERCISE G Feeling Good About Ourselves 445 EXERCISE H Self-Fulfilling Prophecies 446 CHAPTER 13 Treatment Groups with Diverse and Vulnerable Populations 449 Introduction 449 Working with Adolescents in Groups 450 EXERCISE 13.1 Anger Management Group 453 EXERCISE 13.2 “Own Your C.R.A.P” 455 People Who Have an Eating Disorder 456 EXERCISE 13.3 Body Image Group 458 EXERCISE 13.4 Fear Food Group 460 EXERCISE 13.5 Mirror Reflection Group 461 Group Work with Individuals Impacted by Domestic Violence 462 Group Work with Victims of Domestic Violence 463 Group Work Exercises with Victims of Domestic Violence 464 EXERCISE 13.6 Empowerment Role-Play 464 EXERCISE 13.7 Safety Planning 466 Group Work with Children and Other Witnesses of Domestic Violence 469 Group Work Exercises with Children and Other Witnesses of Domestic Violence 470 EXERCISE 13.8 Feeling Identification Exercise 470 EXERCISE 13.9 Stress Relief and Deep Breathing Exercise 472 Group Work with Offenders of Domestic Violence 474 Group Work Exercises with Offenders 475 EXERCISE 13.10 “Bail Out” Exercise 475 EXERCISE 13.11 Empathy Role-Play 478 People Who Are Grieving 479 Kübler-Ross Model 480 Westberg Model 481 Grief Management in Groups 482 EXERCISE 13.12 Coping with a Loss 483 EXERCISE 13.13 Recognizing Life Is Terminal 485 EXERCISE 13.14 Achieving Closure in a Lost Relationship 489 EXERCISE 13.15 Epitaphs 490 Group Work with Older Adults 491 Introduction 491 How Group Work Can Be Used with Older Adults 492 EXERCISE 13.16 Things That Go Together 495 EXERCISE 13.17 Would You Rather? 497 EXERCISE 13.18 Balloon Pop and Reminisce 498 Summary 499 Group Exercise 500 EXERCISE A Designing a Group Treatment Exercise 500 CHAPTER 14 Termination and Evaluation of a Group 501 Termination 501 EXERCISE 14.1 The Emotions Involved in Leaving a Group That Is Important to You 502 Termination of a Successful Group 503 Termination of an Unsuccessful Group 503 A Member Dropping Out 504 EXERCISE 14.2 The Experience of Being Rejected 505 Transfer of a Member 506 The Leader’s Leaving 506 EXERCISE 14.3 The Experience of a Significant Person Leaving 507 Evaluation 507 Process Evaluation 507 EXERCISE 14.4 Your Process Evaluation of a Group 508 Outcome Evaluation 509 EXERCISE 14.5 Applying Single-Subject Design to Alleviating One of Your Bad Habits 512 EXERCISE 14.6 Applying a Satisfaction Questionnaire to a Group You Participated In 514 Summary 516 Group Exercise 516 EXERCISE A Evaluating and Ending the Class 516 xii Contents Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 22. APPENDIX ONE Group Treatment Theories Resource Manual (GTTRM) 519 Counseling Versus Therapy/Psychotherapy 519 MODULE 1 Rational Therapy in Groups 521 Albert Ellis 521 Theory of Rational Therapy 522 EXERCISE M1.1 Our Self-Talk Causes Our Emotions 523 Changing Unwanted Emotions 525 EXERCISE M1.2 Using Meaningful Activities to Change Unwanted Emotions 526 EXERCISE M1.3 Changing Unwanted Emotions with a Rational Self-Analysis 530 EXERCISE M1.4 Changing Unwanted Emotions by Changing Events 531 EXERCISE M1.5 Changing Unwanted Emotions by Abusing Alcohol, Other Drugs, or Food 532 Assessing and Changing Dysfunctional Behavior 533 What Really Causes Psychological Changes via Psychotherapy? 534 EXERCISE M1.6 Our Actions Are Determined by Our Thoughts 535 EXERCISE M1.7 The Key Therapeutic Change Agent 537 Using Rational Therapy in Groups 538 Summary 539 Group Exercises 539 EXERCISE A Changing Unwanted Emotions with Self-Talk 539 EXERCISE B Writing a Rational Self-Analysis 540 EXERCISE C Using Positive Affirmations 540 EXERCISE D Assessing and Changing Dysfunctional Behavior 541 EXERCISE E Improving Your Self-Concept 541 MODULE 2 Behavior Therapy in Groups 543 Types of Learning Processes 544 EXERCISE M2.1 Operant Conditioning 545 EXERCISE M2.2 Pavlovian Conditioning 546 EXERCISE M2.3 Modeling 547 Theory of Behavior Therapy 547 Behavior Therapy Techniques 548 Assertiveness Training 548 Token Economies 552 EXERCISE M2.4 Becoming Assertive 553 EXERCISE M2.5 Token Economy 555 Behavioral Contracting 556 Cognitive Behavior Techniques 557 EXERCISE M2.6 Contingency Contracting 558 EXERCISE M2.7 Applying Thought Stopping and Covert Assertion 563 EXERCISE M2.8 Applying the Diversion Technique 565 EXERCISE M2.9 Applying Reframing 568 Summary 570 Group Exercises 570 EXERCISE A Role-Playing Assertive Behavior 570 EXERCISE B Giving and Receiving Compliments 571 EXERCISE C Expressing Anger Constructively 571 EXERCISE D Identifying and Accepting Personal Rights 572 EXERCISE E Behavioral Contracting 573 EXERCISE F Reframing 574 MODULE 3 Reality Therapy in Groups 575 William Glasser 575 Choice Theory 576 EXERCISE M3.1 Seeking to Change Someone and Being Controlled by Someone 578 EXERCISE M3.2 The Creativity in Our Brains 582 EXERCISE M3.3 The Effects of Nagging and Preaching 583 EXERCISE M3.4 Improving an Unhappy Relationship 585 EXERCISE M3.5 Letting Go of Grudges 586 EXERCISE M3.6 Expressing Our Negative Emotions in Terms of Verbs 587 EXERCISE M3.7 Changing Our Feelings and Improving Somatic Problems 588 Principles of Reality Therapy 589 EXERCISE M3.8 A Mentally Healthy Person 591 EXERCISE M3.9 The Solving Circle 592 EXERCISE M3.10 Symptoms as a Cry for Help 593 Can Our Thoughts Alter Our Genetic Code? 594 Using Reality Therapy in Groups 594 Summary 594 Group Exercise 595 EXERCISE A Mental Illness Debate 595 MODULE 4 Dialectical Behavior Therapy in Groups 596 Introduction and History 596 Case Example 598 What Is Dialectical Behavior Therapy? 598 DBT Groups 602 Mindfulness Skills 603 Moment to Pause 603 Wise Mind 604 One Mind 604 Turtling 604 Focused Breathing 604 Effectiveness 604 Contents xiii Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 23. Radical Acceptance 604 Nonjudgmental 605 Willingness 605 Middle Path 605 Emotional Regulation Skills 605 Lemons to Lemonade 605 Opposite Emotion 605 Ride the Wave 606 Please Master 606 Distress Tolerance Skills 606 Self-Soothe First Aid Kit 606 Crisis Survival Network 607 Half-Smile 607 Dear Man 607 Give 608 Making Repairs 608 Broken Record 608 Skill Group Example: Lemons to Lemonade Skill Group 608 Behavior Chain Analysis 609 Vulnerability 609 EXERCISE M4.1 Lemons to Lemonade 611 Precipitating Event 611 Thoughts, Feelings, and Actions 611 Consequences 612 Alternative Strategies and Vulnerability Reduction 612 Behavior Chain Analysis Example 612 EXERCISE M4.2 Conducting a Behavior Analysis 613 Summary 615 Group Exercise 615 EXERCISE A Conducting Your Own DBT Skills Group 615 APPENDIX TWO Answers to Group Exercises D–F in Chapter 6 619 Notes 621 Index 635 xiv Contents Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 24. Preface What inspired this book? In the spring of 1983, I was teaching my first group work course to an undergraduate social work class. Before the start of the semester, I wrote a number of lectures about group dynamics and how groups are used in social work prac- tice with socialization groups, task groups, decision-making and problem-solving groups, self-help groups, and therapy groups. At the start of the semester, I dutifully be- gan giving these lectures. Soon, however, I began sensing that the lectures were not being well received. During the third week, a student stayed after class and said, “I’m afraid this may hurt my grade, but most of the students in this class feel that you can’t teach a group work class with only lectures. The only way students will learn how to run groups is by having the experience (in class or out of class) of leading groups.” I thought about it for a few days and decided the student was exactly right. With the students’ consent, I rede- signed the whole course, with the basic thrust being to have the students take turns in leading the class on group work topics that we mutually agreed upon. Because at that time there was no social work group text to facilitate this process, I attempted to write one. The first edition of this text was published in 1985. The basic assumption of this text is that the best way for students to learn how to run groups is by leading groups in class. The classroom thus becomes a laboratory for students to practice and develop their group leadership skills. This text is designed to facilitate this laboratory approach to undergraduate and graduate group work courses. This edition provides a number of opportunities for students to gain proficiency in social group work skills through the inclusion of numerous “skill-building” exercises in various sections of each chapter. The title of this text, Social Work with Groups: A Comprehensive Worktext, reflects this emphasis on using skill-building exercises to facilitate student development of group leadership skills. A major focus of this edition is to provide text content and skill-building exercises that focus on students acquiring the 10 competencies and 41 practice behaviors of the 2008 EPAS (Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards) of the Council on So- cial Work Education (CSWE). The advantage of using the exercises from this workbook is that the exercises are explicitly connected to the competencies and practice behaviors of 2008 EPAS. In ad- dition, there is an assessment process in this workbook that will facilitate the evalua- tion of students on the extent to which they are attaining the competencies and practice behaviors of 2008 EPAS. The higher a student is assessed in attaining these competencies and practice behaviors, the more likely it is that the student is becoming a competent social worker. A table that identifies the chapters in the text and the practice exercises in this workbook that relate to the 41 practice behaviors in 2008 EPAS can be found on the inside covers of the text. (Students will progress in devel- oping the knowledge, skills, and values needed for becoming a competent social worker by conscientiously completing these exercises.) An additional advantage of this text is that it may be used in preparing self-study documents for accreditation—as documentation that the course in which Social Work with Groups is being used is covering the competencies and practice behaviors of 2008 EPAS. Coverage is provided with text content and with exercises. xv Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 25. Plan of the Book Each chapter is designed according to the following format: 1. The learning objectives of the chapter are stated. 2. Theoretical material is presented on how the learning objectives can be achieved. If the learning objective is to learn how to handle disruptive members of a group, for example, the chapter describes appropriate strategies. 3. Several “skill-building” exercises are then interspersed throughout each chapter, and also at the end of each chapter. These exercises give students practice in acquiring the skills described in the chapter. At the end of the book is a Group Treatment Theories Resource Manual (GTTRM). To highlight the uniqueness of the GTTRM, material is presented in modules rather than chapters. This GTTRM presents prominent theories of counseling that are widely used by social workers in working with treatment groups. Using the Book After the instructor covers the introductory material contained in the first chapter, it is suggested that students (either individually or in small groups) take turns preparing and conducting future class sessions by summarizing the theoretical material in the chapters and leading the class in related exercises. (Students may also be given the opportunity to select a topic not covered in the text.) The skill-building exercises in this text may be used in a variety of ways. The as- signed leader (who may be the instructor, a student, or a small group of students) for a chapter may use the exercises in the following ways: (1) The assigned leader may request that the other students complete certain exercises as a homework assignment prior to the next class period; the exercises are then reviewed when the class next meets. (2) The assigned leader may have the other students complete one or more exercises during the class. (3) The instructor may assign certain exercises as written homework to be submitted for evaluation. (4) The instructor may have each student complete several exercises and then place them in a portfolio, which the instructor may periodically review for evaluation purposes. Students should make their presentations stimulating, interesting, and educational by speaking extemporaneously rather than reading and by adapting chapter topics using personal observations or research. Students should also prepare and distribute handouts that summarize the key points of their presentations and should move around the classroom to maintain and increase the interest of the class. The use of technological resources, such as Microsoft® PowerPoint® , is also suggested. New to This Edition Content has been added on: • Dialectical behavior therapy in groups • Servant leadership • Working with the LGBTIQQ population in groups • Can our thoughts alter our genetic code? • Group work with people who are grieving • Group work with people impacted by domestic violence • Group work with older persons • Group work with people who have an eating disorder • Families coping with chronic disease • Group service-learning projects for college students • A group in a high school • Task groups for Habitat for Humanity xvi Preface Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 26. • Multi-family groups • Working with adolescents in groups • Group therapy with substance use disorders Much of this new content is written by group work practitioners who are contrib- uting authors to this edition. (It is the primary author’s belief that long-time group work practitioners are in the best position to write about how group work can best be used in direct practice in social work.) (NOTE TO FACULTY: TWO ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS ARE PRESENTED AT THE END OF CHAPTER 2 THAT MEASURE THE EXTENT TO WHICH STUDENTS ARE ATTAINING THE COMPETENCIES AND PRACTICE BEHAVIORS SPECIFIED IN 2008 EPAS.) Ancillaries Additional teaching aids are available to instructors through login.cenage.com, includ- ing an Instructor’s Manual and a chapter-by-chapter Test Bank with multiple-choice and true/false questions tagged to EPAS competencies and practice behaviors. In ad- dition, preassembled PowerPoint® lecture slides can be adapted to fit instructors’ classroom needs, and an online Curriculum Quick Guide aligns the material pre- sented in the chapters with EPAS competencies. Acknowledgments A special thank you to the following contributing authors: Crystal S. Aschenbrener, Debra S. Borquist, Katherine Drechsler, Jacob Dunn, Rachel Dunn, Sarah Hessenauer, Karen K. Kirst-Ashman, Craig Mead, Brenda K. Nelson, Ann Petty, Michael Wallace, and Mary Weeden. Vicki Vogel is recognized for helping to prepare the manuscript and for preparing the ancillary materials. I would like to thank the following reviewers who provided suggestions for changes for this edition: Gregg Allinson Beaufort County Community College Brenda Armstrong Clark Benedict College Judith Gray Ball State University Michael Tebbe University of Cincinnati Joanne Whelley Barry University A final thank you to the staff at Cengage Learning for their support and highly professional assistance with the texts I’ve authored. —Charles Zastrow Preface xvii Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 27. About the Author CHARLES ZASTROW, MSW and PhD, is assistant director and professor in the so- cial work program at George Williams College of Aurora University, Williams Bay, Wisconsin. He has worked as a practitioner in a variety of public and private social welfare agencies and has chaired 22 social work accreditation site visit teams for the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). He was, for 6 years, a member of the Commission on Accreditation of CSWE. He is a member of the International Association for Social Work with Groups, the National Association of Social Workers, the Council on Social Work Education, and the NASW Register of Clinical Social Workers. He is licensed as a Clinical Social Worker in Wisconsin. In addition to Social Work with Groups, he has written several other books, including the following textbooks: Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare (11th ed.), The Practice of Social Work (10th ed.), and Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment (9th ed.) (with Dr. Karen Kirst-Ashman). Contributing Authors CRYSTAL S. ASCHENBRENER, MSW Doctoral Student in Social Work George Williams College of Aurora University DEBRA S. BORQUIST, MSSW, APSW Doctoral Student in Social Work George Williams College of Aurora University KATHERINE DRECHSLER, MSW Adjunct Faculty Member University of Wisconsin–Whitewater Doctoral Student in Social Work George Williams College of Aurora University JACOB DUNN, MSW, CAPSW Social Worker Stoughton Hospital Geriatric Unit (Stoughton, WI) Adjunct Instructor George Williams College of Aurora University RACHEL DUNN, MSW, CAPSW Interim Chair of the Social Work Program George Williams College of Aurora University SARAH HESSENAUER, MSW, LCSW, PHD Assistant Professor Social Work Department University of Wisconsin–Whitewater KAREN K. KIRST-ASHMAN, MSW, PHD Professor Emeritus Department of Social Work University of Wisconsin–Whitewater CRAIG MEAD, MHP Rosecrance Rockford, IL BRENDA K. NELSON, LCSW Social worker at a large suburban high school near Chicago Doctoral Student in Social Work George Williams College of Aurora University ANN M. PETTY, MSW, LCSW, CADC Doctoral Student in Social Work George Williams College of Aurora University MICHAEL WALLACE, MSSW, LCSW Clinical Social Worker and Lecturer Social Work Department University of Wisconsin–Whitewater MARY R. WEEDEN, MSW, LCSW Doctoral Candidate, Loyola University Member of International Association of Eating Disorders Professional Foundation (IAEDP) Assistant Professor Concordia University, WI xviii Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 28. CHAPTER 1 Groups: Types and Stages of Development Learning Objectives (LO) Each group develops a unique character or personality because of the principles of group dynamics. This chapter will help prepare students to: LO 1-1 Understand the history of social group work. LO 1-2 Identify the primary types of groups in social work. LO 1-3 Understand four models of group development over time. LO 1-4 Describe the differences between reference groups and membership groups. LO 1-5 Comprehend guidelines on how to conduct classroom exercises. LO 1-6 Apply several ice-breaker exercises. Every social service agency uses groups, and every practicing social worker is involved in a variety of groups. Social work with groups is practiced in adoption agencies, correc- tional settings, halfway houses, substance abuse treatment centers, physical rehabilitation centers, family service agencies, private psychotherapy clinics, mental hospitals, nursing homes, community centers, public schools, and many other social service settings. To effectively serve clients in human service systems today, social workers in generalist prac- tice positions must be trained in group methods. Often, social workers serve as leaders and participants in