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©2010 Jurandir Primo Page 2 of 35
1.0 – INTRODUCTION:
In intercoolers, boilers, pre-heaters and condensers inside power plants as well as other engineering
processes, heat exchangers are utilized for controlling heat energy. Heat exchangers are devices that
regulate efficient heat transfer from one fluid to another. There are two main types of heat exchangers.
The first type of a heat exchanger is called the recuperative type, in which heat are exchanged
on either side of a dividing wall by fluids;
The second type is regenerative type, in which hot and cold fluids are in the same space which
contain a matrix of materials which work alternately as source for heat flow.
The optimum thermal design of a shell and tube heat exchanger involves the consideration of many
interacting design parameters which can be summarized as follows:
Process:
1. Process fluid assignments to shell side or tube side.
2. Selection of stream temperature specifications.
3. Setting shell side and tube side pressure drop design limits.
4. Setting shell side and tube side velocity limits.
5. Selection of heat transfer models and fouling coefficients for shell side and tube side.
Mechanical:
1. Selection of heat exchanger TEMA layout and number of passes.
2. Specification of tube parameters - size, layout, pitch and material.
3. Setting upper and lower design limits on tube length.
4. Specification of shell side parameters – materials, baffles cut, baffle spacing and clearances.
5. Setting upper and lower design limits on shell diameter, baffle cut and baffle spacing.

2.0 – CONCEPTS:
The biggest problem in thermodynamics is to learn and recognize heat, work, force, energy, pow-
er and other technical terms. So to facilitate the basic comprehension of the terms used for shell and
tube heat exchangers calculations it is very important to remember some concepts below:
Unit Multiply To Obtain
1 Btu 1055.0 J
1.0550 kJ
0.2521 kcal
107.7 Kgf.m
778.7 ft.lbf
1 cal 4.18 J
0.00396 Btu
0.00000116 kW.h
1 kcal 1000 cal
3.9604 Btu
Joule - energy exerted by the force of one Newton acting to move an object through a distance of 1 m.
1 J 0.001 kJ
0.238 cal
0.0002387 kcal
0.102 kgf.m
0.000947 Btu
0.7375 ft.lbf
Watt – metrical unit for power.
Unit Multiply To obtain
1 W 0.001 kW
0.00134 hp
0.000102 hp (boiler)
0.0002387 kcal/s
0.102 kgf.m/s
0.7375 ft.lbf/s
44.2 ft.lbf/min
0.000948 Btu/s
0.000284 ton (refrig)
Cal: The “Cal” is the standard unit of measurement for heat. The gram calorie, small calorie or calorie
(cal) is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 19.5 °C to
20.5 °C under standard atmospheric pressure of 1.033 Kg/cm² (14.7 psi).

Btu - British Thermal Unit: The “Btu” is the standard unit of measurement for heat. A Btu is defined
as the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 58.5°F to
59.5°F under standard pressure of 30 inches of mercury (14.7 psi).
Obs.: To develop calculations there are several softwares and rating packages available, including the
Codeware, Compress, Aspen BJAC and CC-THERM, which enable the designer to study the effects of
the many interacting design parameters and achieve an optimum thermal design. These packages are
supported by extensive component physical property databases and thermodynamic models.
2.1. Temperature:
Celsius: Is a temperature scale (also known as centigrade) that is named after the Swedish astrono-
mer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years before his
death. Then nominally, 0 °C was defined as the freezing point of water and 100 °C was defined as the
boiling point of water, both at a pressure of one standard atmosphere (1.033 Kg/cm²).
Fahrenheit: Is the temperature scale proposed in 1724 by, and named after, the physicist Daniel Ga-
briel Fahrenheit (1686–1736). On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water was 32 degrees
Fahrenheit (°F) and the boiling point 212 °F at standard atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi).
Kelvin: Is a scale that was named after the Scottish physicist William Thomson (1824 - 1907), 1st
Baron Kelvin described about the need for an "absolute thermometric scale". The Kelvin and Celsius
are often used together, as they have the same interval, and 0 Kelvin is = 273.15 degrees Celsius.
Co
= 5 (Fo
– 32) =
9
Fo
= 1.8Co
(Fo
+ 32) =
Co
= Ko
– 273 =
2.2. Pressure:
Pressure (P): Is the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object.
Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the local atmospheric or ambient pressure.
Unit Pascal
(Pa)
bar
(bar)
atmosphere
(atm)
Torr
(Torr)
pound per square
inch (psi)
1 Pa 1 N/m² 0.00001 0.000009867 0.0075006 0.000145
1 bar 100000 106 dyn/cm2 0.9867 750 14.5
1 at 98066 0.980665 0.968 735.5 14.223
1 atm 101325 1.01325 1 atm 760 14.7
1 torr 133.322 0.013332 0.0013158 1 mmHg 0.0193
1 psi 0.006894 0.068948 0.068046 51.72 1 lbf/in²

2.3. Energy Unit Conversions:
1 Btu/s
0.3002 Ton (refrig)
1.056 kW
1.435 hp
106.6 kgf.m/s
778.8 ft.lbf/s
1 joule/kilogram/K = J/(kg.K) =
1 joule/kilogram/°C = J/(kg.°C)
1.0 Joule/kilogram/°C = J/(kg.°C)
0.001 Joule/gram/°C = J/(g.°C)]
0.001 kilojoule/kilogram/°C = kJ/(kg.°C)
0.000239 Calorie /gram/°C = cal/(g.°C)
0.000239 kilocalorie /kilogram/°C = kcal/(kg.°C)
0.000239 kilocalorie /kilogram/K = kcal/(kg.K)
0.102 kilogram-force meter/kilogram/K
0.000239 Btu/pound/°F = Btu/(lb.°F)
0.000423 Btu/pound/°C = Btu/(lb.°C)
1 Btu/pound/°F = Btu/(lb°F)
1.0 kilocalorie /kilogram/°C = kcal/(kg.°C)
1.8 Btu/pound/°C = Btu/(lb.°C)
4186.8 joule/kilogram/K = J/(kg.K)
4186.8 joule/kilogram/°C = J/(kg.°C)
4.1868 joule/gram/°C = J/(g.°C)
4.1868 kilojoule/kilogram/K = kJ/(kg.K)
4.1868 kilojoule/kilogram/°C = kJ/(kg.°C)
426.9 kilogram-force.meter/kilogram/K
778.2 pound-force.foot/pound/°R
3.0 – BASIC CONCEPT OF SPECIFIC HEAT:
7.3
Specific Heat: Is defined as the amount of heat energy needed to raise 1 gram of a substance 1°C in
temperature, or, the amount of energy needed to raise one pound of a substance 1°F in temperature.
Q = m.Cp. (T2 – T1)
Where:
Q = heat energy (Joules) (Btu);
m = mass of the substance (kilograms) (pounds);
Cp = specific heat of the substance (J/kg°C) (Btu/pound/°F);
(T2 – T1) = is the change in temperature (°C) (°F).
The higher the specific heat, the more energy is required to cause a change in temperature. Substanc-
es with higher specific heats require more of heat energy to lower temperature than do substances
with a low specific heat.

