![2 B.-S. Jung and J.-H. Lee
1 Introduction
With the advent of the diverse social networking services and the evolution of IOT
systems,thelatestapplicationswithhighcapacitiesanddataconcentrationareemerg-
ing [1, 2]. As a result, the working-set of the current computing system is increasing
more and more. It is also indispensable to increase the capacity of the memory for
data processing and storage.
Today DRAM is widely used as a main memory of a computing system as an
advantage such as low cost, high speed memory access time and access to a byte
address. However, DRAM can no longer function the role of the ideal of memory
due to the limitation of degree of integration and high consumption power [3, 4]. The
main memory, DRAM, accounts for roughly 40% of the total energy consumption of
the entire system [5]. Most of this power consumption is used for refresh operation
of capacitor and the transistor leakage current.
Currently, new memory structures and algorithms using next generation non-
volatile memory have been studied to overcome the limitations of DRAM. PCM,
STT-Ram and RRam are attracting attention as next-generation nonvolatile memo-
ries [6, 7]. In particular, PCM is guaranteed reliability and better performance than
RRam, and it has attracted attention as a substitute memory of DRAM due to higher
integration density than STT-RAM. Especially PCM has 4 times higher integration
density than DRAM. It also has byte-address access like DRAM. However, there
are following problems in using PCM as main memory [8–10]. First, the number of
writes is limited to 107
–108
like NAND flash. Secondly, for write operations, it has
high energy consumption and delay time (5–10 compared to DRAM).
One of the best ways to overcome the problems of PCM is the hybrid memory
structure that operates with DRAM. In this hybrid structure, the write-intensive page
is managed in the DRAM, thereby minimizing the problem of the write operation
of the PCM [11]. Therefore, this paper proposes a high performance-low power
DRAM and PCM hybrid memory system. The key idea in this paper is, first, that
the proposed hybrid system is a separation of hot-page and cold-page, taking into
account efficient memory operation and PCM write limitations. One of the ways
to improve performance of an effective memory system is to use two localities in
program execution. In this paper, we extended the concept of temporal locality. In
other words, the page that accessed the hybrid memory is assumed to be likely to be
referencedagaininthenearfuture.Second,frequentDRAMandPCMpageswapping
has greater performance degradation than PCM write operations. Therefore, in this
paper, page replacement between DRAM and PCM occurs only in pages selected
from hot-page from PCM to replace pages of DRAM and PCM.
Selective data buffering [12], Hot-cold data Filtering [8], and DRAM write-cache
[13] proposed a DRAM buffer structure with various block sizes for PCM. This
research reduced PCM access by storing sub-blocks that are more likely to be ref-
erenced in DRAM buffers of various block sizes. However, these operations are
sequentially accessed from the DRAM buffer to the PCM.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/41697-250615155934-cbdb4985/85/Software-Engineering-Research-Management-and-Applications-Roger-Lee-19-320.jpg)
![Temporal Locality with a Long Interval: Hybrid Memory System … 3
CLOCK-DWF [10] and M-CLOCK [14] has improved the performance of DRAM
and PCM hybrid memory systems by managing the pages where frequently request a
write reference in DRAM. However, in order to operate DRAM and PCM memories
simply for write requests, this research is unable to predict characteristics at the
time of program execution. CLOCK-HM [15] and Migration-Based [16] proposed a
method of operating a DRAM and PCM hybrid memory by predicting characteristics
under execution of a program. However, in order to judge the page exchange, the
page has a disadvantage that it is necessary to continuously update the boundary
value each time a reference occurs.
In this paper, we compare the performance of hybrid memory systems (CLOCK-
DWF, CLOCK-HW) with the same memory configuration and purpose. Simulation
results show that the energy-delay product, which is a performance index considering
the proposed hybrid average memory access time and energy consumption, has an
average improvement of 10 and 13%, respectively, compared with CLOCK-DWF
and CLOCK-HW.
2 Proposed Hybrid Memory System
2.1 Motivation
In order to reduce write reference of PCM in hybrid memory, it is effective to store
as many pages as possible to refer to writing to dram. Prediction of pages those are
likely to be referred to when executing this program is important. Using DRAM for
unilateral writing reference pages can rather cause various problems. A Write and
a read reference cannot be accurately predicted at program execution. Furthermore,
depending on the characteristics of the program, the ratio of write reference and read
reference is not constant. Therefore, the most important consideration for effective
operation of hybrid memory is dram’s effective memory operation.
Utilizing two localities for characteristics at the time of execution of a program is
as one of effective methods for improving the performance of the memory system.
The spatial locality means that the possibility that adjacent data of recently referenced
data is likely to be referenced, temporal locality means that recently referenced data is
likely to be referenced again in the near future. In general, spatial locality is sensitive
to block size, whereas temporal locality is sensitively to the number of blocks. The
basic unit of the current main memory system is 4 KB in the page, page management
considering temporal locality rather than spatial locality can be effective.
Another effective way to predict the characteristics of pages during program exe-
cution are to use the information on the page when a page fault is occurring. This
makes it easy to manage pages with temporal locality that has a long time gap.
Therefore, if the page extracted from the recent memory is frequently requested, it is
effective to manage the page from memory for a long time. However, it is difficult to
use such information directly from lowest hierarchical memory. Therefore, in order](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/41697-250615155934-cbdb4985/85/Software-Engineering-Research-Management-and-Applications-Roger-Lee-20-320.jpg)
![4 B.-S. Jung and J.-H. Lee
to utilize the page extracted from the recent memory, an additional history buffer is
necessary.
As a result, managing pages based on the temporal locality of the memory system
is an effective way of improving the performance. However, temporal locality with
only reference to the conventional page is difficult to solve the problem of PCM in
DRAM and PCM hybrid memory. Therefore, we considered the temporal locality of
the write reference for DRAM and PCM hybrid memory system.
In this paper, we newly defined and predicted temporal locality of a write reference
for effective page management. In other words, pages where write references occur
frequently are intensively managed from the DRAM. Furthermore, after these pages
are extracted from the hybrid memory, if the page is requested in the near future, the
page is determined to be temporal locality and managed from the DRAM. We call
the hot page.
2.2 The Proposed Algorithm
In this paper, the proposed Hybrid memory system is a memory of the same layer
in both DRAM and PCM and is basically executed based on the CLOCK algorithm
[13]. And the proposed Hot_page implementation can be roughly divided into three
situations.
(1) when the requested page refers to writing by a miss.
(2) when a page extracted from the recent hybrid memory is requested.
(3) Frequent write reference to a page requested.
The Hot_pages that defined by reference to requested writes and frequent page
references can be determined during program execution. On the other hand, the
Hot_page defined from the page extracted from the recent hybrid memory requires
an additional list. Therefore, in this paper, we propose a victim list to exploit the
information of recently extracted pages from hybrid memory system. This victim
list will have information on hot pages defined from PCM along with the Meta
information of pages discarded from hybrid memory system The Fig. 1a shows the
state of the current hybrid memory system.
(1) DRAM Operation: Hot_page is stored in DRAM of the hybrid memory sys-
tem, and basically DRAM will manage pages centered on write reference. For
effective page management, DRAM has additional state bits. The proposed state
bits are as follows.
Reference bit (R): This bit indicates a page in which a recent write reference or read
reference has occurred, and is updated to ‘1’ when a page reference occurs.
Write_bit (W): This bit indicates a page in which a recent write reference has
occurred, and is updated to ‘1’ when a write reference.
Pre_Write bit (PW): This bit indicates the previous state that the write bit is updated
by the CLOCK-handle. That is, When the CLOCK-handle scans a page for victim](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/41697-250615155934-cbdb4985/85/Software-Engineering-Research-Management-and-Applications-Roger-Lee-21-320.jpg)
![8 B.-S. Jung and J.-H. Lee
In PCM of the Fig. 1a, we will check the state bits from Page G2 where the
CLOCK_handle(black arrow) is located. Page G2 is excluded the candidate group
of the victim page because R bit of the pages is ‘1’, and R bit is updated to ‘0’ at that
time. Also, Page A2 and Page F2 are excluded the candidate group of the victim page
because R bit of the pages is ‘1’, and R bit is updated to ‘0’. Even if the R bit of Page
I1 is ‘0’, it is excluded from the victim page candidate group because W bit is ‘1’.
Here, when W bit is ‘1’, the page means a candidate group of the page replacement
between DRAM and PCM, which means a page with a high possibility of occurrence
of rewrite reference. Therefore, it is effective that page for which a writ reference is
requested exists for a long time in PCM. These operations are performed in the PCM
that the victim page will be selected until.
In such an operation, Page K1 is selected as a victim page in PCM, where it is
replaced by Page E1. And the CLOCK_handle for PCM point to Page G2 which
is the next page of the replaced page. Then, the page K1 extracted from PCM is
stored in the memory of the lowest hierarchy, and the meta data and H bit that is
an information of the Page K1 are stored in the victim list. The Fig. 1c shows the
result of page replacement when Page Q is defined in the Hot_page and the hybrid
memories miss occurs.
If the requested Page Q is not in the victim list, the Page Q is replaced with the
Page K1 of the victim page of PCM. Then all the state bits of the stored Page Q are
updated to ‘0’. Here, the operation of the victim list is the same as the above-described
operation.
3 Performance Evaluation
In this section, we evaluated the performance of the proposed hybrid memory system.
For performance evaluation, we confirmed the memory access address of SPEC CPU
2006 through a modified Cachegrind tool from the Valgrind 3.6.3 toolset. We filter
memoryreferences out that areaccesseddirectlyfromthecachememories andcollect
only 100 million main memory references. Therefore, the proposed hybrid memory
system was performed by trace driven simulation.
And we also utilized the DRAM and PCM characteristics for the simulation, as
shown in Table 1 [10, 17–19]. The default sizes of DRAM and PCM for hybrid
memory system are 32 and 128 MB, respectively. Since the existing DRAM module
is 128 MB, the size of PCM was also selected with the same size of 128 MB. And
since the degree of integration of DRAM is 1/4 of PCM, it was chosen to be 32 MB.