myriad groups requiring skills ranging from simple to complex. The beginning social worker is likely to be surprised at the diverse groups in existence and excited by the challenge of practicing social work in many different settings. LO 1-1 Understand the History of Social Group Work HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GROUP WORK The roots of group social work began in the settlement houses, the Young Men’s and Young Women’s Christian Associations (YMCAs and YWCAs), Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, and Jewish centers of the 1800s.1 These agencies focused on providing group programs for people considered “normal.” Recipients of early group services came for recreation, informal education, friendship, and social action. Euster notes that these recipients “learned to cooperate and get along with others socially; they enriched themselves through new knowledge, skills, and interests, and the overall state of soci- ety was bettered through responsible involvement in community problems.”2 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 29. Settlement Houses The first settlement house, Toynbee Hall, was established in London in 1884; many others were soon formed in large U.S. cities.3 Many of the early settlement-house workers were daughters of ministers. Usually from middle- and upper-class families, they would live in a poor neighborhood so they could experience the harsh realities of poverty. Using the missionary approach of teaching residents how to live moral lives and improve their circumstances, early settlement workers sought to improve housing, health, and living conditions; find jobs for workers; teach English, hygiene, and occupational skills; and improve living conditions through neighborhood cooperative efforts. The techniques settlement houses used to effect change are now called social group work, social action, and community organization. Settlement houses emphasized “environmental reform,” but they also “continued to struggle to teach the poor the prevailing middle-class values of work, thrift, and abstinence as the keys to success.”4 In addition to dealing with local problems through local action, settlement houses played important roles in drafting legislation and organizing to influence social policy and legislation. The most noted leader in the settlement-house movement was Jane Addams of Hull House in Chicago. She was born in 1860 in Cedarville, Illinois, the daughter of parents who owned a successful flour mill and wood mill.5 After graduating from Rockford Seminary in Rockford, Illinois, she attended medical school briefly but was forced to leave due to illness. She then traveled for a few years in Europe, perplexed as to what her life work should be. At the age of 25, she joined the Presbyterian church, which helped her find a focus for her life: religion, humanitarianism, and serving the poor. (She later joined the Congregational Church, now known as the United Church of Christ.) Addams heard about the establishment of Toynbee Hall in England and returned to Europe to study the approach. The staff of college students and graduates, mainly from Oxford, lived in the slums of London to learn conditions firsthand and to improve life there with their own personal resources, including financial ones. Jane Addams returned to the United States and rented a two-story house, later named Hull House, in an impoverished neighborhood in Chicago. With a few friends, Addams initiated a variety of group and individual activities for the community. Group activities included a literature reading group for young women, a kindergarten, and groups that focused on social relationships, sports, music, painting, art, and discussion of current affairs. Hull House also provided services to individuals who needed imme- diate help, such as food, shelter, and information on and referral for other services. A Hull House Social Science Club studied social problems in a scientific manner and then became involved in social action efforts to improve living conditions. This group worked successfully for passage of Illinois legislation to prevent the employment of children in sweatshops. Addams also became interested in the various ethnic groups in the neighborhood. She was fairly successful in bringing the various nationalities to- gether at Hull House, where they could interact and exchange cultural values. The success of Hull House served as a model for the establishment of settlement houses in other areas of Chicago and many other large cities in the United States. Settlement-house leaders believed that by changing neighborhoods, they could improve communities, and by altering communities, they could develop a better society. For her extraordinary contributions, Jane Addams received the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1931. Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) The founder of the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA), George Williams,6 was born and reared on a small farm in England. He stopped attending school at the age of 13 to work on his father’s farm, but at 14, he became an apprentice to a draper (a manufacturer and dealer of cloth and woolen materials) and learned the trade. He grew up in a religious environment and joined the Congregational Church at the age of 16. At 20, he moved to London and worked for another drapery firm. 2 CHAPTER ONE Groups: Types and Stages of Development Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 30. Like Williams, the business owner, George Hitchcock, was deeply religious and allowed his new employee to organize prayer meetings at work. The size of the prayer circle gradually grew, and the meetings featured Bible read- ing as well as prayers. The success of this group inspired Williams and his associates to organize similar groups at other drapers’ establishments. The prayer circle Williams formed with 12 fellow employees marked the beginning of YMCAs. In 1844, the resulting prayer circles at 14 businesses formed an association called the Young Men’s Christian Association. Each group conducted weekly religious services that included prayer, Bible readings, and discussions of spiritual topics. The YMCA soon began to expand its activities. Prominent speakers from various fields of public and scholarly life addressed its members. An office was selected, and Protestant clergy in France, Holland, and other countries were persuaded to form YMCAs. Gradually, the programs were expanded to meet the unique needs of the communities in which the YMCAs were located. In 1851, Thomas V. Sullivan, a retired mariner, picked up a religious weekly in Boston and read about the YMCA movement in London.7 Sullivan gathered a few friends and established the first YMCA in the United States. Similar to the London association, the U.S. movement spread quickly to other communities. In only 7 years, YMCAs were serving communities throughout the United States. The U.S. YMCA had many firsts. It was the first organization to aid troops during wartime in the field and in prison camps. It pioneered community sports and athletics, invented volleyball and basketball, and taught water safety and swimming. It devised an international program of social service similar to that of the Peace Corps. It originated group recreational camping, developed night schools and adult education, initiated widespread nondenominational Christian work for college stu- dents, and reached out to assist foreign students. From an origin that involved a nar- rowly focused religious objective, YMCAs have expanded their objectives in a variety of directions. The success of YMCAs helped spur the first Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA), formed in Boston in 1866.8 LO 1-2 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work TYPES OF GROUPS There are a variety of groups that occur in social work—social conversation, recrea- tion skill building, educational, task, problem solving and decision making, focus, self-help, socialization, treatment, and sensitivity and encounter training. According to Johnson and Johnson, a group may be defined as two or more individuals in face-to-face interaction, each aware of positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goals, each aware of his or her membership in the group, and each aware of the others who belong to the group.9 Social Conversation Social conversation is often employed to determine what kind of relationship might develop with people we do not know very well. Because talk is often loose and tends to drift aimlessly, there is usually no formal agenda for social conversations. If the topic of conversation is dull, the subject can simply be changed. Although individuals may have a goal (perhaps only to establish an acquaintanceship), such goals need not become the agenda for the entire group. In social work, social conversation with other professionals is frequent, but groups involving clients generally have objectives other than conversation, such as resolving personal problems. Recreation/Skill Building Recreational groups may be categorized as informal recreational groups or skill-building recreational groups. Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 3 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 31. A recreational group service agency (such as the YMCA, YWCA, or neighbor- hood center) may offer little more than physical space and the use of some equip- ment to provide activities for enjoyment and exercise. Often activities such as playground games and informal athletics are spontaneous, and the groups are prac- tically leaderless. Some agencies claim that recreation and interaction with others help to build character and prevent delinquency among youths by providing an al- ternative to street life. In contrast to informal recreational groups, a skill-building recreational group has an increased focus on tasks and is guided by an adviser, coach, or instructor. The objective is to improve a set of skills in an enjoyable way. Examples of activities in- clude arts and crafts, and sports such as golf, basketball, and swimming, which may develop into competitive team sports with leagues. These groups are frequently led by professionals with recreational training rather than social work training, and the agen- cies involved include the YMCA, YWCA, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, neighborhood cen- ters, and school recreational departments. Education While the topics covered vary widely, all educational groups teach specialized skills and knowledge, such as classes on childrearing, stress management, parenting, En- glish as a foreign language, and assertiveness training. Orientations offered by social service organizations to train volunteers fall into this category as well. Educational groups usually have a classroom atmosphere, involving considerable group interac- tion and discussion; a professional person with expertise in the area, often a social worker, assumes the role of teacher. Task Task groups are formed to achieve a specific set of tasks or objectives. The follow- ing examples are types of task groups that social workers are apt to interact with or become involved in. A board of directors is an administrative group charged with responsibility for setting the policy governing agency programs. A task force is a group established for a special purpose and is usually disbanded after the task is completed. A committee of an agency or organization is a group that is formed to deal with specific tasks or matters. An ad hoc committee, like a task force, is set up for one purpose and usually ceases functioning after completion of its task. Problem Solving and Decision Making Both providers and consumers of social services may become involved in groups con- cerned with problem solving and decision making. (There is considerable overlap be- tween task groups and these groups; in fact, problem-solving and decision-making groups can be considered a subcategory of task groups.) Social service providers use group meetings for objectives such as developing a treatment plan for a client or a group of clients, or deciding how best to allocate scarce resources. Potential consumers of services may form a group to meet a current community need. Data on the need may be gathered, and the group may be used as a vehicle either to develop a program or to influence existing agencies to provide ser- vices. Social workers may function as stimulators and organizers of these group efforts. In problem-solving and decision-making groups, each participant normally has some interest or stake in the process and stands to gain or lose personally by the out- come. Usually, there is a formal leader, and other leaders sometimes emerge during the process. 4 CHAPTER ONE Groups: Types and Stages of Development Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 32. A Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Group: Family Group Conferencing The family group conferencing approach with abused or neglected children originated in New Zealand. The approach has now been adopted in many other countries, including in the United States. When evidence of child abuse by child protective services or the police has been documented, some child protective services agencies are now offering the parents of the affected children the option of using the family group conferencing approach to attempt to improve the parenting and end future abuse. The process is first explained to the parents. If the parents agree to involve their extended kinship network in planning, the process is then implemented. The family decision-making conference is facili- tated by a professional person (often associated with child protective services). The professional person is usually called the “family group coordinator.” Three characteristics are central to family group conferencing: 1. Family is widely defined to include extended fam- ily members, as well as other people who are sig- nificant to the family. 2. The family is given the opportunity to prepare the plan. 3. The professionals involved with the family must agree to the plan unless it is thought to place the child at risk. The coordinator prepares and plans for the first meeting of the extended family. Such planning may take weeks. Downs, Moore, McFadden, and Costin describe the initial planning process: This involves working with the family; identifying concerned parties and members of the extended kinship network; clarifying their roles and inviting them to a family group meeting; establishing the location, time, and other logistics; and managing other unresolved issues. At the meeting the coor- dinator welcomes and introduces participants in a culturally appropriate manner, establishes the pur- pose of the meeting, and helps participants reach agreement about roles, goals, and ground rules. Next, information is shared with the family, which may involve the child protection workers and other relevant professionals such as a doctor or teacher involved with the child.a In the New Zealand model, the coordinator and other professional withdraw from the meeting in the next stage to allow the family privacy for their deliberations. (Some programs in the United States and other countries allow the coordinator to remain in the meeting.) The kinship network makes plans to respond to the issues that are raised, including developing a plan for the safety and the care of the child. The coordinator and/or protective services retain the right to veto a family plan if they believe the child will not be protected. (In reality, a veto is rarely used.) Several meetings (over several days) may be neces- sary to develop the family plan. Downs and colleagues summarize the challenges faced by social workers with this approach: Working with family group decision making re- quires a new approach to family-centered practice. The social worker must expand his or her ideas about the family to recognize the strength and cen- trality of the extended kinship network, particu- larly in communities of color. Use of the strengths perspective is critical. The worker must understand the greater investment of kin in the well-being of the child and should also understand that, even when parts of the kinship system may seem to be compromised or dysfunctional, the healthier kin- folk can assess and deal with the problem. One of the greatest challenges for the social worker is in- corporating the sharing of power or returning of power to the kinship network. Many social workers trained as family therapists or child welfare workers have assumed a power role and may find it difficult to relinquish a sense of control.b There are several advantages of family group con- ferencing. It facilitates getting the extended family in- volved in meeting the needs of the abused/neglected child or children and in meeting the needs of their par- ents. It reduces government intervention in people’s lives. It recognizes the strengths of kinship networks to provide assistance to at-risk families. It reduces the num- ber of children placed in foster homes. (Frequently, with this approach one or more extended family members temporarily take in the child, giving the parents an op- portunity to receive whatever they need to become more stable and to learn better parenting skills.) Family group conferencing has also been adapted to respond to other family issues, such as families with an adjudicated delinquent. a Susan W. Downs, Ernestine Moore, Emily J. McFadden, and Lela B. Costin, Child Welfare and Family Services, 6th ed. (Boston: Allyn Bacon, 2000), p. 295. b Ibid., 295. Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 5 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 33. Focus Focus groups are closely related to task groups and problem-solving and decision- making groups. They may be formed for a variety of purposes, including (1) to iden- tify needs or issues, (2) to generate proposals that resolve an identified issue, and (3) to test reactions to alternative approaches to an issue. A focus group is A group convened to discuss a specific issue or single topic, often with the aid of ques- tionnaires and a moderator who actively keeps the conversation oriented to that topic. Such groups are often established to acquire information and generate ideas that would not be as accessible through individual interviews.10 A Self-Help Group: Parents Anonymous Parents Anonymous (PA), a national self-help organiza- tion for parents who have abused or neglected their chil- dren, was established in 1970 by Jolly K. in California. For 4 years before forming the group, Jolly had struggled with an uncontrollable urge to severely punish her daughter. One afternoon she attempted to strangle the child. Des- perate, she sought help from a local child-guidance clinic and was placed in therapy. When asked by her therapist what she could do about her problem, Jolly developed an idea. As she explained, “If alcoholics could stop drinking by getting together, and gamblers could stop gambling, maybe the same principle would work for [child] abusers, too.” With her therapist’s encouragement she formed “Mothers Anonymous” in 1970 and organized a few chap- ters in California. Nearly every major city in the United States and Canada now has a chapter, and the name has been changed to Parents Anonymous because fathers who abuse their children are also eligible to join. PA is a crisis intervention program that offers two main forms of help: a weekly group meeting and per- sonal and telephone contact. Members share experi- ences and feelings during weekly meetings and learn to better control their emotions. During periods of cri- sis, personal and telephone contact is especially impor- tant, particularly when a member feels a nearly uncontrollable desire to take anger or frustration out on a child. Parents may be referred to PA by a social agency (including protective services) or be self- referred as parents who recognize that they need help. Cassie Starkweather and S. Michael Turner de- scribe why abusive parents would rather participate in a self-help group than receive professional counseling: It has been our experience that most [abusive] parents judge themselves more harshly than other, more objective people tend to judge them. The fear of losing their children frequently diminishes with reassurance from other members that they are not the monsters they think they are. Generally speaking, PA members are so afraid they are going to be judged by others as harshly as they judge themselves that they are afraid to go out and seek help. Frequently our members ex- press fears of dealing with a professional person, seeing differences in education, sex, or social sta- tus as basic differences that would prevent easy communication or mutual understanding. Members express feelings of gratification at finding that other parents are “in the same boat.” They contrast this with their feelings about profes- sionals who, they often assume, have not taken out the time from their training and current job responsibilities to raise families of their own.a PA emphasizes honesty and directness, as parents who are prone to abuse their children have learned to hide this problem because society finds it difficult to acknowledge. In contrast to society’s tendency to deny the problem, the goal of PA is to help parents admit that they are abusive. The term abuse is used liberally at meetings, and this insistence on frankness has a healthy effect on members. Abusive parents are relieved because they have finally found a group of people able to accept them as they are. Furthermore, only when they are able to admit they are abusive can they begin to find ways to heal themselves. During meetings, parents are expected to actually admit to beating their child or engaging in other forms of abuse, and the members challenge each other to find ways to curb these activities. Members share construc- tive approaches to anger and other abuse-precipitating emotions and help each other develop specific plans for dealing with situations that have resulted in abusive episodes. Members learn to recognize danger signs and to take action to avoid abuse. Leadership is provided by a group member se- lected by other members. The leader, called a chairper- son, is normally assisted by a professional sponsor who serves as resource and back-up person to the chair and the group. The social worker who assumes the role of sponsor must be prepared to perform a variety of func- tions, including teacher-trainer, broker of community services needed by parents, advocate, consultant, and counselor.b Source: Adapted from Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare, 8th ed., by Zastrow. © 2004. Reprinted with permis- sion of Brooks/Cole. a Cassie L. Starkweather and S. Michael Turner, “Parents Anonymous: Reflections on the Development of a Self-Help Group,” in Child Abuse: Intervention and Treatment, eds. Nancy C. Ebeling and Deborah A. Hill (Acton, MA: Publishing Sciences Group, 1975), p. 151. b Check the parents Anonymous website at http://parents anonymous.org. 6 CHAPTER ONE Groups: Types and Stages of Development Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 34. Two examples of a focus group are a nominal group (described in Chapter 4) and a brainstorming session (described in Chapter 6). A representative group is another version of a focus group. Its strength is that its members have been selected specifically to represent different perspectives and points of view in a community. At best, the representative group is a focus group that re- flects the cleavages in the community and seeks to bring diverse views to the table; at worst, it is a front group for people who seek to make the community think it has been involved. Self-Help and Mutual Aid Self-help groups are increasingly popular and often successful in helping individuals overcome social or personal problems. Katz and Bender provide a comprehensive definition: Self-help groups are voluntary, small group structures . . . usually formed by peers who have come together for mutual assistance in satisfying a common need, overcoming a common handicap or life-disrupting problem, and bringing about desired social and/or personal change. The initiators and members of such groups perceive that their needs are not, or cannot be, met by or through existing social institutions. . . . They often provide material assistance as well as emotional support, they are frequently “cause”- oriented, and promulgate an ideology or [set of] values through which members may attain an enhanced sense of personal identity.11 Alcoholics Anonymous, developed by two recovering alcoholics, was the first self- help group to demonstrate substantial success. In Self-Help Organizations and Profes- sional Practice, Powell describes numerous self-help groups that are now active.12 Closely related to self-help groups are mutual-aid groups, and the terms are sometimes interchangeable. Mutual-aid groups are informal or formal associations of people who share certain problems and meet regularly in small groups with profes- sional leaders to provide emotional support, information, assistance in problem solving, and other help for each other. Many self-help groups use individual confession and testimony techniques. Each member explains his or her problem and recounts related experiences and plans for handling the problem. When a member encounters a crisis (for example, an abusive parent having an urge to abuse a child), he or she is encouraged to call another group member, who helps the person cope. Having experienced the misery and conse- quences of the problem, group members are highly dedicated to helping themselves and their fellow sufferers. The participants also benefit from the “helper therapy” principle; that is, the helper gains psychological rewards.13 Helping others makes a person feel worthwhile, enabling the person to put his or her own problems into perspective. Most self-help groups are “direct service” in that they help members with individ- ual problems. Other self-help groups work on community-wide issues and tend to be more social-action oriented. Some direct service self-help groups attempt to change legislation and policy in public and private institutions. Others (parents of children with a cognitive disability, for example) also raise funds and operate community pro- grams. However, many people with personal problems use self-help groups in the same way others use social agencies. An additional advantage of self-help groups is that they generally operate with a minimal budget. (For further discussion, see Chapter 8.) Socialization The primary objective of most socialization groups is to develop attitudes and beha- viors in group members that are more socially acceptable.14 Developing social skills, increasing self-confidence, and planning for the future are other focuses. Leadership roles in socialization groups are frequently filled by social workers who work with groups for predelinquent youths to curb delinquency; youths of diverse racial back- grounds to reduce racial tensions; and pregnant, unmarried young females to help them make plans for the future. Elderly residents in nursing homes are often Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 7 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 35. remotivated by socialization groups and become involved in various activities. Teen- agers at correctional schools are helped to make plans for returning to their home community. Leadership of all the groups mentioned in this section requires consider- able skills and knowledge to help the group to foster individual growth and change. Treatment Treatment groups are generally composed of members with severe emotional, behav- ioral, and personal problems. Leaders of such groups must have superb counseling and group leadership skills, including the ability to accurately perceive the core of each member’s response to what is being communicated. Group leaders must also have the personal capacities to develop and maintain a constructive atmosphere within a group. As in one-on-one counseling, the goal of treatment groups is to have members explore their problems in depth and then develop strategies for resolv- ing them. Three treatment approaches (reality therapy, behavior therapy, and rational therapy) are described in the Group Treatment Theories Resource Manual (located at the end of the text). These three treatment approaches can be used to change dys- functional behaviors and unwanted emotions of group members. In summary, to be a competent group therapist, the professional should have su- perb interviewing and counseling skills, a working knowledge of the principles of group dynamics (described in Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 of this text), and a work- ing knowledge of contemporary therapy approaches, three of which are described in the Group Treatment Theories Resource Manual, located at the end of this text. Group treatment has several advantages over one-on-one therapy. The “helper” therapy principle generally is operative. Members at times interchange roles and be- come the helper for someone else, receiving psychological rewards and putting their own problems into perspective in the process. Group treatment also allows members with interaction problems to test new approaches. In addition, research has shown it is generally easier to change the attitudes of an individual in a group than one on one.15 Group treatment permits a social worker to treat more than one person at a time and represents a substantial savings of professional time. (See “Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders”.) COMMON TYPES OF TREATMENT GROUPS* Social workers are likely to encounter treatment groups in a wide variety of settings, such as outpatient mental health clinics, community-based social service agencies, in- patient psychiatric units, intensive outpatient programs, substance abuse programs, residential programs, domestic violence programs, special education programs, thera- peutic day schools, veteran programs, day treatment programs, correctional institu- tions, juvenile justice programs, and other institutional programs. Most treatment groups in these settings are based upon a recovery model emphasizing that clients can achieve long-term recovery from serious mental illness, developmental and social problems, and behavioral health issues. This recovery is facilitated and achieved through skill building and psychosocial rehabilitation, which improves clients’ abili- ties to self-manage symptoms and problems in their current environment. These groups are often called psychosocial rehabilitation or community support groups and focus on changing behavior, skill building, and increasing natural supports. Groups are frequently structured using cognitive and behavioral therapy approaches (see modules at end of text), and facilitators are often given substantial latitude as to the content and structure of specific group sessions. Next we’ll look at some of the more common treatment groups social workers may encounter and be asked to facil- itate. The types of groups an agency provides and the group names used will vary depending on agency, mission, population, and client needs. *This material was written by Craig Mead, Mental Health Professional, Rosecrance, Rockford, IL. 8 CHAPTER ONE Groups: Types and Stages of Development Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 36. Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders* Advantages of Group Treatment Group therapy is one of the therapeutic tools used for treating people with substance use disorders. A benefit of using groups for treating people with substance use disorders is that groups intrinsically reduce feelings of isolation of group members, and participation in the group allows members of the group to realize that they are not the only ones dealing with the process of recov- ery. These qualities experienced by the group members can draw them into the culture of recovery. People who abuse substances often are more likely to remain absti- nent and committed to recovery when treatment is pro- vided in groups, because of rewarding and therapeutic forces such as affiliation, confrontation, support, gratifi- cation, and identification. Groups provide positive peer support and pressure to abstain from substances of abuse. Another reason groups work as a mode of treat- ment for substance use is that factors associated with substance use, such as depression, isolation, and shame, can be addressed. Great emphasis is placed on interper- sonal process within the groups, which helps substance use clients resolve problems in relating to other people, problems that they may have attempted to avoid by means of addictive substances.a Defining Therapeutic Group Models in Substance Use Treatment Five models ofgroups areused insubstance usetreatment: • Psychoeducational groups • Skills-development groups • Cognitive-behavioral groups • Support groups • Interpersonal process group psychotherapy Treatment providers routinely use the first four models and various combinations of them. Interpersonal pro- cess groups are not widely used because of the extensive training required to lead these groups and also the long duration to complete this type of group. This demands a high level of commitment from both the providers and the clients.b The major purpose of psychoeducational groups is to create and expand awareness about the behavioral, medical, and psychological consequences of substance use. This type of group is very structured and presents group-specific content. The information presented is designed to have a direct application to the clients’ lives to help instill self-awareness. This self- awareness presents options for growth and change, identifies community resources that can assist in the recovery process, and attempts to motivate clients to take action on their own to attend treatment. An exam- ple of a psychoeducational group activity would be to have group members read and discuss a handout on the potential physiological effects of alcohol.c Skills-development groups are primarily developed from a cognitive-behavioral approach. This approach is most often used in conjunction with psychoeducational elements. The most common type of skills-development group is one that teaches and helps group members de- velop coping skills. These skills may be directly related to substance use, such as learning refusal skills when offered drugs, or to broader areas in the client’s life such as ways to manage anger or anxiety. Many of the skills that people with substance use need to develop are interpersonal in nature, so group therapy is a place for them to practice these skills.d Cognitive-behavioral groups identify that the sub- stance use of the individual is a learned behavior that can be modified through various interventions. These in- terventions include identification of conditioned stimuli associated with the specific addictive behaviors, avoid- ance of such stimuli, development of enhanced contingency management strategies, and response- desensitization. The cognitive-behavioral group works to change the learned behavior by changing thinking pat- terns, beliefs, and perceptions (see Modules 1 and 3). The group activities help the individual develop social net- works that will help support the individual’s recovery. Cognitions developed by psychological elements such as thoughts, beliefs, decisions, opinions, and assumptions are challenged and strategies are learned to change these thought patterns. Cognitive-behavioral groups are most helpful in the beginning stages of recovery.e Participation in support groups help members strengthen their ability to manage their thinking and emotions and to develop interpersonal skills by interact- ing with group members. Group members help each other out by discussing pragmatic concerns members may currently be having. An example of this would be group members coaching an individual on how to man- age current triggers of wanting to use substance as a way of coping. These groups are used to improve group mem- bers’ self-esteem and self-confidence. Group leaders and group members offer words of support and encourage- ment to each other. Support groups can be found in all stages of substance use treatment. Learning specific recov- ery tools, such as relapse-prevention skills, can be the basis of forming a substance use support group.f Interpersonal process groups use psychodynam- ics, or knowledge of the way people function psycho- logically, to promote change in substance use recovery. The psychodynamic approach recognizes that unre- solved conflicts in the mind (some that may be out of the person’s awareness), may be influencing the per- son’s behavior. Early experiences in the person’s life may be influencing the person’s substance use. The in- dividual’s perceptions may be distorting his or her real- ity, and behaviors, such as the use of a substance, may be chosen to deal with the situation.g (continued) Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 9 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 37. Stages-of-Change Therapy for Substance Users The stages-of-change therapy model can be used for group therapy for substance users. This model uses the transtheoretical model of change to describe how people make successful changes in their lives. The transtheoret- ical model of change is based on research completed by Prochaska and Diclemente.h This model agrees that change does not happen all at once and it takes time and energy to change. This model notes five distinct stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance. (See “Motivational Interviewing” in Chapter 12 for an expanded description of this approach.) Treatment strategies for the group are based on the stages-of-change model. It is important for the leaders of the group to be aware of the stages of change, determine what stage of change group members are in, and then develop activities to motivate individuals to move along the stages of change.i The change process starts with an individual not knowing that a change needs to take place. This stage is called the precontemplation stage. In this stage sub- stance abuse users do not see their using as a problem. If there is a problem, the person is probably ignoring it or does not consider the problem as something that