Example 1: Using metric units and imperial units, how much energy is required to heat 350 grams
(0.77 pounds) of gold from 10°C (50°F) to 50°C (122°F)?
Mass = 350g = 0.35 Kg = 0.77 lb
Specific heat of gold = 0.129 J/(g.°C) = 129 J/(Kg.°C) x 0.000239 = 0.0308 Btu/(lb.°F)
Q = m.Cp. (T2 – T1) =
Metric Units:
Q = (0.35 Kg) (129 J/(Kg.°C) (50°C - 10°C) =
Q = 1806 J
Conversion:
1806 joules x 0.000947 = 1.71 Btu
Evaluation in Btu :
Q = m.Cp. (T2 – T1) =
Imperial Units:
Q = (0.77 lb) (0.0308 Btu/(lb.°F) (122°F - 50°F) =
Q = 1.71 Btu
Consult www.unitconversion.org (to convert energy units):

Some samples of specific heat values are presented in the table below:
Product
Specific Heat Capacity - Cp
(J/ g °C) (Btu/lb o
F)
Alcohol, ethyl 32o
F (ethanol) 2.3 0.55
Ammonia, 104o
F 4.86 1.16
Castor Oil 1.8 0.43
Dowtherm 1.55 0.37
Freon R-12 saturated 0o
F 0.91 0.217
Fuel Oil max. 2.09 0.5
Gasoline 2.22 0.53
Heptane 2.24 0.535
Kerosene 2.01 0.48
Gold 0.129 0.0308
Light Oil, 60o
F 1.8 0.43
Light Oil, 300o
F 2.3 0.54
Mercury 0.14 0.03
Octane 2.15 0.51
Oil, mineral 1.67 0.4
Olive oil 1.97 0.47
Petroleum 2.13 0.51
Propane, 32o
F 2.4 0.576
Propylene Glycol 2.5 0.60
Sodium chloride 3.31 0.79
Soya bean oil 1.97 0.47
Toluene 1.72 0.41
Water, fresh 4.19 1
Water, sea 36o
F 3.93 0.94
4.0 – HEAT EXCHANGERS CALCULATIONS:
The main basic Heat Exchanger equation is:
Q = U x A x ΔTm =
The log mean temperature difference ΔTm is:
ΔTm = (T1 – t2) – (T2 – t1) = °F
Where:
T1 = Inlet tube side fluid temperature;
t2 = Outlet shell side fluid temperature;
ln (T1 – t2)
(T2 – t1)

T2 = Outlet tube side fluid temperature;
t1 = Inlet shell side fluid temperature.
Note: When used as a design equation to calculate the required heat transfer surface area, the equa-
tion can be rearranged to become:
A = Q/ (U x ΔTm) =
Where:
A = Heat transfer area (m²) (ft²);
Q = Heat transfer rate (kJ/h) (Btuh);
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (kJ/h.m².°C) (Btu/h°F);
ΔTm = Log mean temperature difference (°C) (°F).
And:
Ct = Liquid specific heat, tube side (kJ/kg°K) (Btu/lb°F);
Cs = Liquid specific heat, shell side (kJ/kg°K) (Btu/lb°F).
4.1. The Overall Design Process:
Here is a set of steps for the process. Design of a heat exchanger is an iterative (trial & error) process:
Calculate the required heat transfer rate, Q, in Btu/hr from specified information about fluid flow rates
and temperatures.
Make an initial estimate of the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, based on the fluids involved.
Calculate the log mean temperature difference, ΔTm, from the inlet and outlet temperatures of the two
fluids.
Calculate the estimated heat transfer area required, using: A = Q/(U ΔTm).
Select a preliminary heat exchanger configuration.
Make a more detailed estimate of the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, based on the preliminary heat
exchanger configuration.
Estimate the pressure drop across the heat exchanger. If it is too high, revise the heat exchanger
configuration until the pressure drop is acceptable.
If the new estimate of U is different than the previous estimate, repeat steps 4 through 7 as many times
as necessary until the two estimates are the same to the desired degree of accuracy.
Input information needed. In order to start the heat exchanger design process, several items of infor-
mation are needed as follows:
 The two fluids involved need to be identified;
 The heat capacity of each fluid is needed;
 The required initial and final temperatures for one of the fluids are needed;
 The design value of the initial temperature for the other fluid is needed;
 An initial estimate for the value of the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U, is needed.

