Statistical Analysis
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This document analyzes the association between coping strategies, life satisfaction, and depression among elderly individuals. It describes the demographic characteristics of the 1600 participants and finds that most are female, white, single, and have a monthly income below $1000. Several scales are used to measure coping strategies, life satisfaction, and depression. Most scales demonstrate good reliability, though the life satisfaction scale shows weak reliability. Distributions of scores on the scales are analyzed. Regression analysis will be used to determine the prediction of demographics, coping strategies, and life satisfaction on depression levels. The hypotheses are that active coping relates to higher life satisfaction and lower depression, and that older women experience more depression than men.
Statistical Analysis
- 1. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 1 List of Tables Table No. Title Page No. Table No. 1 Frequencies (f) and percentages (%) for demographics (N=1600). 3-4 Table No. 2 Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities (a) of feelings scale for depression (CESD), attitudes scale for life satisfaction (LSIZ), stressful events scale for cope and their subscales (N=1600). 5 Table No. 3 Association of Depression with Age, Life Satisfaction and Sub-scales of Coping Strategies 13 Table No. 4 Table No.5 Gender differences in depression measured by Depression scale (CESD), life satisfaction as measured by Life Satisfaction scale (LSIZ) and Coping Strategies as measured by the Stressful Events Scale (COPE). Regression Analysis on determining prediction of age, gender, cope strategies subscale and life satisfaction on depression 15 17-18 List of Figures
- 2. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 2 Figure No. Title Page No. Figure No. 1 Distribution of values of age 6 Figure No. 2 Distribution of total score of life satisfaction scale (LSIZ) 7 Figure No. 3 Distribution of scores on square variable of life satisfaction 7 Figure No. 4 Distribution of total score of feelings scale for depression 8 Figure No. 5 Distribution of total score of suppression of competing activities subscale of the Cope scale 8 Figure No. 6 Distribution of total score of positive reinterpretation and growth subscale of the Cope scale 9 Figure No. 7 Distribution of total score of acceptance subscale of the Cope scale 9 Figure No. 8 Distribution of total score of religious coping subscale of the Cope scale 10 Figure No. 9 Distribution of total score of behavioral subscale of the Cope scale 10 Figure No. 10 Distribution of total score of mental disengagement subscale of the Cope scale 11 Figure No. 11 Distribution of total score of self-blame subscale of the Cope scale 11 Figure No. 12 Distribution of total score of drugs & alcohol of the Cope scale 12
- 3. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 3 ResearchHypothesis: Following are the research hypothesis of this study: 1. Higher active coping is associated with high life satisfaction and lower depression among elderly 2. Older women are more likely to be depressed than older men. Demographic Characteristics Demographic characteristics are presented in the following table (Table 1). Table 1 Frequencies (f) and percentages (%) for demographics (N=1600). Variables Categories F % Age (in years) 60-69 70-79 80-above 476 693 429 29.8 43.4 26.8 Sex Male Female 529 1069 33.1 66.9 Race group White Black/African Am Hispanic/Latino Asian Other 600 514 327 69 84 37.6 32.2 20.5 4.3 5.3 Marital Status Single Married or living with a life partner 1257 341 78.7 21.3 Years of education completed 0-4 years of school completed 5-8 years of school completed Some high school High school completed Post high school, 134 144 189 316 196 8.4 9.0 11.8 19.8 12.3
- 4. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 4 business or trade school 1-3 years of college completed 4 years college completed Post graduate study 354 171 94 22.2 10.7 5.9 Monthly Income $0-999 $1000-1999 $2000-2999 $3000-3999 $4000-4999 $5000-5999 $6000-6999 $7000-7999 $8000-8999 $9000-9999 $10000 or more per month 839 362 167 60 55 10 2 15 17 12 18 53.9 23.2 10.7 3.9 3.6 .5 .1 1.0 1.1 .8 1.2 No. of people dependent on monthly income 1 2 3 4 5 1235 296 27 6 4 78.8 18.9 1.7 .4 .3 Language used for Program English Spanish 1358 240 85.0 15.0 Source: DS1: Well Elderly 2, Los Angeles, California, 2004-2008 Note: F= Frequencies, %= Percentage Table 1 illustrates that 33.1% participants were males and 66.9% were females. The mean age of participants for both males and females is 74.24 (SD = 7.650). The highest number of participants that is 693 (43.4%) is present in the age range of 70-79. Most of the participants, including males and females are single and their number is 1257 (78.7%). There are more males 173 (32.7%) who are married or living with their partner. The whites are in greatest number 600 (37.6%) as compared to other races. In case of years of education completed, the highest number of participants both males and females fall in the category of 1-3 years of college completed with number 354 (22.2%). Both males and females
- 5. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 5 839 (53.9) have monthly income which comes in the range of $0-999. The missing value analysis of monthly income showed 2.3% missing values. Reliabilities of Scales used in the study Following table presents reliabilities of scales used in this study. Table 2 Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities (a) of feelings scale for depression (CESD), attitudes scale for life satisfaction (LSIZ), stressful events scale for cope and their subscales (N=1600). Note. Mean (M), Standard deviation (SD), total number of items (N), (a) = Cronbach’s alpha Scales N M SD a Life Satisfaction scale (LSIZ) 13 22.4 3.39 0.46 Depression scale (CESD) 20 28.64 8.82 0.84 Active coping sub-scale 4 11.83 2.95 0.72 Planning sub-scale Suppression of competing Activities Positive reinterpretation And growth Acceptance Religious coping Behavioral disengagement Mental disengagement Self-Blame Drugs & Alcohol 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 11.84 10.35 12.12 11.02 12.06 8.14 9.14 3.89 2.33 3.08 0.77 2.82 0.63 2.92 0.74 2.99 0.67 4.08 0.89 2.90 0.65 2.58 0.45 1.61 0.61 0.98 0.72