3.1 Victim List Size
In this paper, Hot_page is defined by page which is requested for a write reference,
and page which is existed in the victim list. The page which is requested write](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/41697-250615155934-cbdb4985/85/Software-Engineering-Research-Management-and-Applications-Roger-Lee-25-320.jpg)
Software Engineering Research Management and Applications Roger Lee
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- 4. Studies in Computational Intelligence 789 Roger Lee Editor Software Engineering Research, Management and Applications
- 5. Studies in Computational Intelligence Volume 789 Series editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland e-mail: kacprzyk@ibspan.waw.pl
- 6. The series “Studies in Computational Intelligence” (SCI) publishes new develop- ments and advances in the various areas of computational intelligence—quickly and with a high quality. The intent is to cover the theory, applications, and design methods of computational intelligence, as embedded in the fields of engineering, computer science, physics and life sciences, as well as the methodologies behind them. The series contains monographs, lecture notes and edited volumes in computational intelligence spanning the areas of neural networks, connectionist systems, genetic algorithms, evolutionary computation, artificial intelligence, cellular automata, self-organizing systems, soft computing, fuzzy systems, and hybrid intelligent systems. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the world-wide distribution, which enable both wide and rapid dissemination of research output. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7092
- 7. Roger Lee Editor Software Engineering Research, Management and Applications 123
- 8. Editor Roger Lee Software Engineering and Information Technology Institute Central Michigan University Mt. Pleasant, MI, USA ISSN 1860-949X ISSN 1860-9503 (electronic) Studies in Computational Intelligence ISBN 978-3-319-98880-1 ISBN 978-3-319-98881-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98881-8 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018953311 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
- 9. Foreword The purpose of the 16th International Conference on Software Engineering, Artificial Intelligence Research, Management and Applications (SERA 2018) held on June 13–15, 2018 at Kunming, China is aimed at bringing together scientists, engineers, computer users, and students to share their experiences and exchange new ideas and research results about all aspects (theory, applications, and tools) of Software Engineering Research, Management and Applications, and to discuss the practical challenges encountered along the way and the solutions adopted to solve them. The conference organizers selected the best 17 papers from those papers accepted for presentation at the conference in order to publish them in this volume. The papers were chosen based on review scored submitted by members of the program committee and underwent further rigorous rounds of review. In Chapter “Temporal Locality with a Long Interval: Hybrid Memory System for High-Performance and Low-Power”, Bo-Sung Jung and Jung-Hoon Lee designed a DRAM and PCM hybrid memory system with low power consumption and high performance based on effective temporal locality. They proposed a page manage- ment method based on the temporal locality of a write reference center. According to the simulation results, the proposed hybrid memory achieved performance improvement from about 13 and 10% from energy-delay product compared with CLOCK-DWF and CLOCK-HM. In Chapter “Design and Evaluation of a MMO Game Server”, Youngsik Kim and Ki-Nam Kim implement a simple MMO Game Server using IOCP and eval- uates its performance. Also, IOCP packet design and processing method are pre- sented. The simple MMO Game Server implemented in this paper also supports multi-thread synchronization and dead reckoning. In Chapter “Automatic Generation of Image Identifiers Based on Luminance and Parallel Processing”, Je-Ho Park, Young B. Park, and Mi-Eun Ko propose a method to construct indexing of images utilizing the concept of the luminance area. The experimental evaluation of the proposed method illustrates that the proposed method satisfies the requirements for the image identification while reducing the processing cost. v
- 10. In Chapter “Interface Module for Emulator-Based Web Application Execution Engine”, Hyunwoo Nam and Neungsoo Park propose a modified web-based emulator with the interface module and API, called as the web emulator-based execution engine. The experimental emulator-based web application was imple- mented and tested to evaluate the overall system. In Chapter “A Study on the Influence and Marketing Effect of Korean Wave Events and Festivals Organization”, Jae Ho Park, Jeong Bae Park, and Cheong Ghil Kim introduce a method of measuring the influence and marketing effect of orga- nizations for Korean Wave Events and Festivals. The feasibility of measuring results is also ensured by exploratory factor analysis. In Chapter “Understanding the Success Factors of R&D Organization”, Donghyuk Jo and Jongwoo Park attempt to understand the contributing factors of Research & Development (R&D) project in terms of social capital perspective, which is being considered key resource of business management today. The sig- nificance of this study is in validating the importance of team capital and compe- tence building under R&D project environment and presents strategic direction for R&D project success and team competence. In Chapter “Study on Detection Algorithm of Live Animal in Self-bag-Drop Kiosk in Airport Using UWB Radar”, Kiwon Jung, Younghwan Bang, and Sun-Myung Hwang proposed a method of detection by UWB (Ultra-Wide Band) to prevent against safety accidents which could be occurred in Self-Bag Drop installed and unmanned operated in airport by the unexpected intrusions such as alive ani- mals, humans especially. In Chapter “A Study on Success Factors for Business Model Innovation in the 4th Industrial Revolution”, Sung-Hwan Yoon, Nguyen Si Thin, Vo Thi Thanh Thao, Eun-Tak Im, and Gwang-Yong Gim conduct an analysis that will be made to see what factors are important for unicorn enterprises. While the existing studies emphasized regulations and entrepreneurship aspects, the unicorn enterprises that are currently governing the world have been realized by having innovative business models as the key competence with entrepreneurship and regulations added. In Chapter “A Study on the Efficiency of Global Major Mobile Operators”, Jeongil Choi1, Youngju Park, and Yonghee Kim analyzed the efficiency of global major mobile operators and the reason for their efficiency. For this purpose, the financial data of 96 operators in 40 OECD member countries were utilized. Based on this financial data, this study conducted a comparative analysis of the efficiency among operators and among countries. In Chapter “A Study on Effects of Supporting Born Global Startups Policy Affecting the Business”, Jung-Ran An, SungTaek Lee, Ju-Hyung Kim, and Gwang-Yong Gim focused on corporate finance and nonfinancial performance. This study not only provides meaningful information on the implementation of policy research and the implementation of startup policy, but it also provides a framework for the study. vi Foreword
- 11. In Chapter “Design of the Model for Indoor Location Prediction Using IMU of Smartphone Based on Beacon”, Jae-Gwang Lee, Seoung-Hyeon Lee, and Jae-Kwang Lee propose a room location prediction model that can improve user’s position accuracy and detect user’s position in case of signal loss using Beacon and smartphone sensor. In Chapter “IoT Implementation of SGCA Stream Cipher Algorithm on 8-bits AVR Microcontroller”, Mouza Ahmed Bani Shemaili, Chan Yeob Yeun, Mohamed Jamal Zemerly, Khalid Mubarak, Hyun Ku Yeun, Yousef Al Hammadi, and Yoon Seok Chang designed a lightweight and secure stream ciphers for IoT to secure hardware and software that can fit constrain resources devices. Thus, they imple- ment their proposed solution on 8-bit AVR microcontroller in order to study the required memory and speed. In Chapter “A Study on Upgrading Non-urban Areas-Using Big Data the Case of Hwang Ze and Danggok Districts”, Yong Pil Geum examines areas with potential future growth in resident populations through political implication from population expansion in non-urban areas. Using big data, Hwang Ze and Danggok districts in Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea, were chosen as research subjects owing to their proximity to Jillyang-eup of Gyeongsain-si, where rural and industrial areas are in contact and urbanization is taking place for upgrading non-urban area using big data. In Chapter “Simulation of Flood Water Level Early Warning System Using Combination Forecasting Model”, Kristine Bernadette Barrameda, Sang Hoon Lee, and Su-Yeon Kim explore the use of BPNN and SVM techniques as a combined model using the Minimum Variance (MV) method to predict the upcoming flood water level events in Calinog River, Iloilo, Philippines. In Chapter “A Study on the Components that Make the Sound of Acceleration in the Virtual Engine of a Car”, Sang-Hwi Jee, Won-Hee Lee, Hyungwoo Park, and Myung-Jin Bae study the virtual engine sounds that can enhance the feeling of acceleration by controlling the playback speed of a virtual engine sound. An MOS test showed that the virtual engine sound was not much different from the engine sound of an existing engine. In Chapter “A Study on the Characteristics of an EEG Based on a Singing Bowl’s Sound Frequency”, Ik-Soo Ahn, Bong-Young Kim, Kwang-Bock You, and Myung-Jin Bae analyzed the sound of a singing bowl, which is used as a method to restore and maintain the balance of the natural frequency of the human body, and studied the EEG (electroencephalogram) of the listener according to the frequency band of the singing bowl’s sounds. In Chapter “A Study on the Stability of Ultra-High Frequency Vocalization of Soprano Singers”, Uk-Jin Song, Ik-Soo Ahn, Myung-Sook Kim, and Myung-Jin present a study on the Stability of Ultra-High Frequency Vocalization of Soprano Singers. To confirm whether these soprano singers actually show distinct vibrations Foreword vii
- 12. in the high frequency range, they analyze the vibration characteristics of four Korean sopranos to ascertain the depth of their vocal vibration. It is our sincere hope that this volume provides stimulation and inspiration, and that it will be used as a foundation for works to come. Program Chairs Nanjing, China Bing Luo Nanjing University Chengdu, China Junfeng Wang Sichuan University Kunming, China Zhengtao Yu June 2018 Kunming University of Science and Technology viii Foreword
- 13. Contents Temporal Locality with a Long Interval: Hybrid Memory System for High-Performance and Low-Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Bo-Sung Jung and Jung-Hoon Lee Design and Evaluation of a MMO Game Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Youngsik Kim and Ki-Nam Kim Automatic Generation of Image Identifiers Based on Luminance and Parallel Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Je-Ho Park, Young B. Park and Mi-Eun Ko Interface Module for Emulator-Based Web Application Execution Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Hyunwoo Nam and Neungsoo Park A Study on the Influence and Marketing Effect of Korean Wave Events and Festivals Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Jae Ho Park, Jeong Bae Park and Cheong Ghil Kim Understanding the Success Factors of R&D Organization . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Donghyuk Jo and Jongwoo Park Study on Detection Algorithm of Live Animal in Self-bag-Drop Kiosk in Airport Using UWB Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Kiwon Jung, Younghwan Bang and Sun-Myung Hwang A Study on Success Factors for Business Model Innovation in the 4th Industrial Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Sung-Hwan Yoon, Nguyen Si Thin, Vo Thi Thanh Thao, Eun-Tak Im and Gwang-Yong Gim A Study on the Efficiency of Global Major Mobile Operators . . . . . . . . 129 Jeongil Choi, Youngju Park and Yonghee Kim ix
