TALAT Lecture 2104.02: Case Study on Windows

TALAT Lecture 2104.02

Building Products - Windows
Aluminium Windows

18 pages, 18 figures

Basic Level

prepared by Carsten Dreier, Hydro Aluminium, Oslo

Objectives:
− To give teachers and students a grounding in the development of satisfactory and
suitable window design in aluminium and
− to help them acquire an understanding of the principles underlying good design.

Students need to be able to design aluminium windows which conform to local planning
regulations and which are suitable for national traditions in each market they are offered
in. This involves the acquisition of local climatic data since the products need to
withstand the climatic conditions pertaining in the different marketing zones. Products
need to be of a design acceptable to architects and must also fulfil the requirements of
the market.

Prerequisites:
− basic design engineering background
− basic knowledge of corrosion effects
− TALAT lecture series 2100, 2200 and 5104

Date of Issue: 1994
 EAA - European Aluminium Association

TALAT 2104.02

2104.02 Building Products - Windows

Table of Contents

2104.02 Building Products - Windows .......................................................................2
Climatic Problems and Requirements..........................................................................2
Driving Rain ........................................................................................................... 2
Wind Damage.......................................................................................................... 3
Wind Causing Draughts.......................................................................................... 3
Temperature Differences Causing Loss of Heat..................................................... 3
Variations in Temperature...................................................................................... 3
The Metal itself and its Characteristics........................................................................4
Aluminium Profiles for Windows................................................................................4
The Principles of Good Window Design .....................................................................5
Drainage.......................................................................................................................8
Air sealing....................................................................................................................9
Insulation....................................................................................................................11
Corner connections ....................................................................................................13
Surface Treatment ......................................................................................................14
Glass...........................................................................................................................14
Fittings, accessories ...................................................................................................16
Some advice on window design.................................................................................16
List of Figures ............................................................................................................18

Climatic Problems and Requirements

The greatest climatic problems affecting the design of outer walls in general are:
− Driving rain
− Wind damage
− Wind causing draughts
− Temperature differences causing loss of heat
− Variations in temperature

Driving Rain
Driving rain is one of the main causes of widespread damage through damp, not in the
metal frame itself but in the surrounding walls unless the window is so designed as to
keep the rain out even under the most extreme conditions.
Climatic conditions vary of course in different parts of the world, and national standards
as a rule take local weather conditions into account as regards annual rainfall, average
wind speeds and air temperature experienced. The quality of the product must therefore

TALAT 2104.02 2

always be in accordance with the standards set. A window in Northern Europe will
consequently be designed differently from one to be used in the Mediterranean region.

Wind Damage
High velocity winds can cause great damage to buildings, and window profiles must be
designed to have a rigidity and a strength which can resist any distortion whether
temporary or permanent which wind could possibly cause. There are methods of
calculation and computer programs which permit to determine the maximum height and
width of a window for the various profile types dependent on the wind strengths which
occur locally.

Wind Causing Draughts
Differences in pressure on window structure caused by wind can lead to draughts
through the structure with consequent loss of energy from the building. Most countries
have imposed their own requirements for draught-proofing windows, again depending
on the local climatic conditions, and in most cases the draught proofing of windows
must be documented by means of laboratory tests before it can be marketed.

Temperature Differences Causing Loss of Heat
A window of pure aluminium will have relatively high heat conductivity. In zones with
cold winters it will thus be necessary to reduce conductivity in the structure by using
two profiles with an insulating layer in between: a window with a so-called broken cold
bridge. The insulator must in addition have a strength which makes a solid connection
between the two profiles.

Variations in Temperature
Thermal expansions within an aluminium window tend to be relatively large with a
spread of 0.024 mm/m per °C. For windows of normal size this will be of little
importance as regards stability and imperviousness. But when installing the window in
the wall these temperature variations must be allowed for by making a flexible
connection. For larger windows split joints should be used, which can absorb the
changes in temperature without spoiling the seal.
All the conditions mentioned will have an influence on the design of the product and we
will return to this in later sections.

TALAT 2104.02 3

The Metal itself and its Characteristics

Aluminium is produced in alloys of various strength levels, depending on the use to
which it is to be put. For building purposes alloy AlMgSi0.5 (AA6060) is normally
used.
Aluminium can be easily worked in different ways in both a hot and cold state.
Inasmuch as the metal, when prepared, is easy to cut, stamp, saw, mill and weld, it is an
excellent substance for building purposes. The fact that the metal is also resistant to
corrosion and allows surface treatment in several ways makes it especially suitable for
use in outside walls and particularly for windows and doors.