Note: In calculation, knowing the first four items allows determination of the required heat transfer rate,
Q, and the inlet and outlet temperatures of both fluids, thus allowing calculation of the log mean tem-
perature difference, ΔTm. With values now available for Q, U, and ΔTm, an initial estimate for the re-
quired heat transfer area can be calculated from the equation:
A = Q / (U . ΔTm)
Example 2: Estimate the heat exchanger area needed to cool 55,000 lb/hr of a light oil (specific heat
= 0.74 Btu/lb.°F) from 190°F to 140°F using cooling water that is available at 50°F. The cooling water
can be allowed to heat to 90°F. An initial estimate of the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient is 120
Btu/hr.ft².°F. Also estimate the required mass flow rate of cooling water.
Solution: First calculate the required heat transfer rate for the above indicated light oil:
Imperial Units:
Q = m.Cp. (T2 – T1) = 55,000 lb/hr x 0.74 Btu/lb°F (190 – 140) °F = 2,035,000 Btu/hr.
Next calculate the log mean temperature difference (ΔTm):
T1 = Inlet tube side fluid temperature (light oil hot side = 190 °F);
t2 = Outlet shell side fluid temperature (water cold side = 90 °F);
T2 = Outlet tube side fluid temperature (light oil cold side = 140 °F);
t1 = Inlet shell side fluid temperature (water cold side = 50 °F).
ΔTm = (190 – 90) – (140 – 50) = °F
ΔTm = (100) – (90) = °F
ln (190 – 90)
(140 – 50)
ln (100)
(90)

ΔTm = 10 = 94.9 °F
0.10536
The preliminary area estimate of the heat exchanger can now be calculated as:
A = Q / (U x ΔTm) =
A = 2, 035, 000 Btu/hr = 178.7 ft²
(120 Btu/h.ft².°F).(94.9°F)
The required mass flow rate of water can be calculated from Q = m.Cp. ΔTm:
Rearranging:
m = Q…… =
Cp x ΔTm
m = (2,035,000 Btu/hr) = 28,978 lb/hr
(0.74Btu/lb.°F)(94.9°F)
Example 3: Taking the shell and tube heat exchanger described in Example 1, how many tubes of 3
inch diameter and 10 ft length should be used?
Solution: The surface area per tube will be:
Sa = πDL = π (3/12) (10) ft² = 7.854 ft² - (D – tube diameter in ft).
The number of tubes required would thus be:
n = 178.7 ft² = 22.7 tubes (23 or 24 tubes).
7.854 ft²

Obs.: The next step would be to check on the pressure drop for this tube configuration and the speci-
fied flow. If the pressure drop is acceptable, then the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) could be
re-estimated for this heat exchanger configuration.
4.2. Calculation Concepts:
It is frequently necessary to determine the performance of a particular heat exchanger under conditions
of other than that for which it was designed.
Input:
1. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient “U” (Btu/hr.ft².°F). For the heat exchanger under design.
2. Area (ft²). Heat transfer area of the heat exchanger under consideration.
3. Entering temperature hot (°F). The fluid temperature on the “hot” side of the heat exchanger.
4. Entering temperature cold (°F).The fluid temperature on the “cold” side of the heat exchanger.
Example 4: Assume a redesign of a gasoline heat exchanger, area 8.9 ft², flow rate hot 8 gpm, op-
erating on 135°F to another heat exchanger operating on 150°F flow rate hot 10.30 gpm, using the
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, 800 Btu/hr.ft².°F. What would be the impact in capacity, calculating
only as a comparison?
Imperial Units:
 Input using 135 °F:
1. Gasoline = 0.53 Btu/lb.°F
2. Overall “U” = 800 Btu/hr.ft².°F
2. Area = 8.90 ft²
3. Entering temp hot = 135.00 °F
4. Entering temp cold = 110.00 °F
5. Flow rate hot = 8.00 gpm = 2961.6 lb/h
Capacity:
Q = 2961.6 lb/h x 0.53 Btu/lb°F (135 – 110) °F = 39,241 Btu/hr.
The ΔTm can be calculated, since the indicated heat exchanger area is, 8.90 ft²:
A = Q / (U x ΔTm) =
8.90 ft² = 39,241 Btu/hr =
(800Btu/h.ft².°F).( ΔTm °F)
ΔTm = 5.5 °F
 Input using 150 °F:

1. Overall “U” 800 Btu/hr.ft².°F;
2. Area = 8.90 ft²;
3. Entering temp hot = 150.00 F;
4. Entering temp cold = 110.00 F;
5. Flow rate hot = 10.30 gpm = 3,813 lb/h.
Capacity:
Q = 3,813 lb/h x 0.53 Btu/lb°F (150 – 110) °F = 80,835 Btu/hr.
A = Q / (U x ΔTm) =
8.90 ft² = 80,835 Btu/hr =
(800Btu/h.ft².°F).( ΔTm °F)
ΔTm = 11.3 °F.
4.3. Concept of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U:
For a given heat transfer service with known mass flow rates and inlet and outlet temperatures the de-
termination of Q is direct and ΔTm can be easily calculated if a flow arrangement is selected (e.g. Log-
arithmic Mean Temperature difference for pure countercurrent or concurrent flow). The literature has
many tabulations of such typical coefficients for commercial heat transfer services.
4.4. Heating up With Steam:
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance can be expressed as:
Q = m.cp.dT =
Where:
Q = Quantity of energy or heat (kJ) (Btu);
m = Mass of the substance (kg) (lb);
cp = Specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ/kg o
C) or (Btu/(lb.°F);
dT = Temperature rise of the substance (o
C) (°F).
4.5. Non-flow or Batch Heating:
In non-flow type applications the process fluid is kept as a single batch within a tank or vessel. A steam
coil or a steam jacket heats the fluid from a low to a high temperature. In heat exchangers the product
or fluid flow is continuously heated. The mean rate of heat transfer for such applications can be ex-
pressed as:
q = m.cp.dT / t =
Where:

q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW) (kJ/s) (HP) (Btu/s);
m = Mass of the product (kg) (lb);
cp = Specific heat capacity of the product (kJ/kgo
C) (Btu/(lb.°F);
dT = Change in temperature of the fluid (o
C) (°F);
t = Total time over which the heating process occurs (seconds).
Following is a table with values for different applications and heat exchanger types:
Typical Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients in Heat Exchangers
Type Application and Conditions U U
W/(m².K) Btu/(hr.ft².°F)
Tubular, heat-
ing or cooling
Gases at atmospheric pressure inside and outside tubes 5 - 35 1 - 6
Gases at high pressure inside and outside tubes 150 - 500 25 - 90
Liquid outside (inside) and gas at atmospheric pressure
inside (outside) tubes
15 - 70 3 - 15
Gas at high pressure inside and liquid outside tubes 200 - 400 35 - 70
Liquids inside and outside tubes 150 - 1200 25 - 200
Steam outside and liquid inside tubes 300 - 1200 50 - 200
Tubular, con-
densation
Steam outside and cooling water inside tubes 1500 - 4000 250 - 700
Organic vapors or ammonia outside and cooling water
inside tubes
300 - 1200 50 - 200
Tubular, evapo-
ration
Steam outside and high-viscous liquid inside tubes, natural
circulation
300 - 900 50 - 150
Steam outside and low-viscous liquid inside tubes, natural
circulation
600 - 1700 100 - 300
Steam outside and liquid inside tubes, forced circulation 900 - 3000
150 – 500
Air-cooled heat
exchangers
Cooling of water 600 - 750 100 - 130
Cooling of liquid light hydrocarbons 400 - 550 70 - 95
Cooling of tar 30 - 60 5 - 10
Cooling of air or flue gas 60 - 180 10 - 30
Cooling of hydrocarbon gas 200 - 450 35 - 80
Condensation of low pressure steam 700 - 850 125 - 150
Condensation of organic vapors 350 - 500 65 - 90
Plate heat ex-
changer
Liquid to liquid 1000 - 4000 150 - 700
Spiral heat ex-
changer
Liquid to liquid 700 - 2500 125 - 500
Condensing vapor to liquid 900 - 3500 150 - 700
Note: 1 Btu/(hr.ft2
.°F) = 5.6785 W/(m2
.K). Coefficients are based on outside bare tube surface.
4.6. Flow or Continuous Heating Processes:
The mean heat transfer can be expressed as:
q = cp.dT. m / t =
Where:

q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW) (kJ/s) (HP) (Btu/s);
m / t = Mass flow rate of the product (kg/s) (lb/s);
cp = Specific heat capacity of the product (kJ/kgo
C) (Btu/(lb°F);
dT = Change in temperature of the fluid (o
C) (°F).
4.7. Calculating the Amount of Steam:
If we know the heat transfer rate - the amount of steam can be calculated:
m = q / he =
Where:
m = Mass of steam (kg/s) (lb/s);
q = Calculated heat transfer (kW) (kJ/s) (HP) (Btu/s);
he = Evaporation energy (latent heat) of the steam (kJ/kg) (Btu/lb) – (see steam tables).
Example 4: A quantity of water is heated with steam of 5 bar (72.5 psi) from a temperature of 35
o
C (95°F) to 100 o
C (212°F) over a period of 1200 s. The mass of water is 50 kg (110 lb) and the
Specific Heat capacity of water is 4.19 kJ/kgo
C (1.0 Btu/(lb.°F).
The heat transfer rate is:
Metric Units:
q = (50 kg) (4.19 kJ/kg o
C) (100 o
C - 35 o
C) / (1200 s) =
q = 11.35 kJ/s = 11.35 kW
Imperial Units:
q = (110 lb) (1.0 Btu/(lb.°F) (212°F - 95°F) / (1200 s) =
q = 10.72 Btu/s = 15.4 HP
The amount of steam: At 5 bar g (72.5 psi) considering absolute 6 bar, saturation temperature (Ts) is
158.9°C (318 °F), and the Latent Heat (or Specific Enthalpy) he = 2085 kJ/kg = 896.4 Btu/lb (from
steam tables).
Metric Units:
m = (11.35 kJ/s)
(2085 kJ/kg)
m = 0.0055 kg/s = (19.8 kg/h)

Imperial Units:
Converting – he = 2085 kJ/kg = 896.4 Btu/lb, we find:
m = (10.72 Btu/s)
(896.4 Btu/lb)
m = 0.012 lb/s = (43.0 lb/h)
Example 5: Water flowing at a constant rate of 3.0 l/s (0.79 gal/s) is heated from 10 o
C (50°F) to 60 o
C
(140°F) with steam flow at 8 bar. At 8 bar g (absolute 9 bar), saturation temperature (Ts) is 175°C,
and he = 2029 kJ/kg (from steam tables). It is assumed that 1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg.
Mass flowrate = 3.0 l/s (0.79 gal/s) x 1 kg/l = 3.0 kg/s (6.60 lb/s).
he = 2029 kJ/kg is equal to 872.3 Btu/lb.
cp (water) = 4.19 kJ/kgo
C is equal to 1.0 Btu/(lb°F.
a) Metric Units:
q = (4.19 kJ/kgo
C) (60 o
C - 10 o
C) (3 l/s) (1 kg/l) =
q = 628.5 kJ/s = 628.5 kW
b) Imperial Units:
q = (1.0 Btu/(lb.°F) (140 o
F - 50 o
F) (6.60 lb/s) =
q = 594 Btu/s = 840 HP
The steam flow rate can be expressed as:
Metric Units:
m = (628.5 kJ/s)
(2029 kJ/kg)
m = 0.31 kg/s (1,115 kg/h)
a) Imperial Units:
m = (595.7 Btu/s)
(872.3 Btu/lb)
m = 0.683 lb/s = (2,459 lb/h)

5.0. – TEMPERATURE CONTROLLED APPLICATIONS:
The term heat exchanger is used to describe all types of equipment where heat transfer is promoted
from one fluid to another. For convenience, this broad definition will be applied to the term heat ex-
changer. In a temperature control application, the inlet temperature of the secondary fluid to the heat
exchanger may change with time. This can be achieved by using a control valve on the inlet to the pri-
mary side of the heat exchanger, as shown in figure below:
5.1. Typical Temperature Control of a Steam/Water Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger:
A control valve is used to vary the flow rate and pressure of the steam so that the heat input to the heat
exchanger can be controlled. Modulating the position of the control valve then controls the outlet tem-
perature of the secondary fluid. A sensor on the secondary fluid outlet monitors its temperature and
provides a signal for the controller to compare the actual temperature with the set temperature and, as
a result, signals the actuator to adjust the position of the control valve.
On partially closing the control valve, the steam pressure and the temperature difference fall. Con-
versely, if the control valve is opened so that the steam mass flow and hence pressure in the heat ex-
changer rise, the mean temperature difference between the two fluids increases. Altering the steam
pressure will also slightly affect the amount of heat energy available in the condensing steam as the
enthalpy of evaporation actually falls with increasing pressure.
Example 6: A manufacturer is to design a heat exchanger in which the specification takes some steam
at 4 bar g (58 psi g) to heat secondary water from 10°C (50°F) to 60°C (140°F). It is assumed that 1
litre of water has a mass of 1 kg.
Mass flow rate = 1.5 l/s (24 gpm) x 1 kg/l = 1.5 kg/s (3.30 lb/s).