- 14. A Study on Effects of Supporting Born Global Startups Policy Affecting the Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Jung-Ran An, Sung Taek Lee, Ju-Hyung Kim and Gwang-Yong Gim Design of the Model for Indoor Location Prediction Using IMU of Smartphone Based on Beacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Jae-Gwang Lee, Seoung-Hyeon Lee and Jae-Kwang Lee IoT Implementation of SGCA Stream Cipher Algorithm on 8-Bits AVR Microcontroller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Mouza Ahmed Bani Shemaili, Chan Yeob Yeun, Mohamed Jamal Zemerly, Khalid Mubarak, Hyun Ku Yeun, Yousef Al Hammadi and Yoon Seok Chang A Study on Upgrading Non-urban Areas-Using Big Data the Case of Hwang Ze and Danggok Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Yong Pil Geum Simulation of Flood Water Level Early Warning System Using Combination Forecasting Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Kristine Bernadette Barrameda, Sang Hoon Lee and Su-Yeon Kim A Study on the Components that Make the Sound of Acceleration in the Virtual Engine of a Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Sang-Hwi Jee, Won-Hee Lee, Hyungwoo Park and Myung-Jin Bae A Study on the Characteristics of an EEG Based on a Singing Bowl’s Sound Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Ik-Soo Ahn, Bong-Young Kim, Kwang-Bock You and Myung-Jin Bae A Study on the Stability of Ultra-High Frequency Vocalization of Soprano Singers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Uk-Jin Song, Ik-Soo Ahn, Myung-Sook Kim and Myung-Jin Bae Author Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 x Contents
- 15. Contributors Ik-Soo Ahn Sori Engineering lab, Department of Information and Telecommunication Engineering, Soongsil University, Dongjak, Seoul, South Korea Yousef Al Hammadi College of Information Technology, UAE University, Al Ain, UAE Jung-Ran An Department of Business Administration, Soongsil University, Seoul, Republic of Korea Myung-Jin Bae Sori Engineering Lab, Department of Information and Telecommunication Engineering, Soongsil University, Sangdo-Dong, DongJak-Gu, Seoul, South Korea Younghwan Bang Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Chungcheongnam- do, Republic of Korea Mouza Ahmed Bani Shemaili CIS Division, HCT, Ras al Khaimah, UAE Kristine Bernadette Barrameda School of Computer and Information Engineering, Daegu University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea Yoon Seok Chang School of Air Transport and Logistics, Korea Aerospace University, Goyang, South Korea Jeongil Choi College of Business Administration, Soongsil University, Seoul, South Korea Yong Pil Geum Catholic University of Daegu, Gyeongsan, South Korea Gwang-Yong Gim Department of Business Administration, Soongsil University, Seoul, Republic of Korea Sun-Myung Hwang Daejeon University, Daejeon, Republic of Korea Eun-Tak Im Soongsil University, Seoul, Korea xi
- 16. Sang-Hwi Jee Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Soongsil University Sori Engineering Lab Sangdo-Dong, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul, Korea Donghyuk Jo Department of Business Administration, Soongsil University, Seoul, South Korea Bo-Sung Jung Department of Control and Instrumentation, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Gyeongnam, Korea Kiwon Jung SCom CNS Inc, Daejeon, Republic of Korea Bong-Young Kim Department of Information and Telecommunication, Soongsil University, Dongjak, Seoul, South Korea Cheong Ghil Kim Department of Computer Science, Namseoul University, Cheonan, Choongnam, Korea Ju-Hyung Kim Department of IT Policy and Management, Soongsil University, Soongsil University, Seoul, Republic of Korea Ki-Nam Kim Department of Game and Multimedia Engineering, Korea Polytechnic University, Siheung-si, Republic of Korea Myung-Sook Kim Department English Language and Literature, SoongSil University, Sangdo-Dong, DongJak-Gu, Seoul, Korea Su-Yeon Kim School of Computer and Information Engineering, Daegu University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea Yonghee Kim College of Business Administration, Soongsil University, Seoul, South Korea Youngsik Kim Department of Game and Multimedia Engineering, Korea Polytechnic University, Siheung-si, Republic of Korea Mi-Eun Ko School of Computer Engineering, Hansung University, Seoul, South Korea Jae-Gwang Lee Department of Computer Engineering Hannam University, Daejeon, Korea Jae-Kwang Lee Department of Computer Engineering Hannam University, Daejeon, Korea Jung-Hoon Lee ERI, Department of Control and Instrumentation, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Gyeongnam, Korea Sang Hoon Lee School of Computer and Information Engineering, Daegu University, Gyeongsan, Republic of Korea Seoung-Hyeon Lee Information Security Research Division, ETRI, Daejeon, Korea xii Contributors
- 17. Sung Taek Lee Department of IT Policy and Management, Soongsil University, Soongsil University, Seoul, Republic of Korea Won-Hee Lee Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Soongsil University Sori Engineering Lab Sangdo-Dong, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul, Korea Khalid Mubarak Dubai Men’s College, HCT, Dubai, UAE Hyunwoo Nam Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea Hyungwoo Park Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Soongsil University Sori Engineering Lab Sangdo-Dong, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul, Korea Jae Ho Park Department of Performance Planning and Management, ChungWoon University, Hongseong, Choongnam, Korea Je-Ho Park Department of Software Science, Dankook University, Yongin, South Korea Jeong Bae Park Department of Performance Planning and Management, ChungWoon University, Hongseong, Choongnam, Korea Jongwoo Park Department of Business Administration, Soongsil University, Seoul, South Korea Neungsoo Park Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea Young B. Park Department of Software Science, Dankook University, Yongin, South Korea Youngju Park Graduate School of Business, Soongsil University, Seoul, South Korea Uk-Jin Song Sori Engineering Lab, Soongsil University, DongJak-Gu, Seoul, South Korea Vo Thi Thanh Thao Soongsil University, Seoul, Korea Nguyen Si Thin Soongsil University, Seoul, Korea Chan Yeob Yeun ECE Department, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE Hyun Ku Yeun NS Division, HCT, Abu Dhabi, UAE Sung-Hwan Yoon Soongsil University, Seoul, Korea Kwang-Bock You Department of Information and Telecommunication, Soongsil University, Dongjak, Seoul, South Korea Mohamed Jamal Zemerly ECE Department, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE Contributors xiii
- 18. Temporal Locality with a Long Interval: Hybrid Memory System for High-Performance and Low-Power Bo-Sung Jung and Jung-Hoon Lee Abstract In this paper, the main idea is to design DRAM and PCM hybrid memory system with low power consumption and high performance based on effective tem- poral locality. PCM has two major drawbacks by write operation. First, the number of write operations is limited. Second, PCM has a longer write operation time than DRAM. On the other hand, DRAM can effectively overcome the disadvantages of PCM. Therefore, a page replacement algorithm suitable for the characteristics of DRAM and PCM is necessary for effective DRAM and PCM hybrid memory oper- ation. For page management considering the characteristics of PCM, we proposed a page management method based on the temporal locality of a write reference center. In this paper, pages with the temporal locality that are referenced at short intervals will be managed with hybrid memory; pages with temporal locality that are refer- enced at long intervals are managed by the proposed buffer system. Furthermore, a hot page is defined by a write operation and a buffer system, and this page is managed in DRAM to reduce the overhead of PCM. According to the simulation results, the proposed hybrid memory achieved performance improvement from about 13 and 10% from Energy-delay product compared with CLOCK-DWF and CLOCK-HM. Keywords Hybrid memory · Memory architecture · Temporal locality Low-power · Performance B.-S. Jung Department of Control and Instrumentation, Gyeongsang National University, 501 Jinju-Daero, Jinju, Gyeongnam, Korea e-mail: blueking80@gnu.ac.kr J.-H. Lee (B) ERI, Department of Control and Instrumentation, Gyeongsang National University, 501 Jinju-Daero, Jinju, Gyeongnam, Korea e-mail: leejh@gnu.ac.kr © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 R. Lee (ed.), Software Engineering Research, Management and Applications, Studies in Computational Intelligence 789, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-98881-8_1 1
- 19. 2 B.-S. Jung and J.-H. Lee 1 Introduction With the advent of the diverse social networking services and the evolution of IOT systems,thelatestapplicationswithhighcapacitiesanddataconcentrationareemerg- ing [1, 2]. As a result, the working-set of the current computing system is increasing more and more. It is also indispensable to increase the capacity of the memory for data processing and storage. Today DRAM is widely used as a main memory of a computing system as an advantage such as low cost, high speed memory access time and access to a byte address. However, DRAM can no longer function the role of the ideal of memory due to the limitation of degree of integration and high consumption power [3, 4]. The main memory, DRAM, accounts for roughly 40% of the total energy consumption of the entire system [5]. Most of this power consumption is used for refresh operation of capacitor and the transistor leakage current. Currently, new memory structures and algorithms using next generation non- volatile memory have been studied to overcome the limitations of DRAM. PCM, STT-Ram and RRam are attracting attention as next-generation nonvolatile memo- ries [6, 7]. In particular, PCM is guaranteed reliability and better performance than RRam, and it has attracted attention as a substitute memory of DRAM due to higher integration density than STT-RAM. Especially PCM has 4 times higher integration density than DRAM. It also has byte-address access like DRAM. However, there are following problems in using PCM as main memory [8–10]. First, the number of writes is limited to 107 –108 like NAND flash. Secondly, for write operations, it has high energy consumption and delay time (5–10 compared to DRAM). One of the best ways to overcome the problems of PCM is the hybrid memory structure that operates with DRAM. In this hybrid structure, the write-intensive page is managed in the DRAM, thereby minimizing the problem of the write operation of the PCM [11]. Therefore, this paper proposes a high performance-low power DRAM and PCM hybrid memory system. The key idea in this paper is, first, that the proposed hybrid system is a separation of hot-page and cold-page, taking into account efficient memory operation and PCM write limitations. One of the ways to improve performance of an effective memory system is to use two localities in program execution. In this paper, we extended the concept of temporal locality. In other words, the page that accessed the hybrid memory is assumed to be likely to be referencedagaininthenearfuture.Second,frequentDRAMandPCMpageswapping has greater performance degradation than PCM write operations. Therefore, in this paper, page replacement between DRAM and PCM occurs only in pages selected from hot-page from PCM to replace pages of DRAM and PCM. Selective data buffering [12], Hot-cold data Filtering [8], and DRAM write-cache [13] proposed a DRAM buffer structure with various block sizes for PCM. This research reduced PCM access by storing sub-blocks that are more likely to be ref- erenced in DRAM buffers of various block sizes. However, these operations are sequentially accessed from the DRAM buffer to the PCM.