Aluminium Profiles for Windows

Aluminium profiles are made by an extrusion process where the metal is melted and
forced through a jet to a profile of the desired cross section. The coherent length is cut
off, stretched and toughened and then goes for further treatment depending on the
purpose. By means of extrusion the desired profile shape can generally be attained, thus
preserving rigidity and strength, and allowing a profile shape suited to the window's
function and also providing resistance to external climatic stress.
The advantages of using aluminium for the manufacture of windows can be summed up
as follows (Figure 2104.02.01):
Good formability
Good stability
Light in weight
Resistant to corrosion
No maintenance costs
No noxious gases in the event of fire
Can be surface treated in all colours
Can be recycled

TALAT 2104.02 4

Advantages of Using Aluminium in
Window Structure

! Good Formability
! Good Stability
! Light in Weight
! Resistance to Corrosion
! No Maintenance Costs
! No Toxic Gases in the Event of Fire
! Can be Surface-Treated in all Colours
! Can be Recycled

alu
Advantages of Using Aluminium in Window Structure 2104.02.01
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies

The only possible weakness resides in the high thermal conductivity and also in the fact
that the costs of an aluminium window are somewhat higher than those for windows in
alternative materials such as wood and UPVC. However, if one takes into consideration
production and maintenance costs over a period of time, aluminium windows are
definitely economical.

The Principles of Good Window Design

In order that a façade or its components such as windows may be able to resist the
stresses to which wind and weather expose them, windows must include in their design
certain characteristics which make them sufficiently resistant to:
− rain, especially driving rain, to prevent leakage and damage caused by damp
− wind, to prevent draughts and reduced insulation efficiency
− wind damage, to prevent sections falling or being torn off.
It is thus especially important for windows to be designed precisely with these factors in
mind. This requires that they be built on the lines of two-stage sealing (Figure
2104.02.02).

TALAT 2104.02 5

Principle of Two-Step Sealing

Rain and Air Seal Air Seal

Joint Joint

Rain Shield

One-Step Sealing Two-Step Sealing

alu
Principle of Two-Step Sealing 2104.02.02

Two-stage sealing means that the construction has an outer rain seal or protective guard
(first stage) and an separate inside wind seal (second stage). The rain shield should as
far as possible prevent rain from penetrating the structure and coming into contact with
the most important part of the window, i.e. the wind seal. The total pressure difference
between the outer and inner side of a building under wind stress will always be above
the wind seal itself in the wall or windows. Should the wind seal get wet by rain, the
pressure difference will be on the film of water covering the wind seal.
This film has no strength to resist the fall in pressure and will rupture at the weakest
point in the wind seal itself. Water leakage is thus almost guaranteed through the wind
seal and thence into the wall or towards the inside of the window (Figure 2104.02.03).
Provided the rain does not come into contact with the air seal - which in an opening
window is always a strip of rubber-based material - no such leakage is likely to occur. A
gap between the rain- and air-seals which is also drained and ventilated will form a
pressure equalising chamber, hence reducing the air pressure on the wind seal.

TALAT 2104.02 6

Penetration of Water Through the Wind Seal

Rain

Wind

One-Step Film of Water Film of Waters
Sealing Covers the seal Punctures

alu

Penetration of Water Through the Wind Seal 2104.02.03

Windows, both opening and fixed, must therefore always be designed such that
(Figure 2104.02.04):

rain must never come into contact with the wind seal.

Important Rule to Observe

W a te r m u s t n e v e r
b e a llo w e d to c o m e
in to c o n ta c t w ith
th e a ir s e a l !

alu
Important Rule to Observe 2104.02.04

This principle has been introduced for façades in Curtain Walls and other similar
designs with extremely good results in the main, but not introduced totally in the design
of windows and doors, where some damage has occurred (Figure 2104.02.05).

TALAT 2104.02 7

Ventilated Cladding Two-Step Sealing
Rain Shield
Wall

Drainage
>5 mm
Outside
Air Seal

Ventilation
alu
Ventilated Cladding Two-Step Sealing 2104.02.05

Drainage
A window has several types of joints which must all be supplied with two-stage sealing.
These are joints between glass and sash, joints between sash and frame, joints between
glass and any crossbars, and for fixed windows, joints between glass and frame.
One should always bear in mind the fact that during periods of simultaneous wind and
rain some water will pass the outer rain shield both between the window sash and frame
and into the glass rebates. The space behind the shield must therefore be equipped with
a drainage system which conducts the water out to the exterior again before it comes in
contact with the air seal (Figure 2104.02.06).