- 6. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 6 Table 2 shows the Cronbach’s alpha reliability of scales and subscales. The findings of the study revealed weak reliability for life satisfaction scale (LSIZ). Study results revealed high reliability for depression scale. The active coping subscale, planning subscale, suppression of competing activities, positive interpretation and growth subscale, acceptance subscale, religious coping subscale, behavioral disengagement subscale, mental disengagement, self-blame and drugs & alcohol subscale have showed good reliabilities. The high and good reliabilities indicate good internal consistency of items of scales and improve the validity. Figure 1 Distribution of values of age The mean value of age is 74.24 and median is 75.00.While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis are 7.650, 0.060 and -.840 respectively. The Kolmogorov- Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of age is not normal and positively skewed which indicates that more respondents have age below mean. Figure 2
- 7. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 7 Distribution of total score of life satisfaction scale (LSIZ) The mean value of life satisfaction-Z is 17.15 and median is 18.00. While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis are 5.47, -0.58 and -0.28 respectively. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of life satisfaction-Z is not normal and negatively skewed which indicates that more respondents have scored above mean on the scale. Figure 3 Distribution of scores on square variable of life satisfaction The mean value of interaction life satisfaction is 324.22 and median is 324. While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis are 174.094, 0.090 and -0.906 respectively. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of interaction
- 8. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 8 life satisfaction is not normal and positively skewed which indicates that more respondents have scored below mean on the scale. Figure 4 Distribution of total score of feelings scale for depression The mean value of center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD) is 13.04 and median is 11. While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis are 10.265, 1.044 and 0.890 respectively. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of CESD Scale is not normal and positively skewed which indicates that more respondents have scored below mean on the scale. Figure 5 Distribution of total score of suppression of competing activities subscale of the Cope scale The mean value of ISSUES Suppression of Competing Activities is 2.59 and median is 2.500. While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis are 0.708,-.110 and -.454
- 9. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 9 respectively. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of ISSUES Suppression of Competing Activities Scale is not normal and negatively skewed which indicates that more respondents have scored above mean on the scale. Figure 6 Distribution of total score of positive reinterpretation and growth subscale of the Cope scale The mean value of ISSUES Positive Reinterpretation and Growth is 3.03 and median is 3.00. While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis are 0.730,-.595 and -.259 respectively. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of ISSUES Positive Reinterpretation and Growth Scale is not normal and negatively skewed which indicates that more respondents have scored above mean on the scale. Figure 7 Distribution of total score of acceptance subscale of the Cope scale The mean value of ISSUES Acceptance Sub-Scale is 2.75 and median is 2.76. While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis 0.74, -.245, -.488 respectively. The
- 10. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 10 Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of ISSUES Acceptance Sub-Scale is not normal and negatively skewed which indicates that more respondents have scored above mean on the scale. Figure 8 Distribution of total score of religious coping subscale of the Cope scale The mean value of ISSUES Religious Coping Sub-Scale mean is 3.01 and median is 3.26. While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis 1.01, -.71, -.76 respectively. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of ISSUES Religious Coping Sub-Scale is not normal and negatively skewed which indicates that more respondents have scored above mean on the scale. Figure 9 Distribution of total score of behavioral subscale of the Cope scale The mean value of ISSUES Behavioral Sub-Scale mean is 2.03 and median is 2.0. While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis .727, .45, -.35 respectively. The
- 11. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 11 Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of ISSUES Behavioral Sub-Scale is not normal and positively skewed which indicates that more respondents have scored below mean on the scale. Figure 10 Distribution of total score of mental disengagement subscale of the Cope scale The mean value of ISSUES. Mental Disengagement Sub-Scale mean is 2.29 and median is 2.26. While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis .647, .045, -.448 respectively. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of ISSUES Mental Disengagement Sub-Scale is not normal and positively skewed which indicates that more respondents have scored below mean on the scale. Figure 11 Distribution of total score of self-blame subscale of the Cope scale The mean value of ISSUES Self Blame Sub-Scale mean is 1.94 and median is 2.0. While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis .806, .628, -.307 respectively. The
- 12. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 12 Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of ISSUES Self Blame Sub-Scale is not normal and positively skewed which indicates that more respondents have scored below mean on the scale. Figure 12 Distribution of total score of drugs & alcohol of the Cope scale The mean value of ISSUES Drugs and Alcohol Sub-Scale mean is 1.16 and median is 1.00. While the obtained values of standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis .492, 3.37, 11.84 respectively. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test value is 0.000 (p< 0.005). The distribution of ISSUES Drugs and Alcohol Sub-Scale is not normal and is highly positively skewed which indicates that more respondents have scored below mean on the scale. Association of Depressionwith Age, Life Satisfaction and Sub-scales of Coping Strategies Following table presents the association between scales.