- 20. Temporal Locality with a Long Interval: Hybrid Memory System … 3 CLOCK-DWF [10] and M-CLOCK [14] has improved the performance of DRAM and PCM hybrid memory systems by managing the pages where frequently request a write reference in DRAM. However, in order to operate DRAM and PCM memories simply for write requests, this research is unable to predict characteristics at the time of program execution. CLOCK-HM [15] and Migration-Based [16] proposed a method of operating a DRAM and PCM hybrid memory by predicting characteristics under execution of a program. However, in order to judge the page exchange, the page has a disadvantage that it is necessary to continuously update the boundary value each time a reference occurs. In this paper, we compare the performance of hybrid memory systems (CLOCK- DWF, CLOCK-HW) with the same memory configuration and purpose. Simulation results show that the energy-delay product, which is a performance index considering the proposed hybrid average memory access time and energy consumption, has an average improvement of 10 and 13%, respectively, compared with CLOCK-DWF and CLOCK-HW. 2 Proposed Hybrid Memory System 2.1 Motivation In order to reduce write reference of PCM in hybrid memory, it is effective to store as many pages as possible to refer to writing to dram. Prediction of pages those are likely to be referred to when executing this program is important. Using DRAM for unilateral writing reference pages can rather cause various problems. A Write and a read reference cannot be accurately predicted at program execution. Furthermore, depending on the characteristics of the program, the ratio of write reference and read reference is not constant. Therefore, the most important consideration for effective operation of hybrid memory is dram’s effective memory operation. Utilizing two localities for characteristics at the time of execution of a program is as one of effective methods for improving the performance of the memory system. The spatial locality means that the possibility that adjacent data of recently referenced data is likely to be referenced, temporal locality means that recently referenced data is likely to be referenced again in the near future. In general, spatial locality is sensitive to block size, whereas temporal locality is sensitively to the number of blocks. The basic unit of the current main memory system is 4 KB in the page, page management considering temporal locality rather than spatial locality can be effective. Another effective way to predict the characteristics of pages during program exe- cution are to use the information on the page when a page fault is occurring. This makes it easy to manage pages with temporal locality that has a long time gap. Therefore, if the page extracted from the recent memory is frequently requested, it is effective to manage the page from memory for a long time. However, it is difficult to use such information directly from lowest hierarchical memory. Therefore, in order
- 21. 4 B.-S. Jung and J.-H. Lee to utilize the page extracted from the recent memory, an additional history buffer is necessary. As a result, managing pages based on the temporal locality of the memory system is an effective way of improving the performance. However, temporal locality with only reference to the conventional page is difficult to solve the problem of PCM in DRAM and PCM hybrid memory. Therefore, we considered the temporal locality of the write reference for DRAM and PCM hybrid memory system. In this paper, we newly defined and predicted temporal locality of a write reference for effective page management. In other words, pages where write references occur frequently are intensively managed from the DRAM. Furthermore, after these pages are extracted from the hybrid memory, if the page is requested in the near future, the page is determined to be temporal locality and managed from the DRAM. We call the hot page. 2.2 The Proposed Algorithm In this paper, the proposed Hybrid memory system is a memory of the same layer in both DRAM and PCM and is basically executed based on the CLOCK algorithm [13]. And the proposed Hot_page implementation can be roughly divided into three situations. (1) when the requested page refers to writing by a miss. (2) when a page extracted from the recent hybrid memory is requested. (3) Frequent write reference to a page requested. The Hot_pages that defined by reference to requested writes and frequent page references can be determined during program execution. On the other hand, the Hot_page defined from the page extracted from the recent hybrid memory requires an additional list. Therefore, in this paper, we propose a victim list to exploit the information of recently extracted pages from hybrid memory system. This victim list will have information on hot pages defined from PCM along with the Meta information of pages discarded from hybrid memory system The Fig. 1a shows the state of the current hybrid memory system. (1) DRAM Operation: Hot_page is stored in DRAM of the hybrid memory sys- tem, and basically DRAM will manage pages centered on write reference. For effective page management, DRAM has additional state bits. The proposed state bits are as follows. Reference bit (R): This bit indicates a page in which a recent write reference or read reference has occurred, and is updated to ‘1’ when a page reference occurs. Write_bit (W): This bit indicates a page in which a recent write reference has occurred, and is updated to ‘1’ when a write reference. Pre_Write bit (PW): This bit indicates the previous state that the write bit is updated by the CLOCK-handle. That is, When the CLOCK-handle scans a page for victim
- 22. Temporal Locality with a Long Interval: Hybrid Memory System … 5 Fig. 1 The proposed hybrid memory system operation: a the initial states of the hybrid memory system, b page replacement operation, and c the page fault operation page selection, if the W bit is ‘1’, the PW bit is updated to the W bit value and the W bit is updated to ‘0’. Hot_page (P): This refers to a page where page replacement occurred in the DRAM due to frequent reference from the PCM. So, when pages are exchanged between DRAM and PCM, the H bit of the page stored in DRAM is updated to ‘1’.
- 23. 6 B.-S. Jung and J.-H. Lee Second chance bit (S): This bit represents the page in which the frequently write reference occurred, and it is determined by W bit and PW bit. In DRAM of Fig. 1a, Page B1 and F1 are pages where page replacement has occurred form PCM because the H bit have ‘1’. And the other pages are pages stored in DRAM by Hot_page definition. If a read reference on DRAM occurred, R bit is updated to ‘1’. On the other hand, when a write reference occur R bit and W bit are set to ‘1’. As mentioned earlier, W bit and PW bit indicate current write reference and previ- ous write reference state. So when W bit and PW bit are all ‘1’ and rewrite reference occurs, we defined that the page will be referenced in the near future. Therefore, it is effective to manage these pages for a long time with DRAM. Therefore, in this paper, S bit for second chance was used to effectively manage the pages that are likely to frequently write references. Therefore, if a write reference occurs on Page C1 that has W bit and PW bit are all ‘1’, S bit is updated to ‘1’. On the other hand, if there is no ‘1’ in either W bit or PW bit, DRAM is updated only W bit and R bit. The other hand, when a write reference occurs in Page E1, only W bit and R bit are set to ‘1’. (2) PCM Operation: PCM manages the cold page proposed in this paper and the page extracted from dram. The page of PCM is managed by a read reference and a write reference. For such operation, PCM has the following additional bits. Hot_page bit (H): This refers to a page in which page replacement occurred more than once in the DRAM due to frequent reference from the PCM. And the value of the state bit is inherited from DRAM. Write bit (W): This bit indicates a page in which a recent write reference has occurred, and is updated to ‘1’ when a write reference occurs. Reference bit (R): This bit indicates a page in which a recent write reference or read reference has occurred, and is updated to ‘1’ when a page reference occurs. In the Fig. 1a, since the H bit of Page I1 and Page A2 are ‘1’, these are pages that have occurred at least once more for page replacement to DRAM. Other pages were extracted from DARM, or Cold page defined in this paper. If a read reference Occurs, the R bit is simply set to ‘1’. On the other hand, when a write reference occurs, the state bits of W bit and R bit will be checked. If a write reference occurs on Page I1, both W bit and R bit are updated to ‘1’. On the other hand, if a write reference occurs on Page J1 with that W bit and R bit is ‘1’, Page J1 is defined the Hot_page on PCM due to W bit and R bit. So, according to the proposed algorithm, PCM’s Page J1 is a group of candidates for page replacement with dram’s cold page. (3) Page replacement between DRAM and PCM: If there is a free page for the page replacement, the page is saved in the free page. And H bit of the page that was stored in DRAM from PCM is updated to ‘1’. Then, the remaining state bits of DRAM are updated to ‘0’. And when page is saved from DARM to PCM, H bit and R bit of DRAM are inherited to H bit and R bit of PCM.
- 24. Temporal Locality with a Long Interval: Hybrid Memory System … 7 On the other hand, if the DRAM does not have a free page for page replacement, the victim page is selected by proposed algorithm. In this paper, DRAM is managed on the basis of the write reference. So, the victim page will select pages where the write reference related state bits are all ‘0’. That is, a page whose W bit and S bit which is state bits area all ‘0’ is selected as a victim page. In order to select the victim page, in the Fig. 1a, we check the state bits of the W bit and S bit on Page A, which is indicated by the CLOCK_handle (white arrow). Since the W bit on Page A is ‘1’, it is excluded from the candidates for the victim page. At this time, the PW bit is updated to ‘1’ by W bit, and the W bit is updated to ‘0’. The CLOCK_handle indicate to page B1 which is the next page, and checks the state bits of the page. Page B1 is excluded from the candidates for victim page because S bit is ‘1’, at this time, W bit is updated to ‘1’ by S bit, and S bit is updated to ‘0’. Through this operation, Page C1 is also excluded from the candidate of the victim page. And Page E1 where W bit and S bit are all ‘0’ is selected as the victim page. Then the CLOCK_handle indicate to Page F1 for the next state bit check. Here, selection of the victim page is executed only 1cycle for the page replacement between DRAM and PCM. If DRAM’s victim pages are not selected during 1 cycle, there will be no page replacement between DRAM and PCM. Figure 1b show the state bits that is updated by to select victim page on DRAM, and the result of page replacement by DARM and PCM. In the PCM of the Fig. 1b, since H bit and R bit of the Page E1 that is selected a victim page are ‘1’, H bit and R bit are inherited when page is exchanged to PCM. And H bit of Page J1 stored in the DRAM is updated to’1’, and all the other state bits are updated to ‘0’. (4) Page fault operation: When a reference failure occurs in a page in the Hybrid memory system, Hot-pages are stored in the DRAM according to the algorithm in which the requested pages are proposed from the memory of the lowest hierarchy, otherwise it is stored in PCM. Hot_page is defined as a page requested form write reference or extracted from recent hybrid memory system. Recent pages extracted from Hybrid memory means a pages existing in the victim list in this paper. This victim list is included an information as Meta data and hot page of page which is extracted from PCM. If the Page Q is requested by a miss operation of Hybrid memory, the Page Q is stored in the DRAM because it is existing in the victim list. At this time, the victim page selection by the page fault is different form the page replacement between DRAM and PCM, the state bits of each pages are inspected until the victim page selected. Because H bit of Page Q which is will be stored in DRAM from the victim list is ‘1’, S bit is updated to ‘1’ when Page Q is stored in DRAM. The H bit is the page where page replacement occurred between DRAM and PCM. Therefore, managing for a long time with DRAM in one of the ways that hybrid memory can reduce the page replacement. In Fig. 1a, since Page E1 is the victim page, Page Q is replaced with Page E1 and S bit is updated to ‘1’. In order to save the victim page E 1, the PCM will select the victim page by checking the W bit and R bit of each page. If R bit and W bit are all ‘0’, the page will be selected as a victim page. Otherwise, the bits of each state are updated.