is im- portant. When the problem can no longer be ignored, for example, a partner no longer wants to be with the user because of the using behavior, the individual may begin to consider that he or she needs to do something about his or her using. This stage is seen as the contem- plation stage of change. If the problem continues to grow and the individual begins to make plans to change, this is considered the preparation stage of the change process. When individuals start the action stage of change, their mental, physical, and social forces have been organized and they begin to take steps to make the change. If the clients continue to maintain the change, it is said that they are in the maintenance stage of change. This model does expect and prepares for in- dividuals to possibly go back to the problem behavior.j Exercise: “A Day in the Life” An example of an exercise that could be completed in a group setting with clients who are in the precontempla- tion or contemplation stage of change with their sub- stance use is as follows: Goal The name of the exercise is called “A Day in the Life.” The change-process objective for the exercise is for group members to raise consciousness of their drinking during the day. This exercise helps raise consciousness about the quantity and frequency of their substance use. Clients in the early stages of change are often unaware of how much and how often they are drinking. Students could complete this exercise by thinking about some- thing that they would like to change in their lives. Step 1 The facilitator of the group explains in a nonthreaten- ing way that sometimes it is difficult for people to real- ize how much they are using in a day. Step 2 The facilitator hands out a worksheet and has the cli- ents answer the following questions: describe your use from the time you wake up in the morning until around noon; describe your using from noon until early evening; and describe your use from around 6 p.m. until you go to bed. Students could answer the same questions about the identified behavior that they would like to change. Step 3 Ask the clients to discuss what they have learned about their substance use by doing the exercise. Discuss with the group members when this use may be less or may be more. Students could discuss what they have learned about their desired behavior they want to change and reflect on what they learned about the du- ration and the frequency of the behavior they would like to change. Students could discuss the importance of raising consciousness of a behavior in the early stages of the change process.k * This material was written by Katherine Drechsler and Dr. Sarah Hessenauer. Ms. Drechsler is an adjunct faculty member at the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater, and is a doctoral student in social work at George Williams College. Dr. Hessenauer is an Assistant Professor in the Social Work Department at the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater. a J. Harris and R. Hill, Principles and Practice of Group Work in Addictions (New York: Routledge, 2011). b Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Substance Abuse Treatment: Group Therapy (Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2005). (Treatment Improvement Protocol [TIP] Series, No. 41.) Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK64220/. c Ibid. d Ibid. e Ibid. f Ibid. g Ibid. h J. O. Prochaska and C. C. DiClemente, “Trans-Theoretical Therapy: Toward a More Integrative Model of Change,” Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 19(3) (1982): 276–288. i C. Crouch, C. DiClemente, G. Maner, and M. Velasquez, Group Treatment for Substance Abuse: A Stages-of-Change Therapy Manual (New York: The Guilford Press, 2001). j Ibid. k Ibid. Group Therapy with Substance Use Disorders (continued) 10 CHAPTER ONE Groups: Types and Stages of Development Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 38. Psycho-Educational Groups Psycho-educational groups are becoming increasingly common in many community- based agencies and institutional settings. These groups are designed to educate and empower clients, families, caregivers, and support systems to be able to better manage client’s psychiatric symptoms, mental illness, or behavioral health problems. They often center on a specific diagnosis, such as depression, anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance dependence, or obsessive-compulsive disorder. The primary goal is to educate and improve understanding about common symptoms, recognize early warning signs, improve symptom management, and enhance relapse prevention, effective intervention, coping skills, and effective supports. An additional goal is to improve insight, which enhances recovery, reduces inpatient hospitalizations, and improves family stress leaves and well-being. Sometimes psycho-educational groups are specifically geared toward family members and client support systems. Often these are facilitated self-help groups that emphasize peer support and encouragement. For example, an ADHD parents group would focus on educating parents on symp- toms to improve their ability to distinguish true symptoms from other oppositional, defiant, or age-appropriate behaviors. Parents also benefit from hearing about others’ struggles and may subsequently feel less self-blame and alienation. They can provide each other encouragement and support and share successful parenting skills and behavior interventions. Symptom Management Groups Symptom management groups focus on helping individuals cope with specific types of disorders. These groups are structured for people who struggle with spe- cific diagnoses, such as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder, borderline personality, ADHD, or addictions. For example, a depression group would focus on specific symptoms and issues that are unique to people who struggle with depression. Often they include a signifi- cant psycho-educational segment and then focus on skill improvement. Skill instruction is tailored to the unique needs of the group. These groups frequently focus on improving the use of coping skills and strategies to manage feelings, control impulses, reduce problematic thinking patterns, and effectively solve inter- personal problems. The group process is used to help empower participants to make meaningful changes, view problems in perspective, and enhance their overall well-being. Managing symptoms is viewed as an important action step in the recovery process. Anger Management Groups An anger management group is one of the most common types of groups found in treatment settings. An inability to manage one’s feelings is a common deficit, espe- cially in people with emotional problems. The emotion of anger is given special atten- tion because of the unhealthy behavior choices people often make when they are angry. Verbal or physical aggression is a common behavioral manifestation of anger. These groups often focus on finding healthier ways to channel feelings, learning more effective coping skills, building better assertiveness skills, improving problem-solving ability, challenging distorted thinking patterns, resolving conflicts collaboratively, and learning to express feelings without aggression. The group process is used as an opportunity to practice these skills with the assistance of the facilitator and other participants. Life Skills Groups A life skills group is also often called an independent living skills or daily living skills group. This group is most commonly used with adults with chronic mental illness, adults with developmental or cognitive disabilities, and teenagers and young adults. Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 11 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 39. The focus is on teaching skills to improve the participant’s ability to live indepen- dently. These groups tend to be much more didactic in nature but utilize the group process for collaborative learning and support-system building. Individual group ses- sions may focus on managing money, budgeting, accessing public transportation, se- curing and maintaining housing, housekeeping, laundry, grocery shopping, cooking, accessing healthcare and prescriptions, finding employment, job skills, and healthy living. Groups may cover a myriad of topics and be customized to the specific needs and developmental and skill levels of participants. Social Skills Groups Social skills groups focus on improving the participant’s interpersonal effectiveness skills. Topics often include improving assertiveness, problem solving, conflict resolu- tion, building healthy relationships, boundaries, manners, making friends, empathy, and building natural supports. Participants may be challenged to improve their self-awareness of problematic and unhealthy behaviors. Role-play is frequently used to practice new skills and improve the client’s ability to self-manage relationships. At times participants may process through specific problems expressed by group mem- bers and discuss potential changes that group members might make. Group members are encouraged to provide positive and negative feedback, which enhances partici- pants’ understanding of others’ perception of them. Process Groups Process groups are often used in inpatient, residential, and other settings where group members spend significant amounts of time together. They are also used in other set- tings when one group participant has a major issue to resolve that would be beneficial and relevant for all members to discuss. Sometimes these groups are prescheduled, such as a daily reflection group at a group home or inpatient facility. Other times a group session may be called spontaneously to resolve a major conflict or problem within the milieu. The specific issue is brought to the attention of the group, and participants are encouraged to process through their thoughts and feelings, provide each other with feedback and support, and collaboratively problem solve as a group. Sometimes group members may be confrontational and challenging, which can be a healthy process when facilitated properly. In some settings, this group is used to help participants process through thoughts and feelings about a major life event such as the death of a loved one or a suicide attempt by a group member. Participants are assisted with managing feelings, reframing unhealthy thought patterns, and integra- tion of life’s challenges. Stress Management Groups Stress management groups focus on learning healthier and more effective strategies for dealing with stress. Participants may be encouraged to make lifestyle changes and take a more proactive role in reducing stress before it happens. Group facilitators often instruct on a variety of relaxation techniques and lead participants in practice exercises. Breathing exercises, guided meditation, yoga, positive imagery, and healthy living are common themes. Participants are encouraged to practice relaxation tech- niques at home, which will improve their ability to use the skills at times of increased stress. Skill development such as time management, problem solving, or assertiveness training may also be a topic for specific sessions. The group process may also be used to challenge and change thinking patterns and beliefs that contribute to stress. Psycho-education may be used to assist participants to recognize how stress contri- butes to their disorders. Other areas of discussion could include exercise, healthy eating, and avoiding substance use. (A stress management group is sometimes also called an educational group. See Chapter 11 for a filler discussion of stress manage- ment groups.) 12 CHAPTER ONE Groups: Types and Stages of Development Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 40. Specialty Groups Specialty groups address specific topics or problems that are unique to certain client populations and settings. The focus of the group and topics discussed will vary depending on client needs. For example, substance abuse programs have a number of different groups geared specifically toward alcohol and drug addiction recovery. Different groups may focus on drug and alcohol education, relapse prevention, recovery and lifestyle changes, or 12-step programs. Other examples would include eating disorder program groups, grief counseling and support groups, veteran PTSD recovery groups, domestic violence recovery groups, and healthcare-focused groups for psychological challenges related to patients with cancer, heart disease, or other major illnesses. (Treatment groups are discussed more fully in Chapter 12.) Sensitivity and Encounter Training Encounter groups, sensitivity training groups, and T (training) groups all refer to a group experience in which people relate to each other in a close interpersonal man- ner and self-disclosure is required. The goal is to improve interpersonal awareness. The goal of sensitivity training groups is to have members develop an increased sen- sitive awareness and understanding of oneself and one’s relationships with others. Members participate in discussions and experential activities to improve interpersonal awareness.16 An encounter group may meet for a few hours or over a few days. Once in- creased interpersonal awareness is achieved, it is anticipated that attitudes and behav- iors will change. For these changes to occur, a three-phase process generally takes place: unfreezing, change, and refreezing.17 Unfreezing occurs in encounter groups through a deliberate process of interact- ing in nontraditional ways. Our attitudes and behavior patterns have been devel- oped through years of social experiences. Such patterns, following years of experimentation and refinement, have now become nearly automatic. The interper- sonal style we develop through years of trial and error generally has considerable utility in our everyday interactions. Deep down, however, we may recognize a need for improvement but are reluctant to make the effort, partly because our pres- ent style is somewhat functional and partly because we are afraid to reveal things about ourselves. Unfreezing occurs when we decide certain patterns of our present behavior need to be changed, and we are psychologically ready to explore ways to make changes. Tubbs and Baird describe the unfreezing process in sensitivity groups: Unfreezing occurs when our expectations are violated. We become less sure of ourselves when traditional ways of doing things are not followed. In the encounter group, the leader usually does not act like a leader. He or she frequently starts with a brief statement encouraging the group members to participate, to be open and honest, and to expect things to be different. Group members may begin by taking off their shoes, sitting in a circle on the floor, and holding hands with their eyes closed. The leader then encourages them to feel intensely the sensations they are experiencing, the size and texture of the hands they are holding, and so forth. Other structured exercises or experiences may be planned to help the group focus on the “here-and-now” experience. Pairs may go for “trust walks” in which each person alternately is led around with eyes closed. Sitting face to face and conducting a hand dialogue, or a silent facial mirroring often helps to break the initial barriers to change. Other techniques may involve the “pass around” in which a person in the center of a tight circle relaxes and is physically passed around the circle. Those who have trouble feeling a part of the group are encouraged to break into or out of the circle of people whose hands are tightly held. With these experiences, most participants begin to feel more open to conversation about what they have experienced. This sharing of experi- ences or self-disclosure about the here and now provides more data for the group to discuss.18 Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 13 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 41. The second phase of the process involves making changes in attitudes and behav- ior, which are usually facilitated by spontaneous feedback as to how a person “comes across” to others. In everyday interaction, spontaneous feedback seldom occurs, so ineffective interaction patterns are repeated. In sensitivity groups, feedback is strongly encouraged, as the following interaction illustrates: Carl: All right (in a sharp tone), let’s get this trust walk over with and stop dillydallying around. I’ll lead the first person around—who wants to be blindfolded first? Judy: I feel uncomfortable about your statement. I feel you are saying this group is a waste of your time. Also, this appears to be your third attempt this evening to “boss” us around. Jim: I also feel like you are trying to tell us peons what to do. Even the tone of your voice is autocratic and suggests some disgust with this group. Carl: I’m sorry. I didn’t mean it to sound like that. I wonder if I do that outside the group too? Such feedback provides us with new insights on how we affect others. Once problem interactions are identified, that member is encouraged to try out new response patterns in the relative safety of the group. The third and final phase involves “refreezing,” a term that is not an accurate description because it implies rigidity within a new set of response patterns. On the contrary, by experimenting with new sets of behaviors, a group member becomes a A Socialization Group: A Group at a Runaway Center New Horizons, located in an older home in a large mid- western city, is a private, temporary shelter where youths on the run can stay for 2 weeks. The facility is licensed to house up to eight youths; however, state law requires that parents be contacted and parental permission received be- fore New Horizons can provide shelter overnight. Services include temporary shelter, individual and family counsel- ing, and a 24-hour hotline for youths in crisis. Because the average stay at New Horizons is 9 days, the population is continually changing. During their stay, youths (and often their parents) receive intensive counseling, which focuses on reducing conflicts between the youths and their par- ents, and on helping them make future living plans. The 2-week limit conveys the importance to residents and their families of resolving the conflicts that keep them apart. Every evening at 7 p.m., a group meeting allows re- sidents to express their satisfactions and dissatisfactions with the facilities and program at New Horizons. All the residents and the two or three staff members on duty are expected to attend. The meetings are convened and led by the staff, most of whom are social workers. Sometimes, the group becomes primarily a “gripe” session, but the staff makes conscientious efforts to improve or change situa- tions involving legitimate gripes. For example, a youth may indicate that the past few days have been “boring,” and staff and residents then jointly plan activities for the next few days. Interaction problems that arise between residents, and between staff and residents, are also handled during a group session. A resident may be preventing others from sleeping; some residents may refuse to share in domestic tasks; there may be squabbles about which TV program to watch; some residents may be overly aggressive. Because most of the youths face a variety of crises associated with being on the run, many are anxious and under stress. In such an emotional climate, interaction problems are cer- tain to arise. Staff members are sometimes intensely ques- tioned about their actions, decisions, and policies. For example, one of the policies at New Horizons is that each resident must agree not to use alcohol or narcotic drugs while at the shelter. The penalty is expulsion. Occa- sionally, a few youths use some drugs, are caught, and are expelled. Removing a youth from this facility has an im- mense impact on the other residents, and at the following meetings staff members are expected to clarify and explain such decisions. The staff also presents material on topics requested by residents during meetings. Subjects often covered in- clude sex; drugs; homosexuality; physical and sexual abuse (a fair number of residents are abused by family members); avoiding rape; handling anger, depression, and other unwanted emotions; legal rights of youths on the run; being more assertive; explaining running away to relatives and friends; and human services available to youths in the community. During such presentations, considerable discussion with residents is encouraged and generally occurs. The final objective of the group is to convey informa- tion about planned daily activities and changes in the over- all program at New Horizons. 