- 13. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 13 The preceding table (Other table is quite large and in another file) shows that depression has negative significant association with life satisfaction (r = -.544, p < 0.01). These results are consistent with the literature which showed that higher life satisfaction is linked with lower symptoms or presence of depression (Collins, Glei & Goldman, 2009). Depression also has negative significant association with coping strategies (r = -.201, p < 0.01). These findings prove our hypothesis that higher active coping strategies are associated with lower level of depression and higher life satisfaction. Research has also showed that proactive coping is inversely associated with depression (Eaten, Fixenbaum & Greenglass, 2006). Table 3 shows that there is negligible but significant negative correlation between age and depression (r = -0.06, p < 0.05). The relationship between age and life satisfaction is very weak and negative yet significant (r = -0.15, p < 0.01). There are 10 subscales related to coping and the correlation of age is strongest and positive with Acceptance subscale (r = 0.89, p < 0.01). Depression on the other hand is negatively correlated with life satisfaction, with their relationship being moderately strong and significant (r = -0.544, p < 0.01). Depression has a significant weak negative correlation with active coping (r = -0.213, p < 0.01), planning (r = - 0.23, p < 0.01) and Positive Reinterpretation & Growth (r = -0.24, p < 0.01). Depression has significant weak positive correlation with Behavioral Disengagement (r =0.29, p < 0.01), Mental Disengagement (r = 0.22, p < 0.01), and Drugs & Alcohol(r = 0.184, p < 0.01). Depression has a moderately strong positive correlation with Self Blame (r = 0.36, p < 0.01). The correlation of depression with other subscales of Coping is not significant. Life satisfaction has very weak positive correlation with Suppression of Competing Activities (r = 0.06, p < 0.01) and Acceptance. (r = 0.17, p < 0.01). Life satisfaction has significant weak positive correlation with Active Coping (r = 0.203, p < 0.01), planning (r = 0.22, p < 0.01) and Positive Reinterpretation
- 14. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 14 & Growth (r = 0.251, p < 0.01). Life satisfaction has significant but weak correlation with Behavioral Disengagement (r = -0.14, p < 0.01) and Self Blame (r = -0.24, p < 0.01). Life Satisfaction finally has a very weak negative correlation with Mental Disengagement (r = -0.07, p < 0.01) and Drugs and Alcohol (r = -0.07, p < 0.01). Gender related differences in depression, life satisfaction and Coping strategies Following table represents the age related differences in depression, life satisfaction and Coping strategies. Table 4 Gender differences in depression measured by Depression scale (CESD), life satisfaction as measured by Life Satisfaction scale (LSIZ) and Coping Strategies as measured by the Stressful Events Scale (COPE). Variables Gender Male Female Mean Ranks Mean Ranks P CESD 404191.00 868619.00 .059 LSIZ 413680.50 855940.50 .358 COPE 411836.50 859378.50 .285 DS1: Well Elderly 2, Los Angeles, California, 2004-2008 p=level of significance at 0.005 It is evident that in the depression scales the value of p = 0.059 shows that the result is non- significant and difference does not exist between the two sexes. In case of life satisfaction scale the value of p = 0.358 signifies that the results are non-significant and difference does not exist between both the sexes. In case of coping skills scale the value of p = 0.285 shows that the
- 15. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 15 results are non-significant and difference does not exist between the two sexes. It can be seen in the table that although the differences between the two genders’ mean ranks is quite large but still it is not significant, which can be attributed to a large difference in sample size of males and females, with size of female sample being almost double as compared to males. Our results were non-significant may be due to non-equal distribution of sample but the findings of literature showed that older women are more likely to be depressed than older men (Piccinelli, Wilkinson, 2000).