Example of Joints in a Window Which Must
be Sealed Against Passage of Air
Water
Inflow Joint
External Profile Design and
Drainage System are
Intended to Prevent Water
to Penetrate to the Joint
Air Seal. Drainage
Air and Water
The Example Shows a Very Inflow
Common, but Poor Drainage
System.
Joint
Air Outlet
Drainage

alu Example of Joints in a Window Which Must
2104.02.06
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies be Sealed Against Passage of Air

TALAT 2104.02 8

Generally speaking, the drainage system will consist of a collection channel on the sill
and lower window profile, which must have a minimum dimension. Likewise the
drainage holes which will conduct the water away, should have a minimum dimension
(Figure 2104.02.07).

Design for Optimum Drainage (Principle Sketches)

8-10
6

6

6

Poor Design Recommended Design

alu

Design for Optimum Drainage (Principle Sketches) 2104.02.07

The dimensions are determined by the size of a water drop which is approximately
4.5 mm in both the horizontal and vertical planes. A drainage channel or hole must
therefore be larger than 4.5 mm such that the surface tension in the drop does not cause
it to adhere to the sides of the channel or holes, and thus prevent satisfactory flow before
it has built up a water level within the channel which then may push the water towards
the air seal.
It is recommended, therefore, that the collection channel should have a width and height
of 5 mm minimum and that drainage holes should also be 5 mm minimum in diameter.
A drainage slot of e.g. 5 x 10 mm is better than a round hole.

Air sealing

Air seals both round the glass and between the frames consist today of rubber or plastic
based strips. These are fed into tracks in the aluminium profile and are placed differently
dependent on the type of window. A central seal between sash and frame is most often
used, as it improves the structure's thermal characteristics at the same time by stopping
outside air at the exterior part of the structure. It is normally at the corners where
problems arise and it is therefore vital to seal the corner joints either by gluing or
welding the strips. Sealing round the glass is normally accomplished by cutting off the

TALAT 2104.02 9

strips slightly overlong and pressing firmly together in all corners. This appears to be a
sufficient and rational solution (Figure 2104.02.08).

Effect of Design on Thermal Transmission
Outside

Inside
Cold Zone

Poor Better
alu

Effect of Design on Thermal Transmission 2104.02.08

In regions which are especially exposed to wind it can be a good idea to lay in a seal in a
rebate between glass and frame as aluminium windows usually have internal glazing
beads which can never be completely sealed where they abut each other in the corners.
The glass must thus be sealed all the way round (Figure 2104.02.09).
.

Sealing Between Glass, Frame and Glazing Bead

Glazing Bead

Seal Air and Water
Penetration

Glazing Beads in Window Corner
Occurance of Air Leakage if Not
Sealed Risk of Rain Penetrations
in Regions Exposed to Hard Weather
alu

Sealing Between Glass, Frame and Glazing Bead 2104.02.09

TALAT 2104.02 10

Insulation

For windows in low temperature zones insulated window systems are necessary for part
of the year in order to reduce heat loss from the building and the risk of condensation.
There are three different ways of effecting such a combination of two profiles into one
structural unit (Figure 2104.02.10).

Three Ways of Combining Profiles for a
Better Insulation

Polyamide With Hard Plastic Profile Two Component
25% Glass Fibre PUR Casted Insulator

PVC Casting Frame

alu Three Ways of Combining Profiles for a 2104.02.10
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies Better Insulation

Mainly an extruded polyamide strip, reinforced with 25% glass fibre is introduced into a
track in the profiles and clamped. This substance allows thermo-setting after surface
treatment up to 200 °C approximately, which means that the profiles can be assembled
before surface treatment. This reduces the risk of damage to the surfaces in the event of
assembly taking place after treatment.
Another method is to cast the insulator against a casting frame between the surfaces,
using a two component polyurethane based substance. The casting frame can be of a
cheap plastic-based material or a thin-walled section of the aluminium profile which is
later cut away. The disadvantage of this system is that the insulator melts at
temperatures above 100 °C and all surface treatment must be done before assembly with
the risk of damage as mentioned above. A certain shrinkage has been noticed recently
over time, which has led to water leakage round the insulation retainers in the
aluminium profiles. The future of this system is thus somewhat uncertain.
The third system consists of a hard plastic profile which is fed over flashes in the
aluminium profiles and in this way holds them together. The method is relatively
primitive and not especially widespread, but it is a cheap solution. The plastic profile
will not tolerate temperatures above 100 °C.
Previously, hard polyurethane foam was used as an insulation between the surfaces. This
had the great advantage that, in addition to having good rigidity and strength, it was also
a good insulator, because it reduced thermal conductivity and also convection and