14 CHAPTER ONE Groups: Types and Stages of Development Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 42. growing, continually changing person who becomes increasingly effective in interact- ing with others. In terminating a sensitivity group, the leader may alert the partici- pants to be “on guard” as old behavior patterns tend to creep back in. Sensitivity groups usually generate an outpouring of emotions, as do treatment groups. Sensitivity groups provide an interesting contrast to treatment groups. In treatment groups, each member explores personal and emotional problems in depth and then develops strategies to resolve them. Sensitivity groups generally do not di- rectly attempt to identify and change specific emotional or personal problems, such as drinking, feelings of depression, or sexual dysfunctions. The philosophy behind sen- sitivity groups is that by simply increasing personal and interpersonal awareness, peo- ple will be better able to avoid, cope with, and handle specific personal problems that arise. Despite their popularity, sensitivity groups remain controversial. In some cases, inadequately trained and incompetent individuals have become self-proclaimed lead- ers and enticed people to join through sensational advertising. If handled poorly, the short duration of some groups may intensify personal problems; for example, a per- son’s defense mechanisms may be stripped away without first developing adaptive coping patterns. Many authorities on sensitivity training disclaim the use of encounter groups as a form of psychotherapy and discourage those with serious personal prob- lems from joining such a group. Carl Rogers, in reviewing his own extensive experi- ence as leader/participant, echoes these concerns: Frequently the behavior changes that occur, if any, are not lasting. In addition, the indi- vidual may become deeply involved in revealing himself and then be left with problems which are not worked through. Less common, but still noteworthy, there are also very occasional accounts of an individual having a psychotic episode during or immediately following an intensive group experience. We must keep in mind that not all people are suited for groups.19 In some cases, the popularity of sensitivity groups has led some individuals to enter harmful groups with incompetent leaders where normal ethical standards have been abused. Shostrom has identified some means by which those interested in encounter groups can prevent exploitation: (1) Never participate in a group of fewer than a half- dozen members. The necessary and valuable candor generated by an effective group can- not be dissipated, shared, or examined by too small a group, and scapegoating or purely vicious ganging up can develop. (2) Never join an encounter group on impulse—as a fling, binge, or surrender to the unplanned. (3) Never stay with a group that has a behav- ioral ax to grind. (4) Never participate in a group that lacks formal connection with a pro- fessional who has proper credentials.20 After reviewing the research on the outcome of sensitivity groups, Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles provide an appropriate perspective for those interested in the inten- sive group experience: Encounter groups present a clear and evident danger if they are used for radical surgery to produce a new man [person]. The danger is even greater when the leader and the par- ticipants share this misconception. If we no longer expect groups to produce magical, Contrasting Goals of Treatment Groups Versus Sensitivity Groups TREATMENT GROUPS SENSITIVITY GROUPS Step 1: Examine problems in depth. Step 2: Develop and select, from various resolution approaches, a strategy to resolve the problem. Step 1: Help each person become more aware of him- or herself and how he or she affects others in interpersonal interactions. Step 2: Help a person develop more effective interaction patterns. Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 15 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 43. lasting change and if we stop seeing them as panaceas, we can regard them as useful, socially sanctioned opportunities for human beings to explore and to express themselves. Then we can begin to work on ways to improve them so that they may make a meaning- ful contribution toward solving human problems.21 INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF GROUPS The process of establishing and conducting groups varies significantly, depending on the type of group and the specific purposes to be achieved. However, for a group to reach its maximum potential, there are still some unifying or common elements to be addressed prior to establishing the group. These factors described in this sec- tion include determining a group’s objectives, size, open-ended or closed-ended status, and duration. In addition, because specific pitfalls or dilemmas characterize certain types of groups, plans must be made to prevent or handle problems should they arise. Determining Objectives Careful consideration must be given to the objectives for a group being formed in order to select effective members. For example, problem-solving groups often re- quire the expertise of professionals in other disciplines—professionals whose skills and knowledge directly contribute to the accomplishment of group goals; some of these professionals may have backgrounds, training, and perceptions that differ from those of the social worker. Although this approach produces a group with a wealth of expertise, it creates additional demands on the leader. When the members have diverse backgrounds and interests, other difficulties include problems encoun- tered in setting goals, prioritizing goals, and determining tasks to be performed. Educational groups, on the other hand, are usually composed of members who share a common interest in a particular area, such as childrearing skills. Individuals with similar needs join an educational group primarily to gain rather than dispense information. This tends to make leadership easier. Because potential members of treatment groups (unlike those of problem-solving or educational groups) often have diverse problems, and may in addition have interactional difficulties, a much more thorough screening of members is required. Therefore, it is essential that the objectives or purposes of each group be established at the beginning because they have a significant impact on the process of membership selection and other aspects of functioning. Size The size of a group affects members’ satisfaction, interaction, and the amount of out- put per member. Although smaller groups are generally rated more favorably, larger groups are often more successful in resolving complex problems.22 Although mem- bers in larger groups experience more stress and greater communication difficulties, they usually bring a greater number of problem-solving skills and resources to the group as a whole. Because each person has fewer opportunities to interact in a large group, some members feel inhibited and reluctant to talk. As the size of the group increases, discussion generally hinges on the input of the most frequent contributor, who assumes a dominant role. As a result, the gap in participation widens between the most frequent contributor and the other members of the group. In his research on group size, Slater found that groups of five people were con- sidered most satisfactory by members themselves and most effective in dealing with an intellectual task involving the collection and exchange of information about a situation; the coordination, analysis, and evaluation of this informa- tion; and a group decision regarding the appropriate administrative action to be taken.23 16 CHAPTER ONE Groups: Types and Stages of Development Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 44. In a group of five members, a number of different relationships can be formed with a moderate level of intimacy. Several individuals can also act as “buffers” who deal with strained situations or power plays. If a vote is needed to resolve a dispute, obviously a two-two split can be avoided. In groups smaller than five, Slater observed, the mem- bers were inhibited from expressing their ideas through fear of alienating one another and thereby destroying the group. In groups of more than five, members also felt in- hibited and participated less often. Groups with an even number of members tend to have higher rates of disagree- ment and antagonism than those with an odd number, apparently because of the pos- sible division of the group into two equal subdivisions.24 For each task to be accomplished, there is probably an optimal group size. The more complex the task, the larger the optimal size, so that the knowledge, abilities, and skills of many mem- bers are available to accomplish the task. A group should be large enough to allow members to speak freely without being inhibited and small enough to permit a mod- erate level of intimacy and involvement. Open-Ended Versus Closed-Ended Groups Whether the group will be open-ended, with new members added as old members leave, or whether the membership will remain constant until termination (closed- ended) should be determined at the outset. Open-ended groups provide a measure of synergism through the addition of new members. As new individuals join, they pro- vide a different viewpoint, even though they usually are gradually socialized into group norms and practices by the older members. The impact of such changes is not all beneficial, however. The constant change in membership may inhibit openness and detract from the sense of trust needed before certain subjects are broached. In addition, open groups are likely to “have members at different levels of commitment to the process and members [who are not] at the same stages of development.”25 A closed-ended group can often function more effectively because it has a relatively constant population and often operates within a specified time frame.26 Although the premature loss of members can seriously damage such a group’s effectiveness, a leader must deal with member termination in both open and closed groups and plan for this eventuality. Duration The duration of a group has two related components: the number of sessions and the length of each session. Many groups meet for 1 to 2 hours once or twice a week for a specified number of weeks. Meeting for 1 to 2 hours tends to optimize productive activity and behavior. Meeting lengths shorter than 1 hour usually do not allow suffi- cient time to thoroughly discuss the issues that are raised. In meetings that last longer than 3 hours, members tend to become drowsy, frustrated, and unable to concen- trate. Although a meeting length of 1 to 2 hours appears to be a guideline for optimal functioning in many groups, at times pressing issues may necessitate a longer meeting to process and conclude group business. Obviously, if a crisis occurs 5 minutes be- fore the end of the meeting, the group leader should not conclude the session. By the same token, some discussions can become so intense that they could last indefinitely and accomplish little. A pragmatic approach to terminating each meeting or series of meetings within a set time frame will enhance the group’s respect for the leader and foster the group’s development. Setting meetings in which there are 3 or 4 (or more) days between meetings usu- ally allows the members some time to work on tasks that are designed to accomplish their personal goals and the goals of the group. For example, in educational groups, members can study and complete homework assignments between meetings. In treat- ment groups, members can carry out homework assignments designed to reduce or resolve personal problems. Identify the Primary Types of Groups in Social Work 17 Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 45. STAGES OF GROUPS The steps involved in planning and implementing educational, treatment, and sociali- zation groups are similar to the procedures followed by social workers who deal with individual clients: GROUPS INDIVIDUALS intake intake selection of members assessment and planning assessment and planning intervention group development and intervention evaluation and termination evaluation and termination Inexperienced group leaders usually expect a smooth transition from one stage to an- other and are disappointed if this does not occur. Therefore, many new practitioners tend to force the group out of one stage into another instead of allowing the natural growth process to evolve. Experience will demonstrate the futility of these efforts as, barring unforeseen circumstances, each group will move at its own pace and eventu- ally arrive at the same destination. Groups that skip stages or whose development is otherwise thwarted will often return to a previous stage to complete unfinished busi- ness. Although groups do sometimes become mired in one stage, these occurrences are less common than generally thought. The procedures for establishing socializa- tion, educational, and treatment groups are briefly summarized in the following ma- terial and expanded upon throughout the text. Intake During intake, the presenting concerns and needs of prospective members are identi- fied. Judgments that some or all of these people could benefit from a group approach are made. An agreement is often formulated between the members of the group and the group leader about tentative group goals (see Chapter 4). This stage may also be referred to as the contract stage, as the leader and the members make a commitment to pursue the situation to the next step. Selection of Members Individuals most likely to benefit from a group should be selected as members. Se- lecting a group requires attention to both descriptive and behavioral factors.27 A deci- sion needs to be made whether to seek homogeneity or diversity in these factors. There are few guidelines as to when diversity and when homogeneity of these factors will be most effective and efficient. Age, sex, and level of education are descriptive fac- tors that may create homogeneity or foster diversity within the group. In groups of children and adolescents, the age span among members must be kept relatively small because levels of maturity and interests can vary greatly. Similarly, same-sex group- ings may facilitate achieving group goals for pre-adolescents, but for middle- adolescent groups there may be specific advantages to having representation from both sexes. The behavioral attributes expected of a group member will also have a major effect on the attainment of group objectives. For example, placing several hyperactive or aggressive youngsters in a group may be a prelude to failure. Members may be se- lected for their value as models for appropriate behavior or because they possess other personal characteristics expected to enhance the group. As a general rule, the best judgment regarding a member’s potential contribution to the group is obtained by looking at past behavioral attributes.28 Assessment and Planning A more in-depth assessment and statement of goals and plans for action occur during this phase. In reality, this step is completed only when the group ends because the dynamic nature of most groups requires an ongoing adjustment of goals and 18 CHAPTER ONE Groups: Types and Stages of Development Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
- 46. Exploring the Variety of Random Documents with Different Content
- 47. Pietarin kirkossa ja sen tulee olla avoinna kaikille tulijoille.» »Bene!» »Teidän pyhyytenne lukee siunauksen messun loputtua joko sedia gestatore'sta suuren alttarin edessä ja kansan keskellä, kuten Gregorius paavilla oli tapana, tai loggiasta tuomiokirkon puolella.» »Määrätään, että se tapahtuu edellisessä paikassa.» »Lavanda toimitetaan kello neljä iltapäivällä Pietarin kirkossa, ja kaikilla on vapaa pääsy sinne.» »Bene!» »Paavillinen hovi pitää vahtia 'haudan' ympärillä, ja kello yhdeksän teidän pyhyytenne astuu huoneistostaan sinne ylimyskaartin ja sveitsiläisen kaartin kantaessa tulisoihtuja.» »Bene!» »Sitten teidän pyhyytenne lepää tunnin verran sakaristossa, kunnes tulee Tenebroe'n aika.» »Pyhän Pietarinko sakaristossa?» »Niin, teidän pyhyytenne.» »Puoli kymmenen ja puoli yhdentoista välillä?» »Aivan niin. Tenebroe alkaa kello kymmenen, kuten vanhoina aikoina, ja jos teidän pyhyytenne tahtoo olla läsnä valtaistuimella, on teidän pyhyytenne puettu punaiseen viittaan ja hiippaan, mutta jos
- 48. teidän pyhyytenne ei tahdo näyttäytyä julkisesti, vetäydytte yksityislehterille.» »Bene!» Pienen majordomon kasvot loistivat ilosta hänen jatkaessaan lukuaan ja ajatellessaan tuota tulevaa komeutta, mutta paavi näytti väsyneeltä, ja »Bene» kaikui hitaasti ja hiljaa. Kello oli nyt kymmenen, ja Cortis, paavin kamaripalvelija, toi tavallisen keittolautasen paaville. Sitten saapui iso, ylpeännäköinen, tumma-ihoinen mies puettuna punareunaiseen purppuraviittaan ja punaiseen hattuun. Se oli kardinaali-valtiosihteeri. »Mitä uutisia, teidän kunnianarvoisuutenne?» kysyi paavi. »Hallitus», sanoi kardinaalisihteeri, »on juuri julaissut tiedonannon, jossa ilmoitetaan riemujuhlan vietosta kuninkaan valtaistuimellenousun muistoksi. Se on alkava ensi maanantaina suurin juhlin ja huvituksin.» »Riemujuhla tällaiseen aikaan! Mitä kamalaa kansan kärsimysten pilkkaamista! Kuinka monta nais- ja lapsiparkaa saa kärsiä nälkää, ennenkuin tuo kuninkaallinen irstas juhla on maksettu! Jumala olkoon kanssamme! Tuollainen vääryys ja hirmuvalta lempeyden ja armon saatanallisessa valepuvussa melkein riittää selittämään Rossin kaltaisten miesten opit… Onko muita uutisia?» »On. Rossi on nyt Pariisissa läheisessä yhteydessä kaikenlaisten huonojen seurojen kanssa.» »Oletteko koskaan nähnyt tuota miestä, Rossia?»