- 16. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 16 Multiple RegressionAnalysis Following table represents the regression analysis on determining prediction of age, gender, cope strategies subscales and life satisfaction on depression Table 5 Regression Analysis on determining prediction of age, gender, cope strategies subscale and life satisfaction on depression Variables B SE B Standardized B 95% CI LL UL Active coping subscale Planning subscale Suppression of competing activities subscale Positive reinterpretation and growth subscale Acceptance subscale Religious coping subscale Behavioral disengagement subscale Mental disengagement subscale Self-blame subscale Drugs & alcohol subscale -.722 -.155 1.098 -1.777 -1.018 .842 1.768 1.242 2.597 2.301 .726 1.075 .963 .445 .326 .226 .301 .355 .270 .404 -.055 -.012 .076 -.126 -.074 .083 .125 .078 .204 .111 -2.146 -2.262 -.792 -2.651 -1.657 .397 1.177 .546 2.067 1.508 .703 1.953 2.988 -.903 -.379 1.286 2.359 1.938 3.126 3 Gender 1.335 .424 .061 .504 2.166
- 17. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 17 Age -.037 .026 -.028 -.089 .014 Life Satisfaction-Z -.772 .039 -.412 -.849 -.695 R .668 R Square .446 Adjusted R Squared .441 P< 0.05 Note: B=Slope, SE B= Standard Error, Standardized B = Beta, CL=Confidence Interval, LL=Lower Limit, UL= Upper Limit The table shows the variation in depression with respect to age, gender, coping strategy subscales and life satisfaction. It shows that a unite increase in the subscale of Active Coping causes -.722 (Beta= -.055, CI, 95%= .703 - 2.146) unit decrease in depression but this value is not significant. Similarly, Planning subscale causes -.155 (Beta= -.012, CI, 95%= 1.953 - 2.262) decrease in depression but again non-significant results as our obtained B value do not fall within the boundaries of confidence interval. In case of Suppression of competing activities subscale, a unit increase causes 1.098 (Beta= .076, CI, 95%= 2.988 -.792) increase in depression which is again non-significant. A unit increase in Positive reinterpretation and growth subscale causes -1.777 (Beta= -.126, CI, 95%= -.903 -2.651) decrease in depression. Acceptance subscale’s unit increases causes -1.018 (Beta= -.074, CI, 95%= -.379 -1.657) decrease in depression. A unit increase in Religious coping subscale causes .842 (Beta= .083, CI, 95%= 1.286 - .397) increase in depression which is significant. Behavioral disengagement subscale’s unit increase causes 1.768 (Beta= .125, CI, 95%= 2.359- 1.177) increase in depression. The Mental disengagement subscale’s unit increase is shown to cause 1.242(Beta= .078, CI, 95%= 1.938 - .546) increase in depression. Likewise, a unit increase in Self-blame subscale causes 2.597 (Beta= .204, CI, 95%=
- 18. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 18 3.126 - 2.067) increase in depression. It is also noted that a unit increase in Drugs & alcohol subscale causes 2.301 (Beta = .111, CI, 95% = 3.093 - 1.508) increase in depression. It also shows that a unit increase in gender causes 1.335 (Beta = .061, CI, 95% = 2.166 - .504) unit increase in depression. Similarly, a unit increase in age causes -.037 (Beta = -.028, CI, 95% = .014 -.089) unit decrease in depression but this result is non-significant as the value of B do not fall within the confidence interval boundaries. Also, a unit increase in life satisfaction causes - .772 (Beta = -.412, CI, 95% = -.695 -.849) unit decrease in depression. Moreover the results indicate that 44% of variation in depression can be attributed to the variation in age, gender, coping and life satisfaction. (Adjusted R squared = .441). The value of R shows the magnitude of strength between these variables and depression which is moderate (R =. 668). The value of p < 0.05, which shows that the variation in depression with respect to gender, life satisfaction and coping is significant.
- 19. Association of coping strategies and life satisfaction with depression among elderly 19 References: Chen, R., Simon, A. M. & Dong, X. (2014). Gender differences in depressive symptoms in U.S. Chinese older adults. Aims Medical Science. Vol. 1 (1), 13 27. DOI:10.3934/Medsci.2014.1.13 Collins, A., Glei, D., & Goldman, N. (2009). The role of life satisfaction and depressive symptoms in all cause mortality. Psychology of aging. Vol. 24 (3). DOI: 10.1037/a0016777 Greenglass, E., Fiksenbaum, L. & Eaton, J. (2006). The relationship between coping, social support, functional disability and depression in the elderly. Anxiety, Stress and Coping. Vol. 19 (1). 15-31 Piccinelli, M. & Wilkinson, G. (2000). Gender differences in depression Critical review. British Journal of Psychiatry. Vol. 177. 486-492