- 25. 8 B.-S. Jung and J.-H. Lee In PCM of the Fig. 1a, we will check the state bits from Page G2 where the CLOCK_handle(black arrow) is located. Page G2 is excluded the candidate group of the victim page because R bit of the pages is ‘1’, and R bit is updated to ‘0’ at that time. Also, Page A2 and Page F2 are excluded the candidate group of the victim page because R bit of the pages is ‘1’, and R bit is updated to ‘0’. Even if the R bit of Page I1 is ‘0’, it is excluded from the victim page candidate group because W bit is ‘1’. Here, when W bit is ‘1’, the page means a candidate group of the page replacement between DRAM and PCM, which means a page with a high possibility of occurrence of rewrite reference. Therefore, it is effective that page for which a writ reference is requested exists for a long time in PCM. These operations are performed in the PCM that the victim page will be selected until. In such an operation, Page K1 is selected as a victim page in PCM, where it is replaced by Page E1. And the CLOCK_handle for PCM point to Page G2 which is the next page of the replaced page. Then, the page K1 extracted from PCM is stored in the memory of the lowest hierarchy, and the meta data and H bit that is an information of the Page K1 are stored in the victim list. The Fig. 1c shows the result of page replacement when Page Q is defined in the Hot_page and the hybrid memories miss occurs. If the requested Page Q is not in the victim list, the Page Q is replaced with the Page K1 of the victim page of PCM. Then all the state bits of the stored Page Q are updated to ‘0’. Here, the operation of the victim list is the same as the above-described operation. 3 Performance Evaluation In this section, we evaluated the performance of the proposed hybrid memory system. For performance evaluation, we confirmed the memory access address of SPEC CPU 2006 through a modified Cachegrind tool from the Valgrind 3.6.3 toolset. We filter memoryreferences out that areaccesseddirectlyfromthecachememories andcollect only 100 million main memory references. Therefore, the proposed hybrid memory system was performed by trace driven simulation. And we also utilized the DRAM and PCM characteristics for the simulation, as shown in Table 1 [10, 17–19]. The default sizes of DRAM and PCM for hybrid memory system are 32 and 128 MB, respectively. Since the existing DRAM module is 128 MB, the size of PCM was also selected with the same size of 128 MB. And since the degree of integration of DRAM is 1/4 of PCM, it was chosen to be 32 MB. 3.1 Victim List Size In this paper, Hot_page is defined by page which is requested for a write reference, and page which is existed in the victim list. The page which is requested write
- 26. Temporal Locality with a Long Interval: Hybrid Memory System … 9 Table 1 DRAM and PCM characteristics Attribute DRAM PCM Access granularity (byte) 64 64 Non-volatile X O Read latency (ns) 50 50–100 Write latency (ns) 50 350 Read energy (nJ/p) 0.1 0.2 Write energy (nJ/p) 0.1 1.0 Endurance X 108 for write Idle power ~1.3 W/GB ~0.05 W Density Low High (4XDRAM) reference by a miss is defined by the characteristic of the program when the program is executed. On the other hand, Hot_page with pages extracted from recent hybrid memory are not. Therefore, the proposed Hot_page concept is more sensitive to victim list than write reference. In order to choose the size of an effective victim list, we measured the performance of hybrid memory system with various victim list sizes. Because the write limit on PCM is also major problem of hybrid memory system, in this paper, we measured the number of a write time of PCM. Figure 2 shows the number of write operation to PCM of various sizes of victim list. As shown in Fig. 2, the beset performance is shown when the victim list is 25% of PCM size. This is because the count of pages moving from DRAM to PCM increases as the size of the victim list increases. Fig. 2 PCM write count of the proposed hybrid memory with victim list of various sizes
- 27. 10 B.-S. Jung and J.-H. Lee 3.2 Performance Evaluation In order to evaluate the performance of the hybrid memory system in this paper, we compare and evaluate the performance with the existing researched hybrid mem- ory system. We selected the CLCO-DWF and CLOCK-HW for comparison hybrid memory system. The CLOCK-DWF reduces the write reference of PCM by man- aging the write reference page of DRAM like the proposed hybrid memory system. However, the CLOCK-DWF only saves the write reference page in DRAM and the read reference page in PCM when the program is executed. This has the disadvantage that it cannot operate effective DRAM in a program in which a read reference page request frequently occurs. Also, when a write reference occurs to PCM, the page replacement occurs immediately in DRAM, so there is a problem of frequent a page replacement between DRAM and PCM. As shown in this paper, CLOCK-HW is a structure using history buffer for man- aging pages extracted from hybrid memory. However the page in which the write reference frequently occurs is stored in DRAM, where as in the other pages, pages are randomly assigned to DRAM and PCM. Even though CLOCK-HW can effi- ciently use DRAM and PCM, it has the problem that it can effectively reflect the characteristics of DRAM and PCM. In this paper, CLOCK-DWF and CLOCK-HW have the same size as the proposed hybrid memory system for performance evaluation. The Fig. 3 shows the write count of PCM. In the Fig. 3, the count of a write reference pages is basically 4 KB. In the proposed hybrid memory system and CLOCK-DWF, the lazy policy is applied when the page replacement between DRAM and PCM. Therefore, we measured the count of a write reference by lazy policy from them. Based on this, we converted it into a unit for a page write operation and added a number. That is, when the block size of the cache memory is 64 bytes, when the PCM block writes operation occurs 64 times, it is defined by one-page write operation. Simulation results show that the proposed hybrid memory system reduced the count of a write operation by about 10% compared to CLOCK-DWF, but showed a higher count of a write operation by 6% than CLOCK-HW. The reason that CLOCK-DWF shows the lowest performance is that the page with which is requested a read reference by miss of hybrid memory is stored to PCM, and if a write request to the page occurs, the page replacement between DRAM and PCM occurs immediately. On the other hand, CLOCK-HW can store the requested page in memory that can store it regardless of DRAM and PCM. In addition, the page can be moved to DRAM with PCM. Page migration does not occur from DRAM to PCM. For this reason, CLOCK-HW shows good performance improvement with PCM write counts. The proposed hybrid memory can effectively utilize memory compared to CLOCK-DWF in the intermediate stage between CLOCK-DWF and CLOCK-HW. Figure 4 shows the average memory access time of hybrid memory systems. Unlike Fig. 3, CLOCK-HM shows the worst performance of average memory access time. As described above, CLOCK-HM does not cause page replacement between
- 28. Temporal Locality with a Long Interval: Hybrid Memory System … 11 Fig. 3 PCM write count of the hybrid memory systems Fig. 4 Average memory access time of the hybrid memory systems DRAM and PCM. Only the page where the write reference frequently occurs in the PCM is moved to the DRAM. Therefore, CLOCK-HM has a difficulty to manage pageeffectivelythantheproposedhybridmemoryandCLOCK-DWF.Incontrast,the proposed hybrid memory and CLOCK-DWF show similar average memory access times. The two hybrid memory structures have similar hit ratio. Also, when a write reference to the PCM occurs, pages are exchanged between DRAM and PCM. According to the simulation results, the proposed hybrid memory improved aver- age memory access time of at most 12%, compared to the CLOCK-HM.
- 29. 12 B.-S. Jung and J.-H. Lee Figure 5 is a diagram showing the energy consumption of the hybrid memory. According to the simulation results, CLOCK-HM shows the most effective perfor- mance improvement of energy consumption as a whole. CLOCK-HM simply moves the page where frequent writing has occurred to the DRAM. On the other hand, the proposed hybrid memory system and CLOCK-DWF have a page exchange opera- tion between DRAM and PCM. According to Table 1, PCM write operation con- sumes about 10 times more energy than DRAM operation. However, page swapping between DRAM and PCM consumes 64 times more energy than the write operation by page unit. According to the simulation results, an average of 45% of the PCM write counters in the CLOCK-HM are 64 bytes of block write. Meanwhile, in pro- posed hybrid memory, block write of 64 bytes occurred only in 20% of the PCM write counter. According to the simulation results, the proposed hybrid memory sys- tem reduced energy consumption by about 10% compared with CLOCK-DWF. On the other hand, the proposed hybrid memory system compared with CLOCK-HM showed high energy consumption of about 3%. In order to accurate performance evaluation, we measured energy-delay product, which is a performance index considering memory access time and energy consump- tion. Figure 6 shows the Energy-delay product of the hybrid memory system, which is normalized by the CLOCK-HM. According to the simulation results, the proposed hybrid memory has achieved the best performance more than CLOCK-DWF and CLOCK-HM. However, CLOCK-HM shows better performance with ‘mcf’, ‘milc’, and ‘FDTD’ than the other two hybrid memories. CLOCK-HM has improved the most effective performance of energy consumption despite having the lowest Average memory access time in “mcf”, “milc”, “FDTD”. Since CLOCK-DWF operates DRAM and PCM based on page operation, DRAM does not operate effectively even if DRAM size increases. Therefore, CLOCK-DWF shows the lowest performance with energy-delay product. Compared with CLOCK- Fig. 5 Energy consumption of the hybrid memories
- 30. Discovering Diverse Content Through Random Scribd Documents
- 31. tree of political liberty was everywhere planted, and the peoples of Europe promised themselves a life of unalloyed comfort for all future time. Catholicism was the religion of the majority of these people, and was cunningly obliged to bear the brunt of all their complaints, justified and unjustifiable; although the authorities of Catholicism had long protested against many of the gravest abuses of the period, sustained in formal defiance of the principles and institutions of the Catholic religion. The new Cæsar threatened to be more terrible to the independence of religion than any ancient one, and the revenues and establishments by which Catholicism had kept up its public standing and earned the esteem and gratitude of the people were swept away or quasi ruined. All the acquired charges and duties of the past were left to the Catholic religion; yet the means to carry them on were taken away, sometimes by open violence, sometimes by insidious measures, but always by gross injustice. The final incidence of this injustice was on the common people, since the Church was, after all, only the administrator of very much that she was thus dispossessed of. With this overturning of all the conditions of Catholic life came new problems, new trials, and a period of indefinite, uncertain circumstances that were finally set at rest only at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, by which an end was put to the political changes that began with the Revolution of 1789. The modus vivendi then reached, and soon consecrated by a series of concordats, has remained substantially the basis of the dealings of Catholicism with the governments of the Old World. Only one formal and permanent violation of this legal situation has taken place, the violent and unjust dispossession of the Holy See by the government of the House of Savoy, in flagrant violation of every title that could be invoked by a legitimate civil power. Elsewhere Catholicism has undergone much suffering, both in the states of the Old World and in the republics of South America. But, the above vital conflict apart, the old century closed with no very acute or
- 32. intolerable condition of things, although there is much that does not reply to our ideas of fairness and justice. THE VATICAN COUNCIL The chief event of the century, from the point of view of Roman Catholicism, is undoubtedly the holding of the Vatican Council. Since the Council of Trent the bishops of the Catholic world had not met in common under the guidance of the Bishop of Rome. The gravest interests of religion seemed at stake after more than a century of public infidelity and the overthrow of all former safeguards of faith. The character of doctrinal authority and its visible tangible possessor were declared by the dogma of Papal infallibility. The genuine relations of reason and revelation were set forth in unmistakable language. The troubles that followed the close of the Council in some parts of Europe were neither serious nor long-lived, since its teachings were in keeping with the general sense of Catholicism. It promoted, notably, mutual respect and concord among the bishops and gave to the multitudes of Catholics in the Old and New Worlds a new sign of the unity and internal vigor of the Church. The scenes of the Council are indelibly fixed in my memory, for I was the youngest and humblest of the six hundred and sixty-seven bishops who composed it. A General Council is the very highest act of the life of the Church, since it presents within a small compass, and at once, all the movements that have been developing in the course of centuries, and offers to all the faithful and to all outside the Church straightforward answers to all the great ecclesiastical problems that come up for settlement. Had the Vatican Council been finished it would have taken up the grave subject of ecclesiastical discipline. That is reserved for the reopening of the Council at some future date.