- 49. »Teidän pyhyytenne käskystä olen kerran tavannut hänet jesuiittakollegiossa.» »Oliko hän ulkomuodoltaan tyypillinen demagogi?» »Ei. Minun täytyy se tunnustaa, teidän pyhyytenne. Ja hänen puheessaan, vaikka se uhkuu nykyaikaista vapaamielisyyttä, ei ole mitään Voltairen likaisuudesta.» »Joku sanoi… kuka se nyt olikaan?… että hän on pyhän isän näköinen.» »Nyt, kun mainitsette sen, teidän pyhyytenne, myönnän, että hän ehkä hiukan muistuttaa pyhää isää.» »Ah! Kuka tietää mitä palveluksia sellainenkin mies olisi voinut tehdä Jumalalle ja yhteiskunnalle, jos hänen aikaisin elämänsä olisi saanut parempaa johtoa.» »Sanotaan, että hän on orpo, teidän pyhyytenne.» »Hän ei siis koskaan ole saanut kokea isän huolenpitoa ja johtoa! Onneton poika! Onneton isä! Mutta oi laupias taivas, jos tuollaisen pojan isä vielä olisi elossa ja saisi tietää, että hänen opetustensa johdosta tai hänen huolimattomuutensa tähden hänen oma sikiönsä on muuttunut kerettiläiseksi, kapinalliseksi ja turmeluksen johtajaksi — mikä kurjuus, mikä katumus!» »Monsignor Mario», ilmoitti kamariherran matala ääni, ja seuraavassa silmänräpäyksessä pääministerin luona ollut paavin lähettiläs polvistui keskelle lattiaa.
- 50. Hermostuneella äänellä ja katkonaisin lausein ja nostaen joskus katseensa nähdäkseen, minkä vaikutuksen hänen sanansa aikaansaivat, monsignor Mario kertoi tapahtumasta. Paavi kuunteli tarkkaan, ja rypyt hänen otsallaan syvenivät ja synkistyivät, kunnes hän vihdoin huudahti kärsimättömästi: »Mutta, poikani, ethän sanone, että kerroitkin kaiken tuon?» »Minut houkuteltiin sanomaan, minun täytyi puolustaa teidän pyhyyttänne.» »Sanoit siis pääministerille, että minä sain tietoni uskottuna asiana?» »Hän viittasi siihen, että teidän pyhyytenne ehkä rikkoi rippisalaisuuden…» »Ja sanoit, että kertoja ei ollut katolilainen?» »Hän tarttui siihen kiinni, että teidän pyhyytenne aivan hyvin saattoi pakottaa kertojan ilmaisemaan salahankkeet vallanpitäjiä vastaan, ja siitä syystä…» »Ja kerroit hänelle, että tuo ilmoittaja oli ollut täällä lauantaiaamuna?» »Hän viittasi siihen, että teidän pyhyytenne on liitossa rikoksellisten kanssa, jos teidän pyhyytenne on tiennyt asiasta jo kauan ilmoittamatta hallitukselle, ja…» »Ja samalla hetkellä neiti astui sisään, niinkö?»
- 51. »Samalla hetkellä, teidän pyhyytenne, ja hän sanoi tavanneensa minut lauantaiaamuna.» »Mies, mitä sinä olet tehnyt?» huudahti paavi nousten ja astuen kiivaasti huoneessa. Monsignor polvistui yhä vielä nöyryytettynä, kunnes paavi malttaen mielensä asetti molemmat kätensä hänen olkapäilleen sanoen: »Anteeksi, poikani! Minä olen syyllisempi kuin sinä. Oli väärin, että lähetin suusanallisen viestin kettujen luolaan. Pyhän isän ei pitäisi olla missään tekemisissä sellaisten ihmisten kanssa. Mutta kaikki on Jumalan kädessä. Jättäkäämme kaikki Pyhän Hengen valtaan.» Samassa paavin majordomo palasi tuoden kirjeen. Se oli paronin kirje paaville. Kun paavi oli lukenut sen, astui hän viereiseen huoneeseen, jossa ei ollut muuta kuin lepotuoli ja nojatuoli. Siellä hän makasi kauan aikaa kasvot kääntyneinä seinään päin.
- 52. XII. Kello neljä iltapäivänä paavi ja isä Pifferi taas kävelivät puutarhassa. Juudas-puut olivat kylväneet punaisia kukkiaan pitkin tietä, ilma oli täynnä orvokkien tuoksua, ja pääskyt lentelivät auringonpaisteessa kimakasti kirkuen ja siivet välähdellen. »Ja mitä teidän pyhyytenne aikoo tehdä?» kysyi kapusiinilainen. »Taivas johtakoon meitä», vastasi paavi huoahtaen. »Mutta kai teidän pyhyytenne vastaa kieltävästi hallituksen pyyntöön?» »Kuinka voin sen tehdä antamatta aihetta väärinkäsitykseen? Ajatelkaas, että kuningas surmataan. Hallitus on vakuutteleva maailmalle, että paavi tiesi edeltäkäsin kaikki, mutta ei tehnyt mitään.» »Vakuutelkoon. Semmoista on ennenkin sattunut kirkon historiassa. Ja maailma on kunnioittava teidän pyhyyttänne sitä enemmän siksi, että lujasti varjelitte ihmissielun pyhää salaisuutta.»
- 53. »Niin — jos nyt olisi kysymyksessä rippi. Maailma tietää, että rippi on pyhä ja että sitä ei saa ilmaista. Mutta nyt ei ole kysymyksessä rippisalaisuus.» »Eikö teidän pyhyytenne sanonut, että piditte sitä sellaisena?» »Niin pidinkin. Mutta entä yleisö? Sattumalta hallitus on saanut selville, että tämä ei ole rippisalaisuus, ja sen se kertoo maailmalle. Mikä on seurauksena? Jos kieltäydyn tekemästä mitään, selittävät kirkon viholliset, että pyhä isä on osallisena kuninkaanmurhaan ja valmis vehkeilemään kapinallisten kanssa voittaakseen takaisin maallisen valtansa.» »Teidän pyhyytenne ottaa siis vastaan pääministerin?» »En! Tai jos sen teen, saa hän tulla ainoastaan herransa seurassa.» »Kuninkaanko?» »Niin.» Kapusiinilainen kosketti patalakkiaan levottomasti ja astui pari askelta virkkamatta mitään. »Luuletteko hänen tulevan?» »Jos hän luulee, että minä tiedän salaisuuden, josta hänen elämänsä riippuu, on hän tuleva.» »Mutta te olette hallitsija yhtä hyvin kuin kuningas — voitteko vastaanottaa hänet?»
- 54. »Minä voin vastaanottaa hänet Sardinian kuninkaana, tahi vaikkapa Italiankin kuninkaana, mutta en Rooman kuninkaana.» Kapusiinilainen otti kirjavan nenäliinansa hihastaan ja puristi sitä käsissään, jotka olivat kuumat ja hikiset. »Mutta, pyhä isä», sanoi hän, »mitä hyötyä siitä on? Otaksukaamme, että kaikki etiketti-esteet ovat poistetut, että tapaatte toisenne aivan kuin ihminen tapaa ihmisen, Davido Leone ja Alberto Carlo — miksi kuningas tulee? Ainoastaan pyytääkseen teitä koettamaan saada lisätietoja kertojaltanne.» Paavi ojentautui suoraksi ja löi rintaansa. »Ei ikinä! Se olisi loukkaus kirkkoa kohtaan», huudahti hän. »Toinen asia on pyytää pyhää isää tekemään velvollisuutensa kristittynä vihollistaankin kohtaan ja toinen asia on pyytää häntä pettämään yksityisen henkilön luottamusta.» Kapusiinilainen ei vastannut, ja molemmat vanhat miehet astuivat ääneti. Kun valo alkoi pehmitä, kiihtyi pääskyjen melu, ja laululintuset läheisissä puissa alkoivat lennellä sinne päin. Äkkiä kuului pelokas ääni pensaikosta, ja kääntyen nopeasti ympäri paavi nosti ylös kissan, joka tavallisuuden mukaan hiipi hänen kantapäillään. »Voi sinua Mirri! Sainpa sinut kiinni nyt… Taas säikäytit pientä lintuemoraukkaa. Missähän sen pesä lienee?» He löysivät sen vanhan hautakiven luota, joka nyt oli melkein kokonaan lehtien peitossa. Munat olivat nyt haudotut, ja silmättömät
- 55. poikaset kurottivat kaulaansa ja avasivat suunsa, kun paavi ojensi kätensä koskettaakseen niitä. »Monsignor», sanoi paavi, »muistuttakaa minua huomenna, jotta tulen pyytäneeksi puutarhurilta hiukan matoja niille». Kissa kurkisteli nälkäisin silmin paavin kainalosta linnunpesää. »Paha Mirri! Paha!» sanoi paavi ja näppäsi sormellaan kissaa. »Mutta Mirri seuraa vain luontoaan, ja minä tein ehkä hullusti, kun annoin sen nähdä pesän.» Paavi ja kapusiinilainen astuivat takaisin Vatikaaniin nauttien suloisesta keväästä, kukkien tuoksusta ja lintujen laulusta. »Te olette surullinen tänään, isä Pifferi», sanoi paavi. »Ajattelen sitä tyttöraukkaa», sanoi kapusiinilainen. Illan ensimmäisenä hetkenä paavi oli läsnä rukouksessa yksityisessä kappelissa ja palattuaan sieltä työhuoneeseensa, jossa oli pöytä ja pari tuolia, hän söi kevyen illallisen, jota Cortis puettuna hännystakkiin tarjoili. Ainoana toverina hänellä oli kissa, joka istui tuolilla toisella puolen pöytää. Illallisen jälkeen hän kirjoitti kirjeen: »Sire! — Teidän ministerinne on ilmoittanut meille, että hän on virallista tietä saanut vastaanottaa ilmoituksen salaliitosta henkeänne vastaan ja hän luulee, että me voimme antaa hänelle tietoja, jotka auttavat häntä vastustamaan tuota viheliäistä hanketta, sekä pyytää siitä syystä audienssia luonamme. Ei ole vallassamme antaa sen enempää apua kuin jo olemme antanut, mutta jos Teidän Majesteettinne itse haluaa tavata meitä, olemme valmiit vastaanottamaan Teidät joko ministerinne kanssa tai ilman
- 56. häntä, jos tahdotte tulla aivan yksityisesti ja ilman muuta seuruetta ensi torstaina kello 1/2 10 Pyhän Pietarin kirkon kanoniikin ovelle, josta tämän viestin tuoja on johtava Teidän Majesteettinne sakaristoon. Nil timendum nisi a Deo. Pius P.P.X.» Käskettyään ylimyskaartin upseeria viemään tuon kirjeen Kvirinaaliin ja neuvottuaan häntä pitämään huolta salaisuudesta ja tuomaan takaisin vastauksen, paavi istuutui katsomaan sanomalehtiä, joita hänen lukijansa olivat merkinneet hänelle, sekä odottamaan ja miettimään. Tunti kului, eikä ylimyskaartin upseeria vielä kuulunut. Paavi nousi ja katsoi ulos ikkunasta. Piazza hänen edessään oli hiljainen ja rauhallinen kuin vuoriston järvi, eikä kuulunut muita ääniä kuin suihkukaivojen lorina. Niiden välissä kohosi tumma patsas, jossa oli tulinen kirjoitus: »Kristus voittaa, Kristus hallitsee, Kristus riemuitsee.» Torin reunassa häämötti pääministerin palatsi, joka kerran oli ollut paavin oman isän koti, tuon erehtyvän, mutta rakastavan vanhan isän, joka nyt oli maannut kolmekymmentäviisi vuotta haudassa. Ja sen takana oli humuava, kaunis Rooma! Katsellen kaupunkia, joka päilyi tuolla iltavalaistuksessa, paavi tunsi liikutusta. Ikuinen kaupunki! Pyhä kaupunki! Paavin kaupunki! Kadonnut häneltä hetkeksi, mutta yhä vielä hänen lastensa kaupunki! Näky oli liikuttava. Tällä samalla paikalla entisten aikojen paavit olivat uneksineet mahtavat unelmansa ihmiskunnan taivaallisesta
- 57. hallinnosta, pyhästä valtakunnasta maan päällä. Ja nyt, saattamatta sanoa omakseen jalan leveyttäkään maata, paavi oli vankina oman kansansa keskuudessa, ja hänen palatsinsa oli vankikoppi. Mutta mitäpä siitä! »Kristus voittaa, Kristus hallitse, Kristus riemuitsee!» Rooma oli kerran palaava kuin tuhlaajapoika isänsä luo, joka odottaa sitä syli avoinna. Tämä aika huokaili jo uuden syntymisen tuskissa ja se oli syntyvä uskonnon ja kirkon omaksi. Ja paavi, jolla oli pieni kuningaskunta, mutta valta koko maailman yli ilman armeijoja, ilman veroja, oli johtava, mutta ei hallitseva, ohjaava, mutta ei käskevä, ja hän oli oleva maailman kansainvälinen tuomari sekä henkisissä että aineellisissa asioissa! Tyynnyttääkseen hermojaan, joita tuo suuri unelma oli kiihoittanut, ja unohtaakseen kärsimättömyytensä odottaessaan lähettiläänsä palaamista paavi veti uutimen pois kirjahyllynsä edestä, otti sieltä kirjan ja alkoi lukea. Se oli vanha, mustalehtinen kirja, kirjapainotaidon ensi ajoilta, ja sillä lehdellä, jonka hän avasi, seisoi: »Jumala, joka tietää, kuinka vaarallinen sellainen voimien yhdistys on, ja joka tahtoo pelastaa palvelijansa, ei kruunun loistolla, vaan ristin nöyryydellä, on jakanut nuo kaksi voimaa, säätäen, että kuninkaitten tulee tarvita paavia iankaikkisen elämänsä tähden ja paavin tulee olla riippuvainen kuninkaista ajallisissa asioissa. Pyhän hallinnon ei koskaan tule tahtoa itselleen ajallisten asiain johtoa, ja ne, joille tuo johto on annettu, eivät koskaan saata vahingotta sekaantua taivaallisiin asioihin.» Paavi nousi istuimeltaan jäykkänä. Kuka oli näin puhunut? Oliko se luterilainen, mazzinilainen, vapaamielinen, kirkon vihollinen,
- 58. semmoinen kuin Rossi? Ei, vaan paavi, suuri paavi kristikunnan alkuajoilta, jolloin kirkko oli nöyrä ja köyhä. Paavi sulki kirjan ja koetti sanoa itselleen, että Gelasiuksen ajoista saakka kirkon asema oli kokonaan muuttunut. Se oli turhaa. Totta oli, mitä Gelasius oli sanonut — totta itsessään, totta historiallisessa suhteessa, totta jumaluusopin kannalta, totta Kristuksen lain ja Hänen pyhän esimerkkinsä mukaan. »Jumala, joka tietää, kuinka vaarallinen sellainen voimain yhdistys on…» Oliko mahdollista, että sellaiset vaarat vieläkin väijyvät paavia? Tänäkin aikana, tänä tuntina, tällä hetkellä hänen omassa persoonassaan, tänä iltana, nyt? Paavi tunsi hikipisaroita otsallaan ja hän avasi ikkunan antaakseen yöilman tuulla sisään. Muistaessaan tämän kuluneen päivän töitä, kuinka hän oli valmistanut juhlamenoja, puhunut isä Pifferin kanssa, lähettänyt sanan ministerille, kirjoittanut kuninkaalle, hän kysyi itseltään, olisiko hän menetellyt aivan samoin, ellei hän olisi ajatellut mitä vaaroja ja mikä vastuunalaisuus hänellä oli ruhtinaana. Hän ajatteli tuota nuorta naista, joka oli käynyt hänen luonaan, hänen kertomustaan, hänen rukoustaan, hänen kaihoavaa katsettaan, hänen surullista ääntään. »Ehkä kuningas kieltäytyy», ajatteli hän ja hengittäen helpotuksesta sulki ikkunan. Samana hetkenä vaununpyöräin jyrinä katkaisi hiljaisuuden piazzalla, ja pari minuuttia myöhemmin kreivi de Raymond
- 59. siviilipuvussa polvistui paavin eteen lausuen: »Teidän pyhyytenne! Hänen majesteettinsa kuningas tulee!»