TALAT 2104.02 11

radiation between the surfaces. The strip method only reduces thermal conductivity, and
it is necessary to fill the cavity between the surfaces with an insulation material as an
extra operation in order to achieve the same as the foam. The foam method was banned
in some European countries in 1991 for environmental reasons as Freon gas was used
during the foam production process. Tests with other types of gas demonstrated much
poorer solidity in the foam and the method has more or less fallen into disuse
(Figure 2104.02.11).

Three Ways of Conducting Heat in
Aluminium Profiles

Conduction

Radiation

Convection

alu Three Ways of Conducting Heat in
2104.02.11
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies Aluminium Profiles

Work is being done in several countries with a view to finding new and better materials
for insulation between aluminium profiles. The initial requirements are relatively strict.
The substance must tolerate at least 200 °C for 15 minutes without melting or warping.
Thermal conductivity must be lower than in polyamide with glass fibre, 0.60 W/m•K,
and the strength must not be less. The substance must in addition be environmentally
friendly when the profiles are recycled. Polyamide without glass fibre has a
conductivity of 0.27 W/m•K (Figure 2104.02.12).

Thermal Conductivity for Some Actual Materials

Aluminium 220.00 .
W/m K

Glass 0.09

Polyamid PA 66 with 25% Glass Fibre 0.60

Polyamid PA 66 without 25% Glass Fibre 0.27

Foamed Plastic (PVC, PUR, etc.) 0.02-0.10

alu

Thermal Conductivity for Some Actual Materials 2104.02.12

TALAT 2104.02 12

Corner connections

Since an aluminium window has similar profiles on all sides these can be cut at an angle
of 45° and mitred. As water-conducting drainage channels are built into the profiles, it is
important that the corner joints should be made watertight. The joints must be flat and
with no unevenness at the join. Normally special elbows are inserted in the ends of the
profiles, and on assembly, part of the edge of the profile is pressed into a notch in the
elbow which thus gives a good, firm connection at the corners. Special tools have been
developed for this operation. The elbows can also be laid in a sealant in the profiles,
which gives a good and invisible seal in the corner after assembly. Crossbars in the
structure are abutted to the frame and are fixed by means of screws. Any water which
has penetrated the horizontal crossbars is carried sideways out to vertical side profiles
where the water runs down and out into the drainage channels in the bottom of the
window itself (Figure 2104.02.13).

Corner Connection with Special Corner Elbow

alu
Corner Connection with Special Corner Elbow 2104.02.13

For simpler structures in warmer climatic zones where uninsulated profiles are
sufficient, the corner connections are often in the form of butt joints fixed with screws.
One is then completely dependent on a sealer being laid in the corners after assembly to
ensure watertight corners. This applies only to the two bottom corners of the window.
This is a simple and cheap solution which can suffice in such climatic zones (Figure
2104.02.14).
.

TALAT 2104.02 13

Corner Connection with Butt Joint

Holes to be Sealed
with Sealant

alu

Corner Connection with Butt Joint 2104.02.14

Surface Treatment

Under normal circumstances aluminium does not require anti-corrosion surface
treatment since the metal itself forms a thin protective layer when in contact with air. If
it is desired to improve this layer for any reason, the profiles need to undergo anodic
treatment which is an electrolytic process.
For technical or aesthetic reasons coloured profiles are often required instead of a shiny,
reflective surface. In this case, there are two possibilities: by means of anodising, which
is also an electrolytic treatment, one can attain a surface coating with a very restricted
range of colours. Nevertheless this allows a wear-resistant and relatively flat surface. If
other colours are required, powder painting is the only possibility. With this method
there is a wide range of shades of colour and the surface acquires an orange peel-like
structure. As mentioned above, powder painting requires a hardening temperature of
roughly 200°C, and the insulator chosen will determine in what order the insulation and
surface treatment must be carried out.