- 33. THE MISSIONS OF CATHOLICISM It is incumbent on the Catholic Church to spread the teachings of Jesus Christ, and this by His own divine command: “Going, therefore, teach all nations.” In this last century she has not been unfaithful, any more than in others. No portion of the vineyard has been neglected; the martyr’s blood has watered some parts more abundantly, but in all the missionary has toiled without ceasing, has spent himself. In the Far East Catholic missions have been carried on in India, China, Thibet, Tonkin. In every part of Africa, northern, central, and southern, the priests and nuns of the Catholic Church have preceded the explorer or followed the trader and the miner with the blessings of religion. In the still pagan parts of North and South America her missionaries are found all through the century. They have kept up their vigils in the Holy Land, and in general have made a notable progress. The inventions of the age have been beneficial by opening up new lands and by making transit easy and rapid, thus recalling some of the conditions which conduced to the original spread of the religion of Jesus. A multitude of noble souls have devoted all to the enlightenment of the barbarian and pagan world. And while I disparage no land, and do not undervalue the good intentions and efforts of those outside our pale, I cannot pass over in silence the French nation, which has given more abundantly than any, perhaps more abundantly than all others, of priests, sisters, and funds for the essential duty of Catholicism. The work of the Propagation of the Faith and the Seminary of Foreign Missions at Paris deserve a special souvenir as often as Catholic missions are mentioned. THE POPES OF THE CENTURY
- 34. Six Popes ruled the Church in the nineteenth century: Pius VII., Leo XII., Pius VIII., Gregory XVI., Pius IX., and the present venerable pontiff, Leo XIII. In the person of Pius VII. they have known what martyrdom was like, also the shame and humiliation of being subject to a civil power absolute in its character and prone to unwarrantable interference with the ecclesiastical power, even to contempt of its most ancient and venerable rights. In Gregory XVI. and Pius IX. they learned the purposes and the power of those who in Europe have succeeded to the men of the French Revolution. In Leo XIII. their line, the oldest line of rulers on the earth, can boast of a most enlightened mind and a very sympathetic heart. Long time a bishop of an important see before he was made Pope, he has been at the level of every task imposed upon the Papacy. In a particular manner he has been the patron of ecclesiastical studies, by his scholarly encyclicals on philosophy, Scripture, history, and other branches of learning. A noble specimen of this activity is his late letter to the bishops of France on the studies of the clergy. His spirit is the Christian spirit of reconciliation and concord, yet without sacrifice of the immemorial rights and the solemn obligations of the Apostolic See. He may not live to see the restoration of his independence, and the reparation of the wrong inflicted upon the Holy See, but he can maintain a protest that will forever invalidate among Catholics the claim of the actual government and keep open the Roman question until it is rightly settled. Catholics cannot forget that the Pope for the time being is, according to Catholic doctrine, the successor of Saint Peter in all his rights and privileges as the visible head of the Church, appointed by Jesus Himself. Hence, among other duties, he has to safeguard the approved traditions and the general legislation of the past, to protect the status of the Church as given over to him, and to hand it down undiminished to his own successor. Precisely because he is the head of the Church he may not licitly alter its organic and regular life, or arbitrarily abandon the almost sacrosanct ways along which his predecessors have moved, or give up lightly the institutions in which religion has gradually found a setting for itself.
- 35. I venture to say that this element of fixity in the attitude of the Apostolic See will be more appreciated in another age, more constructive and architectonic than the past, less querulous and destructive, even if less daring and brilliant. Forever to pull down and scatter, and never to build up and perfect, cannot be the final purpose of human society. It is perhaps worth remarking that the average reign of the Popes was much longer in the nineteenth century than in any other, being over sixteen years, and that two successive reigns, those of Pius IX. and Leo XIII., represent fifty-four continuous years of Church government at Rome, a phenomenon not witnessed since the foundation of that Church by Saint Peter and Saint Paul. THE CATHOLIC HIERARCHY During this century the Holy Father has been able to restore the Catholic hierarchy in England, Scotland, Holland, and to create it anew in India. This means the orderly management of the works and the purposes of the Catholic religion, since the episcopate is the divinely instituted organ for its spread and its administration. In many lands a numerous episcopate has sprung up. In our own beloved country it has grown almost at the rate of one see for every year of the century. The apostolic activity of the episcopate has been usually beyond reproach. The care of souls, the creation of parishes, building of churches, convents, schools, and charitable institutions has gone on in every diocese of the Catholic world. Some bishops have distinguished themselves by their sanctity of life and their love for the poor; others by their learning and their skill in their writing works of utility for the faithful; others by their holy martyrdoms, both in pagan and Christian lands; others by devotion to great works of common charity and utility—nearly all by their exemplary lives and the conscientious performance of their duties.
- 36. No nation has a monopoly of this outpouring of the highest sacerdotal devotion; and no nation or people, as far as I can learn, has been without a steady succession of remarkable bishops, men who would have done honor to any age of Christian history. I believe that it is the constant and edifying service of the episcopal body which is chiefly responsible for the improvement in learning, morality, and laborious enlightened zeal on the part of the clergy, diocesan and monastic, which it seems just to claim for the nineteenth century. In some lands the episcopal office is freer than in others, and its beneficent activity is more immediate and visible. In all the bishops have kept the bond of unity, often at no inconsiderable sacrifice of personal comfort. Neither schism nor heresy of any formal and noteworthy nature has been connected with the episcopal office. It would ill become me to discriminate where the merits are so equal. I may, however, be permitted to rejoice with my countrymen at the end of the century that the life and the teachings of a Carroll, a Cheverus, a Bruté a Neumann, a Dubois, have not been without salutary effect, and have set a shining mark for the imitation of all coming generations. Particularly have such men inculcated habitual courtesy and charity in dealing with all those who did not share the faith of Catholics. They were fresh from the storms of foreign religious hatred and infidel intolerance, and knew by personal experience the benefit of mutual good understanding and personal respect. In the United States, particularly, the Catholic episcopate has been very active in providing for the most fundamental spiritual needs of their flocks—churches for religious services, priests for the administration of sacraments, schools for the preservation of the revealed Christian faith, orphanages for the little waifs and castaways of society. Whether short or long, the periods of government of these Church rulers have never been idle nor marked by self-indulgence. Almost every one has left some monument of faith as a contribution to the general good of Catholicism. I would neither exaggerate nor boast, yet it occurs to me, after many years of service, travel, and observation, that few ages of Christianity can
- 37. show a more laborious and elevated episcopate than the nineteenth century. The recruiting of the diocesan clergy has been the gravest duty of this episcopate, for religion lives by and for men. It can get along without wealth or monuments, but not without intelligent teachers of its tenets and faithful observers of its precepts. In keeping with the decrees of the Council of Trent diocesan seminaries have been opened where it was possible, and elsewhere provincial institutions of a similar character. Both flourish in the United States, and grow more numerous with every decade. The older clergy, long drawn from the venerable schools of Europe, have left a sweet odor among us, the purest odor of self-sacrificing lives, of devotion to poor and scattered flocks, of patient, uncomplaining contentment with the circumstances of poverty and humility. There is no diocese in the United States where there cannot be heard tales of the hardships and brave lives of the ecclesiastics who laid the foundations of religion. We remember them always, and hold their names in benediction. The younger generation of our clergy enjoys advantages denied to their predecessors; but we consider that they owe it to those predecessors if they have a degree of leisure to perfect the culture of their minds, and a faithful Catholic people to ask for the benefits which must accrue from greater learning, if it be solid and well directed. Yet I cannot admit that our older clergy were deficient in the learning of the schools. The names of England and Corcoran are at once on our lips, not to speak of a long array of others almost equally entitled to distinguished mention. If the external conditions of the diocesan clergy have improved, their relations to the Church authority have been safeguarded with even greater earnestness and efficiency. The dispositions of synods, provincial councils, and the three plenary councils of Baltimore have, we are happy to say, had little to do with questions of doctrine. They have all been held for the improvement of discipline and notably for the welfare of the clergy. In the same direction, also, have tended the numerous decisions and instructions from the Roman congregations, whose
- 38. wisdom has never been invoked by us in vain, and whose sympathy for our conditions we gratefully acknowledge. THE CONGREGATION OF THE PROPAGANDA Any account of the good influence of the Holy See on our ecclesiastical conditions would be unjust and incomplete if the Congregation of the Propaganda Fide were omitted. To it we owe an unceasing surveillance, full of prudence and intelligence. From its offices have come to the bishops regularly counsel, warning, encouragement, co-operation. It has been eminently just and fair, also fearless in the application of the principles, the spirit, and the letter of canonical discipline. Its action is a calm and grave one, marked by reticence and patience and that composure which belongs to the highest judicial decisions. But the Catholic Church in the United States and in Canada owes it an undisputed debt of gratitude. The most learned cardinals of the century and the best ecclesiastical talent have co-operated in the creation of its legislation, which need not fear the criticism of any learned and honest judicial body of men. RELIGIOUS ORDERS AND COMMUNITIES In the religious orders and communities the Catholic Church possesses a very ancient auxiliary force that has rendered incalculable help during the century. By their numbers, their strong inherited traditions, their central government, their willing obedience, and their other resources they have come everywhere to the aid of the bishops and the diocesan clergy. Often they bore alone and for a long time, and at great sacrifices, the whole burden of religion. Their praise is rightly on all sides, and their works speak for
- 39. them, when their modesty and humility forbid them to praise themselves. The missions of Catholicism in this century, as in others, have largely fallen to them. They stood in the breach for the cause of education when the churches were too poor and few to open colleges. They have given countless missions and retreats, and in general have not spared themselves when called upon for works of general utility. They and their works are of the essence of Catholicism, and they ought rightly to flourish in any land where they are free to live according to the precepts and the spirit of their founders, who are often canonized saints of the Catholic Church. I shall not be saying too much when I assert that among the invaluable services rendered to the Church by Catholic women of all conditions of life—no unique thing in the history of Catholicism— those rendered by the women of religious communities are of the first rank of merit. Primary Catholic education, in the United States, at least, would have been almost impossible without their devotion. It is owing to them that the orphans have been collected and cared for, the sick housed and sheltered, the poor and helpless and aged, the crippled and the blind, looked after regularly and lovingly. They surely walk in the footsteps of Jesus, doing good wherever they go. The perennial note of sanctity in the Catholic Church shines especially in them. Content with food and clothing and shelter, they devote their lives, often in the very flower of youth and health and beauty, to the weak and needful members of Christian society. He must needs be a Divine Master who can so steadily charm into His service the purest and the most affectionate of hearts, and cause them to put aside deliberately for love of Him even the most justifiable of human attachments. This argument for Christianity is not new; it was urged by Saint Justin the Martyr on the libertine world of the Antonines. THE UNITY OF CHRISTENDOM
- 40. Throughout this century the Roman Church has desired and sought by all practical means the restoration of the former unity of Christendom. Each succeeding Pope has appealed to the ancient but separated Churches of the Orient, reminding them of the past oneness and the need of union with that see which all their records proclaim the rock and centre of unity. Similarly, appeals have been issued to the divided Christian communities of the West, as when Pius IX. wrote to the members of the Protestant world before the Vatican Council, and when Leo XIII. lately addressed his famous encyclical on the Unity of the Church to all men of good will within the Anglican pale. Such efforts may seem perfunctory; but they have in our eyes a deep meaning. They proclaim the doctrine of unity that is clearer than the noonday sun from the teachings of Jesus; they make a first step in the direction of its restoration; they keep alive the spirit of charity in many hearts, and they stir up countless prayers for the consummation of an end that few believing Christians any longer consider unnecessary. Already the canker-worms of doubt and indifference are gnawing at those last foundations of the old inherited Christian religious beliefs that still worked beneficently outside the pale of Catholic unity, but are now disappearing from the public consciousness because, too often, they are no longer elements of private conviction. In the realm of faith, as in that of nature, there is an after-glow, when the central sun has spent its force; but in both that glow is the herald of coldness and darkness. To those who no longer allow in their hearts any Christian belief, Catholicism has strongly appealed in the nineteenth century by its teachings on the right use of reason in matters of faith, the claims of religion on the mind and the heart of man, the benefits of Christianity, and its superiority over all other forms of religion—in a word, by the constant exposé of all the motives of credibility which could affect a sane and right mind that had divested itself of prejudice and passion. CONVERSIONS TO CATHOLICISM
- 41. Not the least remarkable share of the history of Catholicism is seen in the stream of conversions that began in the very stress of the French Revolution and has not ceased to flow since then. From every land of the Old and New Worlds hundreds of thousands have returned of their own volition to the ancient fold wherein we firmly believe is kept the sacred deposit of saving truth. They have come to us from the pulpits of opposing religions and from the workshops of an unbelieving science. Every condition of life, and both sexes, have sent us numerous souls. Very many of these conversions have been unsolicited and unexpected. Some of them meant an accession of wealth or social prestige or high rank. Others brought with them the beloved tribute of uncommon intelligence, experience of life and men, acquired erudition, the highest gifts of style and oratory. Very many have come from the middle walks of life, and signified no more than a great weariness of pursuing shadows for the reality of divine truth, and the excessive goodness of the Holy Spirit of God which bloweth where it listeth. Of this army of converts some have been drawn by the conviction that the Bible alone, without an interpreter and a witness divinely guaranteed, could not suffice as a rule of faith. Others have been moved by the incarnation in the Church of the spirit and functions of authority without which no society can exist. Still others have come back to the Mother of all churches, through a deep heart-weariness at the endless dilapidation of divine truth outside the Roman Church. Some have sought and found through the study of history the open door to the truth. Others again through the study of art and its functions in the Christian Church. In whatever way they returned to the unity of the original sheepfold, they are an eloquent witness to the innate vigor and the immortal charm of the Christian truth as preserved in Catholicism. For they have come in unconditionally. Their return has worked beneficially, not only for themselves, but for those of the Catholic faith, whom it has consoled and encouraged for their steadfastness, while the non- Catholic world cannot but feel that that religion is worthy of respect, even of study, which can forever draw so many men and women out of the ranks of its adversaries, even at the sacrifice of many things which are usually held dear by society.