The manufacturer uses a Heat Transfer Coefficient 'U' for the heat exchanger of 2500 W/m2°C (440
Btu/hr.ft².°F). Take the Specific Heat of water (cp) as 4.19 kJ/kg°C = 4190 J/ kg°C (1.0 Btu/lb.°F).
Determine:
a) The design heat load;
b) The corresponding steam flow rate;
c) The minimum heating area required.
When the minimum heat load occurs when the inlet water temperature rises to 30°C (86°F), determine:
d) The minimum heat load;
e) The corresponding steam pressure in the heat exchanger;
f) The corresponding steam flow rate.
Calculations:
a) Find the design heat load using the heat transfer flow rate equation:
Q = m.cp. ΔTm =
Where:
Q = Heat transfer flow rate (kJ/s) (kW) – (Btu/s) (HP);
m = mass of steam (kg/s) (lb/s);
cp = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ/kg°C) – (Btu/lb°F);
ΔTm = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (K or °C).
a) Metric Units:
Q = 1.5 kg/s x 4.19 kJ/kg°C (60 – 10)°C =
Q = 314.25 kJ/s = 314.25 kW
b) Imperial Units:
Q = 3.30 lb/s x 1.0 Btu/lb.°F x (140°F - 50°F) =
Q = 297 Btu/s = 420 HP
b) Find the corresponding steam flow rate:
At 4 bar g, (39°F) the saturation temperature (Ts) is 152°C (305°F), and he = 2108.1 kJ/kg =
2,108,100 J/kg = 906 Btu/lb (from steam tables). Calculate the required steam flow at the design con-
dition using equation below:

a) Metric Units:
Steam flowrate (m) = kW x 3600 (kg/h)
he
Steam flowrate (m) = 314.25 x 3600 (kg/h)
2108.1
Steam flowrate (m) = 536.6 kg/h
b) Imperial Units:
Steam flowrate (m) = 297 x 3600 (lb/h) =
906 Btu/lb
Steam flowrate (m) = 1180 lb/h
c) Find the minimum heating area to meet the requirement.
Use the LMTD (ΔTm) to calculate the minimum amount of heating area to satisfy the design rating:
ΔTm = (T2 – T1)
In (Ts – T1)
(Ts – T2)
ΔTm = Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD);
T s = Steam temperature = (152 °C) (305°F);
T 1 = Secondary fluid in temperature = (10 °C) (50°F);
T 2 = Secondary fluid out temperature = (60°C) (140°F);
In = The mathematical function known as “natural logarithm”.
a) Metric Units:
ΔTm = (60 – 10)
In (152 -10)
(152 - 60)
ΔTm = 50
In (142)
(92)
ΔTm = 50
0.434

ΔTm = 115°C
b) Imperial Units:
ΔTm = (140 – 50)
In (305 - 50)
ΔTm = 90
In (255)
(165)
ΔTm = 90
0.435
ΔTm = 206°F
By re-arranging the general heat transfer equation (Q = U x A x ΔTm):
A = Q…… =
U . ΔTm
Where:
A = Heating area (m
²
);
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (W);
U = Heat transfer coefficient (W/m²
C);
ΔTM = Mean Temperature Difference.
Obs: ΔTM may be either ΔTLM (LMTD) or ΔTAM (AMTD).
Metric Units:
A = 314,250 W
2500 W/m².°C x 115.2°C
A = 1.09 m²
Imperial Units:
A = 1,072,800 Btu/h
440 Btu/hr.ft².°Fx 239°F
A = 10.2 ft²

d) Find the minimum heat load, when the inlet water temperature is 30°C:
Q = m.cp. ΔT =
a) Metric Units:
Q = 1.5 kg/s x 4.19 kJ/kgo
C (60 o
C - 30 o
C) =
Q = 188.5 kJ/s = 188.5 kW
b) Imperial Units:
Q = 3.30 lb/s x 1.0 Btu/lb.°F x (140°F - 86°F) =
Q = 178.2 Btu/s = 252 HP
5.2. TDC Method - Temperature Design Constant:
When the data sets are not available and the heat exchanger is already installed in service, TDC
can be calculated by observing the steam pressure (and finding the steam temperature from steam
tables) and the corresponding secondary inlet and outlet temperatures at any load.
Once the exchanger size is fixed and the design temperatures are known, it easier to predict operating
temperatures using what could be termed a heat exchanger Temperature Design Constant (TDC).
The TDC method does not require logarithmic calculations.
TDC = Ts - T1
Ts - T2
Where:
TDC = Temperature Design Constant;
Ts = Steam temperature;
T1 = Secondary fluid inlet temperature;
T2 = Secondary fluid outlet temperature.
Example 7: Consider the following design conditions:
Steam Pressure = 4 bar g (58 psi g);
Inlet water temperature (T1) = 10°C (50°F);
Outlet water temperature (T2) = 60°C (140°F);
Steam temperature at 4 bar g (Ts) = 152°C (305.6°F).

a) Metric Units:
TDC = Ts - T1
Ts - T2
TDC = 152 - 10
152 - 60
TDC = 142
92
TDC = 1.543 (for this particular Heat Exchanger).
b) Imperial Units:
TDC = 305.6 - 50
305.6 - 140
TDC = 255.6
165.6
TDC = 1.543 (for this particular Heat Exchanger).
Note: The TDC equation can be transposed to find any one variable as long as the other three
variables are known. The following equations are derived from the TDC equation.
a) To find the steam temperature at any load:
Ts = (T2 x TDC) - T1
TDC -1
b) To find the secondary fluid inlet temperature at any load:
T1 = Ts - [TDC (Ts - T2)]
c) To find the secondary fluid outlet temperature at any load:
T2 = Ts - (Ts - T1)
TDC
Obs: For any heat exchanger with a constant secondary flow rate, the operating steam temperature
can be calculated for any combination of inlet temperature and outlet temperature.
Example 8: The secondary water outlet temperature remains at 60°C, and minimum load occurs
when the inlet temperature is 30°C. What will be the steam temperature at minimum load?