- 60. XIII. Juhlamenot Pietarin-kirkossa piinatorstaina olivat komeammat ja loistavammat kuin miesmuistiin oli nähty Roomassa. Aikaisesta aamusta alkaen myöhään iltaan oli tuossa avarassa kirkossa kuin jättiläismarkkinat, sillä lukemattomat tuhannet hyörivät edestakaisin. Kello kymmenen aikaan siellä oli suuri ahdinko ovelta alttarille asti. Väki siellä oli enimmäkseen köyhää kansaa. Sitä oli tullut kaikista kaupunginosista ja Campagnalta. Siellä oli kalpeita miehiä rukousnauha kädessä ja naisia kantaen pieniä lapsia, joihin he tekivät ristinmerkin vihkivedellä. Tuolla kulki kädettömiä, jalattomia kerjäläisiä, ryömien, mutisten, polvistuen. Näin murehtivan kansan virta tulvaili kirkon läpi kertoen kurjuudesta ja puutteesta. Tämä oli voittoisa juhla kirkolle. Euroopan epäuskoisimman hallituksen silmäin edessä se oli todistanet, että kansan mahtavin tunne oli uskonnon tunne. Kun synkkä aika kohtasi kansaa, kääntyi se kirkon puoleen. Paavin hovi oli syystä ylpeä. Muutamat sen jäsenet eivät ollenkaan koettaneetkaan salata iloaan siitä, että olivat voineet iskeä noin
- 61. tuntuvan iskun hallitseviin luokkiin. Mutta Roomassa oli sittenkin yksi mies, joka ei tuntenut mitään iloa voitostaan. Se oli paavi. Hän oli mennyt messuun aamulla valkoisessa viitassaan ja kultahiippa päässä, istunut sedia gestatoreen, kardinaalien, patriarkkojen, arkkipiispojen, piispojen, pappien ja seurojen johtajien ympäröimänä, ja sotilasrivit, joiden välitse hän kulki, tekivät ensin kunniaa ja vaipuivat sitten polvilleen, Hiljaa liikkuen väkijoukon halki, jonka tervehdyshuudot mahtavana aaltona kohosivat ilmoille, hän saapui valtaistuimelleen, joka oli verhottu hopeakankaalla ja koristettu kullalla. Hän oli vastaanottanut sinipunerviin pukuihin puettujen pyhän kollegion jäsenten tervehdykset ja kuunnellut, kuinka suuret kellot soittivat Gloriaa. Hän oli kantanut pyhää sakramenttia verhokatoksen alla, jota piispat kohottivat ja jonka edellä kulki kardinaaleja sytytetyt kynttilät kädessä ja molemmin puolin bussolanteja soihdut kädessä. Hän oli astunut levon kappeliin, alttoäänien laulaessa kuin satakielet korkeassa kirkossa. Vihdoin hän oli lausunut kolminkertaisen siunauksen keskellä kirkkoa, missä palfrenieerit olivat kohottaneet hänet ylemmäksi kaikkia noita kasvoja, jotka äänettöminä ja kyyneleisinä liikutuksesta katsoivat häneen uskoen kuulevansa Jumalan siunaavan äänen. Mutta kun messu oli ohi ja hän oli palannut takaisin huoneistoonsa, muisti hän kertomuksen siitä huoneesta, missä Jeesus asetti sakramenttinsa, ja kysyi itseltään, oliko kaikki tämä loisto nyt tarpeellinen, jotta paavi ja hänen väkensä voisivat rukoilla rukouksensa. Hän oli pessyt kahdentoista köyhän miehen jalat. Nämä miehet oli otettu Rooman kaduilta edustamaan kahtatoista apostolia ja asetettu istumaan valkoisissa puvuissa punaisella ja kullalla päällystetylle istuimelle. Kynttilöitä kantavien pappien jälessä ja kamariherrain sekä kardinaalien ympäröimänä hän oli astunut valtaistuimelle pyhän
- 62. Pietarin patsaan eteen, joka tilaisuutta varten oli puettu paavilliseen pukuun kantaen mustassa päässään hiippaa ja mustassa sormessaan sormusta. Kun hän sitten oli pessyt miesten jalat ja kuivannut ne sekä suudellut kutakin jalkaa kansan riemuitessa raivokkaasti, palasi hän huoneistoonsa ajatellen Kristusta, joka eli köyhien seassa ja rakasti heitä. Kirkon sakaristo oli tähän aikaan tyhjänä lukuunottamatta mustaan viittaan puettua palvelijaa, joka lämmitteli käsiään uunin edessä. Mutta arkkipiispan huoneessa, jossa oli kullattu nojatuoli ja punaisella päällystettyjä tuoleja, istui isä Pifferi tavallisessa ruskeassa kaavussaan odottaen paavia. Kantajat saapuivat tuoden paavin, asettivat alas kantotuolin, suutelivat paavin jalkoja huolimatta hänen estelemisestään, poistuivat kumartaen ja jättivät nuo kaksi vanhaa miestä kahden kesken. »Ovatko he tulleet?» kysyi paavi. »Ei vielä, teidän pyhyytenne», vastasi kapusiinilainen. »Mitä tietä he tulevat?» »Borgo Santo Spiriton kautta, Rotan ohi, pylväskäytävän takaa, Santa Monicaa pitkin, pyhän inkvisitsionin ja Campo Santon ohi sakariston ovelle. Ne ovat hiljaisia ja pimeitä teitä näin yöllä.» »Odottaako kreivi de Raymond alhaalla?» »Odottaa, teidän pyhyytenne.» Paksujen seinien läpi kuului kansan riemuhuutoja kirkossa, mutta vähitellen ne alkoivat häipyä.
- 63. »Isä, uskotteko aavistuksiin?» »Joskus, teidän pyhyytenne. Jos niitä jatkuu kauemmin aikaa…» »Minulla on ollut aavistus, joka on seurannut minua koko elämäni — ainakin koko ajan, minkä olen ollut paavina. Hyvä Jumala, joka alentaa ja ylentää, on nähnyt hyväksi korottaa minun vähäpätöisen olentoni maailman korkeimpaan asemaan, mutta minä olen aina pelännyt, että minut jonakin päivänä syöstään siitä alas ja kirkko tulee kärsimään.» »Taivas sen estäköön, teidän pyhyytenne.» »Siitä syystä kieltäydyin kaikista viroista, kaikista kunnianosoituksista. Tiedättehän, kuinka kieltäydyin, isä?» »Tiedän, mutta Jumala ymmärsi sen asian paremmin, teidän pyhyytenne, ja Hän määräsi teidät kansansa siunaukseksi ja lohdutukseksi.» »Hänen pyhä tahtonsa tapahtukoon! Mutta se varjo, joka on vaappunut elämäni yllä, ei väisty. Pyytäkää rukoilemaan minun puolestani! Ja rukoilkaa itse minun puolestani, isä.» »Teidän pyhyytenne on alakuloinen. Ja vielä lisäksi tänä päivänä! Mutta kirkko on onnellinen siitä, että Jumalan käsi on asettanut pyhän Pietarin istuimelle miehen, joka ymmärtää lastensa tarpeet ja jonka sydän toivoo niiden tyydyttämistä.» »En tiedä mitä tästä odotetusta keskustelusta mahtaa koitua, isä, mutta minun täytyy jättää itseni Pyhän hengen huostaan.
- 64. »Sitä ei voi auttaa nyt enää, teidän pyhyytenne.» »Ehkei minun olisi pitänyt mennä niin pitkälle — mutta kun tuo anarkismin aalto uhkaa koko maailmaa… Uskotko, että Rossi salaisesti on anarkisti?» »Pelkään, että hän on, teidän pyhyytenne, ja paitsi sitä kirkon ja pyhän isän pahimpia vihollisia.» »Sanotaan, että hän on ollut orpo lapsuudestaan asti eikä ole koskaan nähnyt isäänsä eikä äitiään.» »Sääli, sääli!» »Olen kuullut, että hänen julkisessa esiintymisessään on jonkinmoinen ylevyys ja hänen yksityiselämänsä on puhdas ja nuhteeton.» »Hänen suhteensa tuohon neitiin näyttää todistavan sitä, teidän pyhyytenne.» »Pyhä isä voi sääliä harhaan joutunutta poikaa ja kuitenkin voi hänen olla pakko tuomita häntä. Hänen täytyy pysyä erillään sellaisista henkilöistä, jotteivät hänen vastustajansa pääse sanomaan, että saarnatessaan rauhaa ja siveyttä hän itse salassa yllyttää ateismin, anarkian ja kapinallisuuden perkeleellisiä ajajia.» »Ehkä, teidän pyhyytenne.» »Isä, luuletteko, että huolehtiminen ajallisista asioista on vaarallista?»
- 65. »Joskus otaksun niin, teidän pyhyytenne, ja ajattelen, että pyhän isän olisi parempi olla ilman maita ja ihmisarmeijoja.» »Kuinka myöhään he tulevat», virkkoi paavi, mutta samassa ovi avautui ja ylimyskaartin upseeri polvistui kynnykselle. »Mitä nyt?» »Henkilöt, joita odotatte, ovat saapuneet, teidän pyhyytenne!» »Saattakaa heidät tänne», sanoi paavi.
- 66. XIV. Nuorella kuninkaalla oli yllään ratsuväen upseerin univormu, miekka vyöllä ja pitkä sininen viitta hartioilla. Hän polvistui paavin eteen, mutta pääministeri, joka oli tavallisessa siviilipuvussa, kumarsi syvään ja jäi seisomaan. »Pyydän, istukaa», lausui paavi istuutuen itse kullattuun nojatuoliin, kapusiinilainen vasemmalla sivullaan. Kuningas istui puutuolille vastapäätä paavia, mutta paroni jäi seisomaan hänen viereensä. Paavin ja kuninkaan välillä oli puinen pöytä, jolla paloi kaksi suurta kynttilää. Nuori kuningas oli kalpea, ja hänen värähtelevissä kasvoissaan oli kaino ilme. »Oli ystävällistä, että teidän pyhyytenne tahtoi nähdä meidät», sanoi hän, »ja ehkä asiamme vakavuus voi puolustaa käyntimme omituisuutta». Paavi, joka nojautui eteenpäin tuolissaan, kumarsi vastaukseksi. »Hänen ylhäisyytensä», sanoi kuningas osoittaen paronia, »kertoi minulle, että hän on saanut selville salaliiton henkeäni vastaan ja että teidän pyhyytenne tietää vehkeilijäin salaisuuden».
- 67. Vastaamatta mitään paavi katseli vakavasti nuorta kuningasta, joka alkoi näyttää hermostuneelta ja hämmästyneeltä. »Eipä siltä, että pelkäisin», sanoi hän, »en pelkää itse. Mutta tietysti minun täytyy ajatella muita — perhettäni — kansaani — Italiaakin — ja jos teidän pyhyytenne… jos… teidän pyhyytenne…» Paroni, joka oli seisonut toinen käsi rinnan yli ja toinen poskella, puuttui nyt puheeseen. »Teidän majesteettinne», sanoi hän, »sallittehan — ja teidän pyhyytenne», hän kumarsi molemmille, »että selitän käyntimme tarkoituksen.» Nuori kuningas hengähti helpotuksesta, ja paavi, joka yhä vielä oli ääneti, kumarsi taas päätään. »Muutamia päiviä sitten teidän pyhyytenne ystävällisesti ilmoitti hänen majesteettinsa hallitukselle saaneensa yksityistä tietä ilmoituksen, joka antoi aihetta pelkoon, että yleistä rauhaa vastaan on tekeillä hankkeita.» Paavi kumarsi taas myöntäen. »Sen jälkeen hallitus on saanut varmoja tietoja samasta seikasta, josta teidän pyhyytenne niin suosiollisesti ilmoitti, sekä myöskin luotettavan selonteon tuon salaliiton luonteesta. Sanalla sanoen, asiamiehemme ulkomailla on ilmoittanut, että Englannin, Ranskan ja Saksan kapinalliset ainekset ovat liittyneet yhteen ja suuntaavat liikkeensä Roomaa kohti, joka on tuleva vallankumouksen keskipisteeksi, ja että aiotaan hyökätä perustuslaillista yhteiskuntaa vastaan siten, että ensimmäinen isku tähdätään kuninkaaseemme.»