- 42. THE RELATIONS WITH CIVIL AUTHORITY Being a genuine and world-wide religion, Catholicism could not but come into contact with the powers in which rests the social authority. In many cases the fundamental relations of both have been settled by documents of a quasi constitutional character known as concordats. They are binding on both parties, yet in more than one case the supreme authority of Catholicism has had reason to complain of their violation either in letter or in spirit. Important points like the freedom of episcopal elections, the management of ecclesiastical revenues, the freedom of access to and communication with the Holy See, have been tampered with or openly abolished. In a general way Catholics are far from being content with the actual administration of these quasi treaties between the civil and the ecclesiastical powers in the Old World and in South America—yet they respect them and desire to live up to their requirements. It is to be hoped that in the new century there will be less suspicion of the truly beneficent intentions of the Church, and less hampering of the common organs of her existence and work. In a century filled with revolutions as no other the Catholic Church has comported herself with dignity and equity, and managed to find the correct via media in this great tangle of opposing and mutually destructive forms and theories of government. THE CATHOLIC CHURCH AND THE UNITED STATES In our own beloved country we have every reason to be thankful that the liberty to worship God according to the dictates of conscience is guaranteed by the Constitution, and has entered deeply into the convictions of our fellow-citizens. The Catholic
- 43. Church, by her own constitution, is deeply sympathetic with our national life and all that it stands for. She has thrived in the atmosphere of liberty, and seeks only the protection of the common law, that equal justice which is dealt out to all. She is the oldest historical and continuous government on the earth, and it is no small index of the value of our institutions and their durability that they make provision for the life and the work of so vast and so aged a society. It would also seem to show that, through a long course of centuries, Catholicism held as its own genuine political teachings only such as were finally compatible with the most perfect and universal citizenship known to history. When this nation was forming, the first Catholic bishop in the United States, and my first predecessor in the see of Baltimore, John Carroll, accepted and performed satisfactorily the gravest public duty of a citizen, an embassy to another people for the benefit of his own country. Thereby he left to us all an example and a teaching that we shall ever cherish, the example of self-sacrifice as the prime duty of every citizen, and the teaching that patriotism is a holy conviction to which no Catholic, priest or layman, can hold himself foreign or apathetic. A Catholic layman of the same distinguished family, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, threw in his lot with the patriots from the beginning, and by word and deed served the cause of American liberty, while he lived to see it flourish and inform more and more the minds and hearts of the first generation of American citizens. In future centuries, as in this, his name will be held in honor and benediction as a signer of the Declaration of Independence. His Catholic belief and conduct will forever be a potent encouragement to the children of his own faith. He was the first layman to contribute notably to the cause of Catholic education, and the native formation of the priesthood, by the establishment of a college for that purpose. THE CATHOLIC CHURCH AND EDUCATION
- 44. We have done our best in these ten decades to provide the best education for our people and our priests. Intimately convinced that general education without religion is destined to be an evil rather than a blessing, we have created all over the United States a system of primary education in parochial schools that has cost us and yet costs us the gravest sacrifices and entails the heaviest solicitudes. Yet we feel that we are serving the cause of God and country by indoctrinating our Catholic youth with persuasions of the existence of God and His holy attributes, of the true nature of vice and virtue, of conscience and sin, of the spiritual and the temporal, of the proper purposes of life, of punishment and reward in an immortal life. We believe that Christianity is better than paganism; also that Christianity is something simple, positive, historical, that can and ought to be taught from the cradle to the grave, good for all conditions, for both sexes, and for every situation in life this side of the common grave. Believing this, we have shaped our conduct accordingly, and trust to God for the issue. In such matters it imports more to be right in principle than to be successful. Our secondary system of education has gone on from the founding of the Republic. Colleges for boys and academies for girls have risen up in every State and Territory, have been supported by the faithful people, and are doing an incalculable good. As our means increase and other advantages offer, we hope to improve them; Catholicism is no stagnant pool, but a field for every good private initiative that respects right and truth. In the Catholic University of America, founded in the last decade of the century by Pope Leo XIII. and the Catholic hierarchy, after due and lengthy deliberation, and made possible by the magnificent generosity of a Catholic woman, we have centred our hopes of a system of higher education that shall embody the best traditions of our ancient Church and the approved gains of our own times. American Catholics have not disposed in the past of great wealth, inherited or earned; hence all these works mean an incredible devotion and intensity of good will and sustained sacrifices. Wherever the Catholic Church has been strong and successful, schools of every kind flourish. I need only recall the fact that the idea, the constitution, the functions, the influences of a
- 45. university were unknown in the world until she created the type in the Middle Ages, and gave over to mankind a new factor in civil and religious life—the power of organized learning. THE SOCIAL MOVEMENT Through the whole century one line of thought and action has been gradually disengaging itself from all others and dominating them. That is the social movement, or the tendency towards a more evenly just and natural conception of all the relations that arise from the common dwelling of mankind in organized society. It has long taken the form of institutions and plans for the betterment of the conditions of the people, of woman, of all who suffer or think they suffer from the actual organization of society. If there is something Utopian in certain plans or hopes, there is too much that is justifiable at the root of other attempts to reorganize our social conditions. Not to speak of the undesirable inheritances of the past, the new conditions created for the common man by the spread of industrialism and commercialism have often been painful in the extreme, and have aroused both violent protests and deep sympathy. By the help of God we have abolished the reproach of slavery in every civilized land, but we hear from the laboring multitudes a vague cry that they are already in the throes of a return to that accursed institution. Here the doctrines of Catholicism are eminently in accord with the right conception of human nature, the functions of authority and mutual help or charity, the duty to live, and the right to all the necessary means for that end. She is sympathetic, historically and naturally, to the toiling masses, who, after all, form everywhere the bulk of her adherents, and have been always the most docile and affectionate of her members. It is she who created in the world the practical working idea of a common humanity, the basis of all genuine social improvement. The trials of Catholicism have come
- 46. more often from the luxury and the sin of those in high places than from the disaffection of its great masses. As this movement has gathered force, and passed from theories into the domain of action, the Catholic Church, through her head, has followed it with attention and respect. The whole pontificate of Leo XIII. is remarkable for acts and documents which have passed into the history of social endeavor in the nineteenth century. His personal charities, large and enlightened, are as nothing in comparison with the far-reaching acts like the refusal to condemn the association of the Knights of Labor. His encyclical on the Condition of Workingmen recalls the only possible lines of a final concord between labor and capital—the spirit and teachings of Jesus Christ, the best Friend our common humanity ever had. In the same way, his latest encyclical on Jesus Christ, with which the religious history of the century closes, emphasizes the true basis for the restoration of peace and harmony and justice between the poor and the rich, between the producers of capital and the capital that stimulates and regulates production. We may be confident that the papacy of the future will not show less enlightenment and sympathy in its attempts to solve these delicate and grave problems with the least injustice and the greatest charity. LIGHTS AND SHADOWS It would be idle to deny or to palliate the many shadows that fall across the history of Catholicism in the century that has elapsed. I scarcely need refer to the weaknesses and errors of her individual children: such acts she repudiates, and when she can chastises remedially. But the Church has not recovered that vast inherited moral power over the public life which it enjoyed before the French Revolution. In many ways the consequences of atheism, materialism, and even of deism, have been deduced into manners and institutions, to the detriment of the ancient Christian morality. The sterner Christian virtue of previous centuries, founded on the
- 47. Christian revelation, has been forced out of the public life of whole peoples. Expediency, opportunism, moral cowardice have often triumphed over the plain right and the fair truth. The principle has been established that God is on the side of the great battalions, is ever with the strong men of blood and iron. Ancient and venerable sovereignties have been hypocritically dispossessed. Small nationalities have been erased from the world’s political map, and the history of the near past almost justifies the rumors of impending steps in the same direction. With the increase of greatness in states comes an increase of warlike perils, not only from commercial rivalry, but from that root of ambition and domination which grows in every heart, unless checked and subdued in time, and which in the past has been too often the source of violent injustice on the greatest scale. These deeds and principles we believe to be a necessary result of naturalism, of the exclusion of the supernatural and revealed elements of Christianity from our public life, and not only these, but others of a graver character, that must one day follow from their logical and unchecked evolution. Divorce, a cause of ruin in every land, grows with rapidity in many civilized nations, so much so that not only Catholicism, its inveterate enemy, is shocked, but Christian men of every persuasion believe that some public and authoritative steps ought to be taken to prevent the pollution of the family life, that fixed and natural source of public morality. Religion has been officially thrust out of the systems of education, in every grade, and the young mind taught that it is quite a private and unimportant thing. Thus, under the plea of indifference, many States have practically made themselves the champions of that agnosticism which is the arch-enemy not only of religion, but also of patriotism from time immemorial connected with religion. The average man soon ceases to make great sacrifices, above all to die for the public good, when he is satisfied that there is no other life, or that it is not worth while living for the uncertainties of approval and reward by an eternal God, who is just and true and holy.