Inlet temperature = 30°C
Outlet temperature = 60°C
Ts = (T2 x TDC) - T1
TDC -1
Ts = (60 x 1.543) - 30
1.543 - 1
Ts = 62.58
0.543
Ts = 115.2°C = 239.3°F
Imperial Units:
e) Find the corresponding heat exchanger steam pressure and enthalpy at minimum load:
1) A steam temperature of 115.2°C (239.3°F) corresponds a steam pressure of 0.7 bar g.
2) The Specific Enthalpy of evaporation at 0.7 bar g (he) = 2 215 kJ/kg (see steam tables).
f) Find the steam flow rate at minimum load:
From (d) the minimum heat load is 188.5 kW = 252 HP;
From (e) the he is 2 215 kJ/kg = 952 Btu/lb.
Steam flowrate (m) = kW x 3600 kg/h =
he
Steam flowrate (m) = 188.5 kW x 3600 kg/h =
2 215 kJ/kg
Steam flowrate (m) = 306.4 kg/h (at minimum load):
Imperial Units:
Steam flowrate (m) = 178 Btu/s x 3600 lb/h =
952 Btu/lb
Steam flowrate (m) = 673 lb/h (at minimum load).

6.0. BAFFLE DESIGN - DEFINITIONS:
Baffles: are used to support tubes and enable a desirable velocity for the fluid to be maintained at the
shell side, and prevent failure of tubes due to flow-induced vibration. There are two types of baffles;
plate and rod.
 Plate baffles may be single-segmental, double-segmental, or triple-segmental:
 Rod Baffles:
Shell side cross flow area as is given by:
as = D.C.B
PT
Where:
as = Shell side cross flow area
D = Shell Inside diameter
C = Clearance between tubes
B = Baffle spacing
PT = Tube pitch

The minimum spacing (pitch) of baffles normally should not be closer than 1/5 of shell di-
ameter (ID) or 2 inches whichever is greater.
The maximum spacing (pitch) spacing does not normally exceed the shell diameter. Tube
support plate spacing determined by mechanical considerations, e.g. strength and vibration.
Maximum spacing is given by:
Most failures occur when unsupported tube length is greater than 80% due the designer is trying to
limit the shell side pressure drop.
Baffle cuts. Can vary between 15% and 45% and are expressed as ratio of segment opening height
to shell inside diameter. The upper limit ensures every pair of baffles will support each tube. Kern shell
side pressure drop correlations are based on 25% cut which is standard for liquid on shell side.
Baffle clearances. The outer tube limit (OTL) is the diameter created by encircling the outermost
tubes in a tube layout. The actual OTL is usually 1.5 times the design pressure. It is used during a
hydrostatic test that detects leaks at any joint on the heat exchanger.
For example fixed tube-sheet clearances are shown below:
Shell inside diameter mm (in) = Clearance shell I.D and OTL mm (in) =
254 (10) to 610 (24) 11 (7/16)
≥ 635 (25) 13 (1/2)
6.1. Tube-sheets:
Tube sheets are usually made from a round flat piece of metal with holes drilled for the tube ends in
a precise location and pattern relative to one another. Tubes are attached to the tube sheet by pneu-
matic or hydraulic pressure or by roller expansion. Tube holes are drilled and reamed and can be
machined with one or more grooves. This greatly increases the strength of the tube joint.

6.2. Heat Exchanger Bundles:
Tube bundles are also known as tube stacks are designed for applications according to customer
requirements, including direct replacements for existing units. There are two types of tube bundles:
a) Fixed Tube Sheet. A fixed-tube sheet heat exchanger has straight tubes that are secured at both
ends by tube sheets welded to the shell.
b) U-Tube. As the name implies, the tubes of a U-tube heat exchanger are bent in the shape of a U
and there is only one tube sheet in a U-tube heat exchanger.
a) Fixed-tube Sheet Heat Exchanger. b) U-Tube Heat Exchanger.
Bundle diameter, Db, can be estimated using constants shown:
Db = do (Nt / K1)¹⁄n =
Where:
do = Tube Outside Diameter;
Nt = Number of tubes.
K1 - n = see table below:

6.3. Tube Diameters:
The most common sizes used are Ø3/4" and Ø1". Use the smallest diameter for greater heat transfer
area with a minimum of Ø3/4" tube due to cleaning considerations and vibration. For shorter tube
lengths say < 4ft can be used Ø1/2" tubes.
6.4. Tube Quantity and Length:
Select the quantity of tubes per side pass to give optimum velocity. For liquids 3-5 ft/s (0.9-1.52 m/s)
can be used. Gas velocities are commonly used 50-100 ft/s (15-30 m/s). If the velocity cannot be
achieved in a single pass consider increasing the number of passes. The tube length is determined
by heat transfer required to process and pressure drop constraints. To meet the design pressure drop
constraints may require an increase in the number of tubes and/or a reduction in tube length. Long tube
lengths with few tubes may carry shell side distribution problems.
6.5. Tube Arrangement:
Triangular pattern provides a more robust tube sheet construction.
Square pattern simplifies cleaning and has a lower shell side pressure drop.
Tube pitch is defined as:
PT = do+ C
PT = tube pitch
do = tube outside diameter
C = clearance
Typical dimensional arrangements are shown below, all dimensions in inches.
Tube Diameter Square Pitch Triangular Pitch
5/8” (16 mm) 7/8” (22 mm) (Note = 1) 25/32” (20 mm)
¾” (19 mm) 1” (25 mm) 15/16” or 1” (24 or 25 mm)
1” (25 mm) 1 ¼” (32 mm) 1 ¼” (32 mm)
1 ¼” (32 mm) 1 9/16” (39 mm) 1 9/16” (39 mm)
1 ½” (38 mm) 1 7/8” (47 mm) 1 7/8” (47 mm)
Note: For shell = ≤12” square pitch = 0.8125 in.