Glass

A window is made up of aluminium profiles together with glass and fittings. Before the
glass is fitted the profiles themselves may seem somewhat unstable and not at all rigid.
Hence, correct and exact assembly of the glass is very important. The glass is assembled
upon setting blocks, and support blocks must be adjusted very exactly to fit the cleft
between glass and profile in order to convey the rigidity of the glass to the aluminium

TALAT 2104.02 14

profiles. The setting blocks for the glass must not be placed so as to block off the drain
holes in the structure (Figure 2104.02.15).

Placing of Setting Blocks and Drainage Holes

Setting Drainage Frame
Block Holes
100 mm

alu
Placing of Setting Blocks and Drainage Holes 2104.02.15

Slight variations in the glass thickness may be taken up by means of packing on both
sides of the glass, whilst the use of different glass dimensions in the same basic structure
must be solved by means of different sized beads (Figure 2104.02.16).
In the event of breakage it must also be possible to change the glass in a simple manner.

Same Construction for Different Glass Dimensions

15 15
8-10

8-10

10 10

alu

Same Construction for Different Glass Dimensions 2104.02.16

TALAT 2104.02 15

Fittings, accessories

Unless expressly prescribed, the profiles should suit the existing hinges and closing
mechanism. This allows straightforward assembly on the part of the manufacturers and
at the same time exact positioning of the fittings in the structure.

Some advice on window design
• Determine which type of window is to be produced. There are several ways
of hinging the same profile system. It should just be born in mind that
inward opening and outward opening frames cannot be combined in one and
the same profile system.
• Establish what profile heights and widths are acceptable to the market.
• Commence work by designing the lower horizontals of the window. These
are most exposed to the penetration of water, and require particular
minimum-size drainage channels and also correct and appropriate placing of
seals (Figure 2104.02.17).

Function of Bottom Profile
Governs the Design
of Cross Section
(Principle Sketch)

alu Function of Bottom Profile Governs the Design
2104.02.17
Training in Aluminium Application Technologies of Cross Section (Principle Sketch)

• Determine the dimensions of the insulation material and its positioning
dependent on the degree of insulation to be attained. Consider this in
relation to the acceptable profile depth.
• Ensure that tracks in the profiles are suited to the existing hinges and the
closing and locking mechanism.

TALAT 2104.02 16

• Make sure that the rebates are deep enough to provide sufficient protection
of the edges along a sealed pane, and allow sufficient extension of the glass
towards the profiles. (Glass manufacturers recommend 18-20 mm)
• Make sure that fittings and screws do not form a cold bridge in insulated
structures.
• In an insulated structure, design the outer profile as small as possible in
depth and the inner one as deep as the total structure permits (Figure
2104.02.18).

Examples of Warm and Cold Profiles

n
Desig
tisfactory
Unsa

Outside Inside

Cold Profile Warm Profile

alu
Examples of Warm and Cold Profiles 2104.02.18

TALAT 2104.02 17

List of Figures

Figure No. Figure Title (Overhead)
2104.02.01 Advantages of Using Aluminium in Window Structure
2104.02.02 Principle of Two-Step Sealing
2104.02.03 Penetration of Water through the Wind Seal
2104.02.04 Important Rule to Observe
2104.02.05 Ventilated Cladding Two-Step Sealing
2104.02.06 Example of Joints in a Window Which Must be Sealed against Passage of Air
2104.02.07 Design for Optimum Drainage (Principle Sketches)
2104.02.08 Effect of Design on Thermal Transmission
2104.02.09 Sealing between Glass, Frame and Glazing Bead
2104.02.10 Three Ways of Combining Profiles for a Better Insulation
2104.02.11 Three Ways of Conducting Heat in Aluminium Profiles
2104.02.12 Thermal Conductivity for Some Actual Materials
2104.02.13 Corner Connection with Special Corner Elbow
2104.02.14 Corner Connection with Butt Joint
2104.02.15 Placing of Setting Blocks and Drainage Holes
2104.02.16 Same Construction for Different Glass Dimensions
2104.02.17 Function of Bottom Profile Governs the Design of Cross Section (Principle
Sketch)
2104.02.18 Examples of Warm and Cold Profiles

TALAT 2104.02 18

TALAT Lecture 2104.02: Case Study on Windows

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TALAT Lecture 2104.02: Case Study on Windows