- 48. REASONS FOR ENCOURAGEMENT On the other hand, the Catholic man or woman knows that there are great spiritual forces at work in the world, however unhappily its public life may be developing from the view-point of Christian morality. There are innumerable lives guided by the principles of Christian virtue, some of them even culminating in the highest sanctity. Though not all such are known to men, yet not a few become public examples and incitements to virtue. Even outside of the Catholic faith there are not a few who regulate their lives by the natural virtues and also by inherited Christian virtues that work sometimes unconsciously, but whose practice can only be pleasing to our common Father. Sweet Charity is yet a queen in Christian lands; her services and utility are too great to permit her dethronement. Great misfortunes of any kind still touch the hearts of men that are Christian yet when their minds have become clouded by indifference to, or dislike of, the supernatural verities. Luxury and wealth, greater perhaps than the world has yet seen, are still conscious of duties to the common weal. Educational institutions of every character and philanthropical enterprises of every variety have flourished on the means thus provided. But from our point of view it is better that all such phenomena, to be lasting, should have their root and origin in Christian purposes and belief. It is yet true, as it was of old on the hill-sides of Judæa: “Except the Lord build the house, they labor in vain that build it. Except the Lord keepeth the city, he watcheth in vain that keepeth it.” (Psalm 126.) THE FUTURE OF CATHOLICISM We entertain no doubt that the organization which has weathered the storms and stress of so many centuries will continue to do so in the future. The Catholic Church has the promises of her Divine Founder that the gates of hell shall not prevail against her.
- 49. How could she doubt of her future? It does not seem likely that any vicissitudes can arise which have not their counterpart or analogy in the past, so old is she on this earth, and so many are the forms of government and the kinds of human culture with which she has lived. We are confident that she will be equal to all the emergencies of the future, for while the Church is always identical with and present to herself in a conscious way, her children and her agents may grow in experience and wisdom, as they undoubtedly do, and may bring both of these factors to bear upon the future problems of our common humanity. Of one thing we may feel certain: she will never cease to desire and to work for that efficacious unity of all Christendom, which is the permanent wish of its Holy Founder, and for which her bishops and priests have never ceased to pray in those opening words of the Roman Canon of the Mass that we repeat daily: “Therefore, O Most Clement Father, we suppliantly pray to Thee through Jesus Christ Our Lord... especially for Thy Holy Catholic Church, which mayst Thou vouchsafe to pacify, keep, unite, and govern throughout the world.” James, Card. Gibbons.
- 50. T P R O T E S T A N T I S M he motives which have acted upon religion in the nineteenth century, either by way of directly enhancing its power or by restricting its influence, are these: (1) Humanitarianism; (2) The Historical Spirit; (3) Science; (4) Nationalism. Although the course of religious history has varied somewhat in different countries as well as in the different Churches, yet it is possible to form an approximate picture of the resultant of these forces which will reveal the progress of the Kingdom of God in the world. I The first of these motives—humanitarianism—has powerfully influenced the Christian world by asserting the rights of man, liberty, equality and the spirit of fraternity, the sense of human brotherhood. The germs of the humanitarian movement may be traced in the eighteenth century, as in the teaching of Lessing and Herder and Rousseau; in religious movements like the Great Awakening in the United States, the revival in England under Wesley and Whitefield, in tentative efforts for the abolition of slavery (Hopkins and Clarkson), and prison reform (John Howard). But the nineteenth century has been distinguished above all the other Christian centuries in the results achieved by the sentiment of humanity. It has led to the abolition of slavery under English rule, in the United States, and in Russia; to many reform movements of every kind and degree,
- 51. wherever there existed actual or latent tyranny, which robbed humanity of its inherent privileges. The humanitarian sentiment is Christian in its origin, derived primarily from the conviction of the incarnation of God in Christ. Christ appears in history as the leader of humanity in the struggle for freedom. Slowly but surely ever since His advent, the world of man has been moving forward to the attainment of the ideal of humanity revealed in Him. “Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free. And if the Son of God shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed.” The progress towards freedom inspired by Him who taught the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of men has been accomplished in the face of great hinderances and long reverses, overcoming obstacles which would have been insuperable without Christian faith. In the nineteenth century the movement towards human freedom seems almost to have reached its culmination. Within the sphere of religion the progress is most manifest in the spread of Christian missions, which stand out in any review of the century as one of its most extraordinary achievements. It might be justly designated as a missionary age. So intense and persistent has been its devotion to the gospel of Christ as essential for man that when the century closed it might be truly said that the round world had been girdled with Christian missions, whose results are more significant for civilization, as well as for religion, than any statistics can reveal. The missionary has been the pioneer, it is becoming increasingly evident, of momentous changes yet to appear. The sentiment of humanity has operated as a motive in the study of human history, giving to historical inquiry a new interest and impetus. No age has been so fruitful in the results of historical research, with conclusions of vital importance for every department of life, but chiefly this, that an independent place has been vindicated for humanity, as having a life of its own distinct from and above the natural order of the physical world. The study of man as he appears in history has tended to strengthen faith in the essential truths of religion, opening up as it has done the deeper knowledge
- 52. of the nature of man to which the religion of Christ appeals; for the modern method of studying history, as compared with earlier methods, consists in seeking for those inward subjective moods of the human soul which lie beneath creeds or institutions, and not solely in the accurate description of the objective fact. The facts of human life call for interpretation, and for this the historian must search. Thus has been born what is almost a new department of inquiry—the philosophy of history (Hegel and many others). Differ as do these attempts at a philosophy of history, they yet possess one ruling idea—the conviction of a development in the life of humanity when viewed as a whole. The idea of development controlled the higher intellectual life of the first half of the century. It was applied with important results to the study of ecclesiastical history, by Schleiermacher, Neander, Gieseler, Baur, Rothe, Bunsen, and many others, by the Roman Catholic Möhler, in his Symbolik, and by John Henry Newman, in however one-sided and imperfect manner. The doctrine of development found its classic formula in the lines of Tennyson: “Yet, I doubt not through the ages One increasing purpose runs, And the thoughts of men are widened With the process of the suns.” The influence of the doctrine of development has been felt in the study of Scripture, leading to a recognition of progressiveness in the divine revelation, whose record has been preserved in the Old and New Testaments (Mozley, Ruling Ideas in the Early Ages). By means of this truth have been overcome, till they now seem unworthy, the objections to the Old Testament on the ground that it gave sanction to cruelty, deceit, or an imperfect morality. But the inference has also followed that the revelation of God to humanity must be searched for in the sacred records, and even by the light of close critical scrutiny, if the divine utterance is to be distinguished from crude misapprehensions or misapplications. Forms of literary expression, current usages, the historical environment of the time—for these
- 53. allowance must be made as their influence is recognized. The science of biblical criticism has gained from the study of general history a larger knowledge of the nature of man, which, in turn, has made the study of the Bible more profound and thorough, because more real and human than were the biblical studies of the eighteenth century. The primary question which it has been found necessary to ask in regard to any doctrine or institution is not whether it is true—for the canons of truth may vary with the relative position of the inquirer; but, rather, what does it mean? When the meaning of the record is seen, the question of its truth has answered itself. The effect of these studies, even of what is called the “higher criticism,” has not lessened the authority of the Bible or changed the character of Christianity as “a religion of the book”; but their tendency has been to vindicate the unique and essential place of the Bible in literature as containing the veritable record of a divine revelation. Some things, indeed, have been changed: the order in which the books of the Bible were written is not the order in which they stand; some of them are of composite authorship, whose various parts were written at different times; the traditional chronology, known as Ussher’s (1656), has been abandoned, nor is there anything in the Bible which places it in opposition to the teachings of geology relative to the length of time during which man has occupied the earth; the historical order of priest and prophet has been reversed, so that the voice of prophecy comes before the decline into ritual (Wellhausen and others). Popular misapprehensions tend to vanish in the light of a true insight and interpretation, such as that the first chapter of Genesis was intended to be an infallible record of the divine order in the creation of the world. That a similar account of the creation is found in Babylonian literature only shows that the Bible writer was illustrating by the best scientific knowledge of the time the vastly higher spiritual truth with which the Bible opens, that the creation is the work of God, thus leading man to the worship of God and away from the lower worships of sun and moon and all the hosts of Heaven.
- 54. The mechanical conceptions as to the mode of inspiration and revelation tend to give way before a larger and truer conception of the process by which the revelation is made—that God speaks to man actually and authoritatively through the experience of the events of life. Thus revelation becomes a living process, and all later history may become a commentary on sacred history, renewing and confirming the primal utterance of God to the soul of man. Much, it is true, yet remains to be done in bridging the gulf between the learned and scientific interpretation of the sacred record and the popular apprehension, which, formed in the uncritical moments of youth, often persists to mature years and constitutes a source of confusion and weakness. A similar situation was seen in the Middle Ages in the wide breach which existed between the scholastic theologians and the popular mind. A new department has been added to religious inquiry in Comparative Religion, which aims at an impartial investigation and free from prejudice, and is also moved by the sentiment of a common humanity to respect all utterances of religious feeling in the soul of man. How widely the nineteenth century has advanced in this respect is seen by recalling a statement of Dr. Johnson: “There are two objects of curiosity—the Christian world and the Mohammedan world. All the rest may be considered as barbarous.” One of the most representative monuments of religious scholarship in the last century is Professor Max Müller’s Sacred Books of the East. Some inquirers in this unfamiliar department have worked under the impression that these ancient religions were equal in value to the Christian revelation; others even have thought them to be in some respects superior. And, in general, the first effect of the discovery that there was truth in other religions had a tendency to weaken the claim of Christianity to be the absolute religion. But as the results of the study have been placed in their normal perspective, it becomes evident that they only confirm the words of St. Paul, that God has at no time left Himself without witnesses in the world. Revelation also is seen to have been a universal process; and profound spiritual motives are to be discerned beneath the diverse manifestations of
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