Note: The table above uses minimum pitch 1.25 times tube diameter i.e. clearance of 0.25 times
tube diameter, the smallest pitch in triangular 30º layout for turbulent or laminar flow in clean ser-
vice. For 90º or 45º layout allow 6.4 mm clearance for tube for ease of cleaning.
6.6. Corrosion Fouling:
Fouling is deposit formation, encrustation, deposition, scaling, scale formation, or sludge formation
inside heat exchanger tubes.
6.7. Corrosion Definitions:
However if economics determine that some corrosion is acceptable and no data is available from
past experience an allowance of 1/16 in (1.59 mm) is commonly applied. Typical fouling coeffi-
cients are shown below. It can be shown that the design margin achieved by applying the combined
fouling film coefficient is given by:
OBS.: Clean OHTC (Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient).
6.8. Typical Fouling Resistances Coefficients:
Cooling Water Fouling Resistances Coefficients (ft² h °F/Btu)
Hot Fluid Temperature Up to 240 °F 240 °F to 400 °F
Water
Temperature Up to 125 °F Over 125 °F
Velocity Up to 3 ft/s Over 3 ft/s Up to 3 ft/s Over 3 ft/s
Boiler Blowdown 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
Boiler Feed (Treated) 0.001 0.005 0.001 0.001
City Water 0.001 0.001 0.003 0.002
Condensate 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
Cooling Tower
Treated
Make-up 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002
Untreated
Make-up
0.003 0.003 0.005 0.004
Distilled Water 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
Muddy Water 0.0003 0.0002 0.0004 0.0003
River Water
Minimum 0.002 0.001 0.003 0.002
Average 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.003
Sea Water 0.0005 0.0005 0.0001 0.0001

Chemical Processing Fouling Coefficients - (ft² h °F/Btu)
Gases and Vapors
Acid Gases 0.025
Stable Overhead Products 0.001
Solvent Vapors 0.001
Liquids
Liquids
Caustic Solutions 0.002
DEG and TEG Solutions 0.002
MEA and DEA Solutions 0.002
Vegetable Oils 0.003
Ammonia 0.001
Chlorine 0.002
CO2 0.001
Ethanol Solutions 0.002
Ethylene Glycol Solutions 0.002
Hydraulic Fluid 0.001
Methanol Solutions 0.002
Refrigerant Liquids 0.001
Sodium Chloride Solutions 0.003
Oils
Engine Lube Oil 0.001
Fuel Oil # 2 0.002
Transformer Oil 0.001
6.9. Fouling Factors [m2
K/W]:
Process Fluid Fouling Factors
Gas and Vapour
Hydrogen 0.00176
Steam 0.00009
Organic solvent vapours 0.00018
Compressed air 0.00035
Natural gas 0.00018
Liquids
Cooling Fluid 0.00018
Organic heat transfer fluids 0.00018
Salts 0.00009
LPG, LNG 0.00018
Caustics 0.00035
Vegetable Oils 0.00053
Products
Gasoline 0.00018
Kerosene 0.00018
Light gas oil 0.00035
Heavy gas oil 0.00053
Heavy fuel oils 0.00088

Cracking and Coking Units
Overhead vapors 0.00035
Light cycle oil 0.00035
Heavy cycle oil 0.00053
Light coker gas oil 0.00053
Heavy coker gas oil 0.00070
Processing Streams
Overhead vapors and gases 0.00018
Liquid products 0.00018
Absorption oils 0.00035
Reboiler streams 0.00053
Lube oil processing streams 0.00053
Solvent 0.00018
7.0. BASIC PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
Property Units Water Organic
Liquids
Steam Air Organic
Vapors
Heat
Capacity
KJ/kg °C 4.2 1.0 - 2.5 2.0 1.0 2.0 - 4.0
Btu/lb °F 1.0 0.239 - 0.598 0.479 0.239 0.479 - 0.958
Density
kg/m³ 1000 700 - 1500
1.29@STP
(1.0 bar, 0°C)
lb/ft³ 62.29 43.6 - 94.4
0.08@STP
(14.7 psia,
60°F)
Latent Heat
kJ/kg 1200 - 2100 200 - 1000
Btu/lb 516 - 903 86 - 430
Thermal
Conductivity
W/m °C 0.55 - 0.70 0.10 - 0.20 0.025 - 0.070 0.025 - 0.05 0.02 - 0.06
Btu/h ft °F 0.32 - 0.40 0.057 - 0.116 0.0144 - 0.040 0.014 - 0.029 0.116 - 0.35
Viscosity cP
1.8 @ 0 °C
**
0.01 - 0.03 0.02 - 0.05 0.01 - 0.03
0.57 @ 50 °C
0.28 @ 100 °C
0.14 @ 200 °C
Prandtl Nbr 1 -15 10 - 1000 1.0 0.7 0.7 – 0.8
** Viscosities of organic liquids vary widely with temperature.
8.0. PRESSURE DROP ESTIMATE:
The following preliminary conservative estimates are given for pressure drops due to friction. It
can be noticed that an additional pressure change occurs if the exchanger is placed vertically.