- 68. »Ja mitä sen johdosta tahdotte sanoa?» »Teidän pyhyytenne on ehkä kuullut, että hallituksen ja kansan tarkoitus on viettää hänen majesteettinsa valtaistuimellenousun päivää juhlamenoin. Se päivä on ensi maanantaina, ja meillä on syytä luulla, että juuri maanantai on aiottu tuon viheliäisen hankkeen toimeenpanopäiväksi.» »Ja mitä sitten?» »Teidän pyhyytenne voi olla monessa asiassa eri mieltä hänen majesteettinsa kanssa, mutta ette voi toivoa, että tuskan huutoja sekaantuu kuninkaallisen marssin säveliin.» »Jos hallitus tietää tuon kaiken, on sillä myöskin parannuskeino — muuttakaa kuninkaan juhlahankkeet.» »Neuvo, jolla teidän pyhyytenne kunnioittaa meitä, ei ole käytännöllinen. Jos hallitus muuttaa juhlahankkeet, käy kansa levottomaksi ja yleinen kiihtymys kasvaa. Tämän juhlan tarkoitus on juuri sitä tyynnyttää.» »Mutta miksi olette tullut minun luokseni?» »Siitä syystä, teidän pyhyytenne, että vaikka olemmekin saaneet tietomme varmalta taholta, olemme saaneet liian epämääräisiä tietoja voidaksemme niiden nojalla toimia tehokkaasti, ja me uskomme, että teidän pyhyytenne käytettävissä on keinoja, joiden avulla voidaan ylläpitää yleistä järjestystä ja» — viitaten selittävin liikkein kuninkaaseen — »pelastaa kuninkaan henki». Paavi liikahti levottomasti tuolillaan. »Pyydän teitä puhumaan suoraan», sanoi hän.
- 69. Paronin paksu viiksi kohosi hiukan hymyyn. »Teidän pyhyytenne», sanoi hän, »tietää jo, että sattuma ilmaisi meille, mistä te saitte tietonne. Sen kertoja oli nainen. »Tuo seikka ilmaisi meille, ketä tiedonanto koskee. Se koskee tuon saman naisen rakastajaa. Virallista tietä olemme saaneet todistuksia, että hän vehkeilee ulkomailla yhteiskunnallista järjestystä vastaan, ja siis…» »Jos tiedätte kaiken tuon, mitä siis minulta tahdotte?» »Teidän pyhyytenne ei ehkä ole tullut ajatelleeksi, että kysymyksessä oleva henkilö on parlamentin jäsen ja että häntä ei voida vangita, ellei erityisiä laissa määrätyltä ehtoja ole olemassa. Eräs näitä ehtoja on, että jonkun tulee voida syyttää häntä.» Paavi nousi seisomaan. »Te pyydätte minua syyttämään häntä?» Paroni kumarsi hyvin syvään. »Hallitus ei vaadi niin paljoa», sanoi hän. »Se toivoo ainoastaan, että teidän pyhyytenne kehoittaa kertojaansa tekemään niin.» »Te pyydätte siis minua loukkaamaan uskotun salaisuuden pyhyyttä?» »Se ei ole rippisalaisuus, teidän pyhyytenne, ja vaikka se olisi ollutkin, tietää teidän pyhyytenne paremmin kuin me, että ennenkin on ilmoitettu seikkoja, joitten tunteminen on välttämätön rikoksen estämiseksi.» Kapusiinilaisen sandaalit raapivat lattiaa, mutta paavi kohotti vasenta kättään, ja kapusiinilainen nojautui takaisin tuoliinsa.
- 70. »Te tiedätte», sanoi paavi, »että kysymyksessä oleva nuori nainen on naimisissa saman parlamentinjäsenen kanssa?» »Tiedämme, että hän luulee olevansa.» »Luulee!» kajahti kapusiinilaisen suuttunut ääni, mutta paavin vasen käsi kohosi taas. »Lyhyesti, te pyydätte minua kehoittamaan vaimoa uhraamaan miehensä.» »Jos teidän pyhyytenne nimittää sitä siksi — tekemään teon, jota rauhan säilyttäminen edellyttää…» »Minä nimitän sitä siksi miksi sanoin.» Paroni kumarsi, nuori kuningas näytti rauhattomalta, ja syntyi hetken äänettömyys. Sitten sanoi paavi: »Koska tuo nuori nainen tuskin tietänee ollenkaan enempää kuin mitä hän jo on kertonut ja minkä olemme teille ilmoittaneet, en käsitä mitä me voisimme tarjota hänelle, minkä tähden hän suostuisi uhraamaan miehensä.» »Voitte tarjota hänen miehensä hengen», sanoi paroni. »Hänen henkensä?» »Teidän pyhyytenne ei ehkä tiedä, että Euroopan hallitukset saatuaan tiedon laajalle levinneestä liitosta yhteiskuntaa vastaan ovat liittyneet yhteisiin toimiin sen kukistamiseksi. Yksi näistä toimenpiteistä on n.s. Belgian sopimuksen ulottaminen kaikkiin maihin, jonka sopimuksen nojalla kuninkaanmurhaan tai hallitsevien
- 71. henkilöiden henkeä uhkaaviin vehkeilyihin syypäät ovat luovutettavat asianomaiselle valtiolle.» »Entä sitten?» »Parlamentinjäsen Rossi on nyt Berliinissä. Jos häntä syytetään laillisessa järjestyksessä vehkeilystä kuninkaan henkeä vastaan, voimme vielä tänä iltana saada hänet vangituksi ja palautetuksi tänne tavallisena murhaajana.» »Entä sitten?» »Teidän pyhyytenne ei ehkä ole kuullut, että parlamentti viimeisten levottomuuksien jälkeen, huolimatta hänen majesteettinsa vastustuksesta, on säätänyt kuolemanrangaistuksen kaikenlaatuisesta valtionkavalluksesta?» »Siis», sanoi paavi, »jos vaimo syyttäisi miestään osanotosta tähän salaliittoon, mies tuomittaisiin kuolemaan.» »Tästä seikasta — niin», sanoi paroni. »Mutta nykyinen salaliitto ei ole ainoa vehkeily, johon Rossi on ottanut osaa. Kahdeksantoista vuotta sitten hänet tuomittiin poissaolevana vehkeilystä edellisen kuninkaamme henkeä vastaan. Hän ei ole vielä kärsinyt mitään tuon rikoksensa tähden, koska oli niin vaikea todistaa hänet samaksi henkilöksi. Edellisessä tapauksessa, kuten tässäkin, on olemassa ainoastaan yksi henkilö, joka voi täyttää lain vaatimat ehdot, mitä todistamiseen tulee. Tuo henkilö on sama nainen, joka kertoi asiasta teidän pyhyydellenne.» »Ja sitten?»
- 72. »Jos teidän pyhyytenne voi saada tuon nuoren naisen todistamaan, että hänen rakastajansa on sama, edellisestä salaliitosta tuomittu mies, niin autatte häntä pelastamaan miehensä hengen.» »Kuinka niin?» »Hänen majesteettinsa on taipuvainen lupaamaan teidän pyhyydellenne, että hän suo tuomitulle täyden anteeksiannon, olkoonpa tulos oikeustutkinnosta mikä tahansa.» »Ja sitten?» »Sitten Rossi ajetaan maanpakoon, uhkaava salaliitto kukistetaan, yleinen rauha vahvistetaan, ja kuninkaan henki on pelastettu.» Paavi nojautui tuolinsa käsipuihin, mutta ei puhunut ja täydellinen hiljaisuus vallitsi hetkisen. »Teidän pyhyytenne ymmärtää siis», sanoi paroni kohteliaasti, »että pyytäessään teidän pyhyyttänne toimittamaan syyttäjän tuolle miehelle, Rossille, hallitus ainoastaan anoo teiltä armotyötä, johon teidän korkea asemanne on teidät määrännyt». »Ja jos kieltäydyn tuosta armotyöstä?» Paroni kumarsi juhlallisesti. »Teidän pyhyytenne ei kieltäydy», sanoi hän. »Mutta jos kieltäydyn — mitä sitten?» »Sitten… teidän pyhyytenne… minun on selitettävä jotakin.» »Minä kuuntelen.»
- 73. »Kysymyksessä oleva mies on kirkon katkerin vihollinen. Olkoonpa hän kuinka tekopyhä tahansa, tiedetään, että hän on ateisti ja vapaamuurari, joka on vannonut, etteivät mitkään yksityiset asiat tai tunteet, ei isänmaa eikä suku saa kääntää häntä pois päämäärästä, joka on yhteiskunnan ja kirkon kukistaminen.» »Ja sitten?» »Hän on myöskin pyhän isän persoonallinen vihollinen, jonka mieluisin tehtävä on teidän pyhyytenne syökseminen paavin asemasta ja pyhän Pietarin istuimen järkähyttäminen.» »Ja sitten?» »Poliisi ja hallituksen armeija ovat ainoat voimat, jotka voivat suojella pyhää isää, ja ilman niitä kaikki huonot ainekset, joita on jokaisessa yhteiskunnassa, työntyisivät esiin, pyhä isä ajettaisiin pois Roomasta ja hänen pappejaan solvattaisiin kaduilla.» »Mutta mitä tapahtuu, jos huolimatta kaikesta tuosta vaarasta kieltäydyn ilmaisemasta kuolemattoman sielun salaisuutta?» »Teidän pyhyytenne kysyy, mitä tapahtuu, jos kieltäydytte hankkimasta syyttäjän miehelle, joka, kuten teidän pyhyytenne tietää, vehkeilee yleistä järjestystä vastaan?» »Minä kysyn.» »Mitä tapahtuu… teidän pyhyytenne, saanko sanoa…» »Jatkakaa.»
- 74. »Jos rikos tapahtuu ja kuningas saa surmansa, minun, kuninkaan ministerin, on pakko ilmaista — ja vaatia tämä munkki todistajaksi — että paavi tiesi asiasta edeltäkäsin ja käsittämällä mitä jaloimmalla tavalla kuolemattoman sielun salaisuuden pyhänä pitämisen kehoitti kuninkaanmurhaan.» »Ja sitten, hyvä herra?» »Maailma ei välitä hyvin hienoista eroavaisuuksista, teidän pyhyytenne, ja Vatikaani on tätä nykyä sotakannalla melkein kaikkia Euroopan valtoja ja kansoja vastaan. Nähdessään viattominta ja ylhäisintä vastaan tehdyn kamalan rikoksen maailma on sanova, että mitä paavi ei estänyt, sitä paavi toivoi, ja mitä paavi toivoi, sen hän päätti, ja että Rauhan Ruhtinaan edustaja koetti uudestaan rakentaa maallisen valtansa kapinoitsijain vehkeiden ja salamurhaajien miekkojen avulla.» Kapusiinilaisen sandaalit raapivat taas lattiaa ja taas paavi kohotti kätensä. »Te tulitte luokseni, kun kaikki muut keinonne olivat lopussa?» »Tietysti hallitus toivoo aina voivansa säästää teidän Pyhyydeltänne kaikki turhat ja kiusalliset kokemukset.» »Tuo nuori nainen on jaksanut vastustaa kaikkia muita vaikutuksia, eikö niin?» »Hän on vastustanut kaikkia vaikutuksia, joilla luonnolliset käskijät ovat koettaneet häntä taivuttaa.» »Olen kuullut siitä. Olen kuullut mitä teidän luonnolliset käskijänne ovat tehneet nöyryyttääkseen turvatonta naista. Hän on joutunut
- 75. sydämettömän miehen uhriksi, ja tietäen tuon seikan teidän neuvonantajanne ovat kiusanneet ja kiduttaneet häntä. He kiduttivat häntä köyhyydellä, nöyryytyksillä, mustasukkaisuudella ja häpeän varjolla. Mutta pyhä Jumala vahvisti hänen rakkauttaan, joka oli herännyt hänen sielussaan, ja hän kesti kaikki kiusaukset.» Ensi kerran paroni näytti joutuvan hämilleen. »Olen myöskin kuullut, että tuon saman päämäärän saavuttamiseksi teidän vankilassanne äskettäin tapahtui häpeällinen juttu, joka on loukannut kaikkea sekä taivaallista että inhimillistä oikeutta.» »Teidän pyhyytenne ei tule pitää totena kaikkea, mikä on painettuna nurkkalehdissä.» »Onko totta, että sinne, missä kurja, avuton olento kärsi rangaistusta rikoksestaan, teidän käskijänne toimittivat poliisin, joka valepuvussa koetti saada häntä syyttämään toveriaan?» »Nämä ovat valtioasioita, teidän pyhyytenne. En myönnä enkä kiellä.» »Ihmisyyden nimessä kysyn teiltä, ovatko sellaiset käskijät saaneet rangaistuksensa vai vieläkö he istuvat sisäasiainministeriössä?» »Epäilemättä viranomaiset menivät liian pitkälle, teidän pyhyytenne, mutta pitäisikö meidän tuollaisen viheliäisen hupsun tähden, joka kertoo kaikille eri juttuja, vetää viranomaisemme oikeuteen? Sellaisten henkilöiden sääliminen on vaarallista
- 76. sentimentaalisuutta, teidän pyhyytenne, mitä voimakas ja valistunut hallitus ei voi kannattaa.» »Jumala silloin hävittäköön kaikki sellaiset hallitukset sekä niitä kannattavat jumalattomat systeemit! Jos otaksumme, että mies oli viheliäinen hupsu, ei loukkaus koskenut häntä yksin, vaan hänen persoonassaan koko oikeuden henkeä. Mitä teidän käskijänne tekivät? He kiusasivat miestä käyttäen välikappaleenaan sitä rakkautta, jota hän tunsi vaimoaan kohtaan, hänen surmatun lapsensa muistoa, kaikkea sitä, mikä oli totta, jaloa ja taivaallista hänessä. He ristiinnaulitsivat Kristuksen tuossa avuttomassa miehessä, ja te seisotte tässä Kristuksen edustajan edessä puolustamassa noita tekoja!» Paavi oli noussut seisomaan ja kohottanut toisen kätensä päänsä yli ruhtinaallisin liikkein. Tietämättään nuori kuningas, joka oli käynyt kalman kalpeaksi, vaipui polvilleen, mutta paroni pani käsivartensa ristiin ja seisoi entistä jäykempänä. »Oletteko koskaan ajatellut tuollaisen väärän ministerin loppua? Ajatelkaapa hänen kuolinhetkeään, jolloin muisto kaikista noista nuorista olennoista, jotka hän on surmannut, kuolleista äideistä, yksinäisistä leskistä ja kyynelisistä orvoista häntä uhkaa. Ajatelkaa päivää jälkeen hänen kuolemansa, kun hän, joka vaelsi maailmassa Jumalan ruoskana, makaa maailman jaloissa eikä ole ketään niin kurjaa, ettei potkaisisi tuota häväistyä ruumista. Te tähtäätte korkealle, hyvä herra, mutta olkaa varuillanne, olkaa varuillanne!» Paavi istui taas ja kuningas nousi häveten heikkouttaan. »Teidän majesteettinne», sanoi paavi, »päivä tulee, jolloin meidän molempien täytyy astua Jumalan eteen tekemään tiliä töistämme, ja
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