9.0. EXPERIENCED-BASE RULES:
Experience is typically what turns a good engineer into a great engineer. It means someone who
can at least estimate the size of a vessel without doing too many calculations. The rules below are
for estimation and are not necessary to replace rigorous calculations when such calculations
should be performed. These rules can save you hours and hours of stages of analysis and design.
The rules to be considered are:
1. For the heat exchanger equation, Q = U.A.F (LMTD), use F = 0.9 when charts for the LMTD cor-
rection factor are not available.
2. Most commonly used tubes are 3/4 in. (1.9 cm) in outer diameter on a 1 in triangular spacing at
16 ft (4.9 m) long.
3. Typical velocities in the tubes should be 3 - 10 ft/s (1 - 3 m/s) for liquids and 30 - 100 ft/s (9 -
30 m/s) for gases.
4. Pressure drops are about 1.5 psi (0.1 bar) for vaporization and 3-10 psi (0.2 - 0.68 bar) for oth-
er services.
5. The minimum approach temperature for shell and tube exchangers is about 20 °F (10 °C) for
fluids and 10 °F (5 °C) for refrigerants.
6. Double pipe heat exchangers may be a good choice for areas from 100 to 200 ft² (9.3-18.6 m²).
7. Spiral heat exchangers are often used to slurry interchangers and services containing solids.
8. Plate heat exchanger with gaskets can be used up to 320 °F (160 °C) and are often used for in-
terchanging duties due to their high efficiencies and ability to "cross" temperatures.
Notes:
 A Ø1 ft (30 cm) shell contains approximately 100 ft² (9.3 m²).
 A Ø2 ft (60 cm) shell contains approximately 400 ft² (37.2 m²).
 A Ø3 ft (90 cm) shell contains approximately 1,100 ft² (102 m²).
10.0. SIZING HEAT EXCHANGERS ONLINE:
1)
2) CALCULATION INPUT – (PRACTICAL EXAMPLE) - See the Engineering Page:
Duty:
Required Heat Transfer Duty cal/h
Btu/h
2,000,000
7,931
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, U
W/m2
C
Btu/h ft °F
1,000
176

Fluids:
Hot Fluid Cold Fluid
Medium Steam Water
Volumetric Flowrate m3
/h 95 4.75
Density kg/m3
0.7 995
Inlet Temperature ° C 105 38
Specific Heat Cp kJ/kg K 2.0476 4160
Exchanger Data:
Number of Shells in Series 1
Shell and Tube Side
Shell Side Tube Side
Fluid Cold Fluid Hot Fluid
Number of Passes 1 1
3)
4) CALCULATION RESULTS:
5)
Shell Side Tube Side
Fluid Cold Fluid Hot Fluid
Medium Water Steam
Flowrate 4.75 m3
/h 2.796 ft3
/min 95 m3
/h 55.915 ft3
/min
Density 995 kg/m3
62.116 lb/ft3
0.7 kg/m3
0.044 lb/ft3
Mass Flowrate 1.313 kg/s 2.894 lb/s 0.018 kg/s 0.041 lb/s
Specific Heat (Cp) 4160 kJ/kg K 993.599 Btu/lb ° F 2.048 kJ/kg K 0.489 Btu/lb ° F
Fouling Factor 0 m2
K/W 0 h ft2
°F/Btu 0 m2
K/W 0 h ft2
°F/Btu
Inlet Temperature 38 ° C 100.4 ° F 105 ° C 221 ° F
Outlet Temperature 38 ° C 100.401 ° F 43.504 ° C 110.308 ° F
LMTD and Heat Exchange Surface:
Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) 24.61 ° C 76.29 ° F
Correction factor F 1.0 1.0
Corrected Mean Temperature Difference 24.61 ° C 76.2 ° F
Total Heat Exchanger Surface 0.09 m2
1.02 ft2
11.0. TYPES OF SHELL CONSTRUCTIONS:
TEMA-E: This shell is the most common shell type, as it is most suitable for most industrial pro-
cess cooling applications.
TEMA-F: This shell design provides for a longitudinal flow plate to be installed inside the tube bun-
dle assembly. This plate causes the shell fluid to travel down one half of the tube bundle, then down
the other half, in effect producing a counter-current flow pattern which is best for heat transfer.

TEMA-G and H: These shells are most suitable for phase change applications where the bypass
around the longitudinal plate and counter-current flow is less important than even flow distribution.
TEMA-J: This shell is specified for phase change duties where significantly reduced shell side
pressure drops are required. They are commonly used in stacked sets with the single nozzles used
as the inlet and outlet. A special type of J-shell is used for flooded evaporation of shell side fluids.
TEMA-K: This shell, also termed as “kettle reboiler”, is specified when the shell side stream will
undergo vaporization. The liquid level of a K shell design should just cover the tube bundle, which
fills the smaller diameter end of the shell. This liquid level is controlled by the liquid flowing over a
weir at the far end of the entrance nozzle.
TEMA-X: This shell, or cross flow shell is most commonly used in vapor condensing applica-
tions, though it can also be used effectively in low pressure gas cooling or heating. It produces a
very low shell side pressure drop, and is therefore most suitable for vacuum service condensing.
See the main types of Shell Constructions in the table below:

Shell Constructions:
Obs.: Chemical Engineering.

12.0. EXAMPLES OF THE TEMA DESIGNATIONS:
BEM: Bonnet (Integral Cover), One Pass Shell, Fixed Tubesheet Bonnet.
Fixed tubesheet heat exchanger. Is a version with one shell pass and two tube passes and a very
popular version as the heads can be removed to clean the inside of the tubes. The front head piping
must be unbolted to allow the removal of the front head, if this is undesired this can be avoided by ap-
plying a type A front head. In that case only the cover needs to be removed. It is not possible to clean
the outside surface of the tubes as these are inside the fixed part. Chemical cleaning can be used.
BEM: This is the same type of heat exchanger as above, but with one tube pass.
AEM: Channel with Removable Cover, One Pass Shell, Fixed Tubesheet Bonnet.
This is almost the same type of heat exchanger as the first BEM, the removable cover allows the inside
of the tubes to be inspected and cleaned without unbolting the piping.
AES: Channel and Removable Cover, One Pass Shell, Floating Head with Backing Device.

Floating Head Heat Exchanger. A floating head is excellent for applications where the difference in
temperature between the hot and cold fluid causes unacceptable stresses in the axial direction of the
shell and tubes. Notice that the bundle cannot be pulled from the front end. For maintenance both the
front and rear end head, including the backing device must be disassembled. If pulling from the front
head is required, a type AET should be selected.
Related Links:
1. ASHRAE: at: www.ashrae.org.
2. TEMA: The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association at: www.tema.org.
3. OSHA Technical Manual at: www.osha.gov.
4. Cooling Tower Thermal Design Manual at: www.daeilaqua.com.
5. Tower Design Free Online eBook Collection at: www.pdftop.com/ebook/tower+design.

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